Applsci 14 03077

applied
sciences
Article
Fuzzy Logic-Based Energy Management System for Regenerative
Braking of Electric Vehicles with Hybrid Energy Storage System
Mehmet Şen 1, * , Muciz Özcan 1 and Yasin Ramazan Eker 2,3
1 Department of Electric Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University,

42005 Konya, Türkiye; mozcan@erbakan.edu.tr
2 Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, 42005 Konya, Türkiye;
yeker@erbakan.edu.tr
3 Research and Application Center of Science and Technology (BİTAM), Necmettin Erbakan University,
42005 Konya, Türkiye
* Correspondence: mehmet.sen@asbu.edu.tr
Abstract: Electric vehicles (EVs), which are environmentally friendly, have been used to minimize the
global warming caused by fossil fuels used in vehicles and increasing fuel prices due to the decrease
in fossil resources. Considering that the energy used in EVs is obtained from fossil resources, it is
also important to store and use energy efficiently in EVs. In this context, recovery from a regenerative
braking system plays an important role in EV energy efficiency. This paper presents a fuzzy logic-
based hybrid storage technique consisting of a supercapacitor (SC) and battery for efficient and safe
storage of a regenerative braking system. First, the constraints of the battery to be used in the EV for
fuzzy logic control are identified. Then, the fuzzy logic system is created and tested in the ADVISOR
and Siemens Simcenter Flomaster programs in the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) driving
cycle. A SC was selected for primary storage to prevent the battery from being continuously charged
from regenerative braking, thus reducing its lifetime. In cases where the vehicle consumes more
energy than the average energy consumption, energy consumption from the battery is reduced by
using the energy stored in the SC, and the SC energy is discharged, making preparations for the
energy that will come from the next regenerative braking. Thus, the high current values transferred
to the battery during regenerative braking are effectively limited by the SC. In this study, the current
Citation: Şen, M.; Özcan, M.;
values on the battery in the EV with a hybrid storage system decreased by 29.1% in the ADVISOR
Eker, Y.R. Fuzzy Logic-Based Energy
program and 28.7% in the Simcenter Flomaster program. In addition, the battery generated 46.84%
Management System for Regenerative
Braking of Electric Vehicles with
less heat in the hybrid storage system. Thus, the heating and capacity losses caused by this current
Hybrid Energy Storage System. Appl. on the battery were minimized. The presented method provides more efficient energy management
Sci. 2024, 14, 3077. https://doi.org/ for EVs and plays an important role in maintaining battery health.
10.3390/app14073077
Keywords: electric vehicle (EV); energy management system (EMS); fuzzy logic controller; hybrid
Academic Editors: Mario Marchesoni
energy storage system (HESS); supercapacitor (SC)
and Alfonso Damiano
Received: 13 March 2024

Revised: 30 March 2024
Accepted: 30 March 2024 1. Introduction
Published: 6 April 2024
Nowadays, the production of EVs is rapidly increasing. While the total number of EVs
worldwide was less than 200,000 in 2010, this value has increased approximately 55 times in
the last 10 years with the increase in mass production and reached 11 million [1,2]. Carbon
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
emissions are one of the main causes of global warming and air pollution. The use of fossil
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. fuels is one of the most important sources of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. In 2020,
This article is an open access article it was stated that 25% of CO2 emissions in air pollution originate from the transportation
distributed under the terms and sector [3]. Moreover, road transport accounts for 53% of carbon emissions in global trade-
conditions of the Creative Commons related transport, and this share is expected to increase to 56% by 2050 if the current trends
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// continue [4]. By 2050, the number of light commercial vehicles is expected to increase by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ more than 100% of the current level, on average over 2 billion. [5]. Therefore, if there are no
4.0/). changes in vehicle production and vehicle fuel consumption, no reduction in GHG emissions
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14073077 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 2 of 25
from environmental and air pollution is expected in the coming decades. In this context,
in order for countries to achieve net-zero emissions as required by the Paris Agreement,
all road transportation should be provided by EVs. [6]. In this rapid transformation, users’
demands for longer-range, safer, and long-lasting batteries must be met.
The biggest challenge in the deployment of EVs lies in the development of low-cost
and high-range battery systems [7]. Because the production of low-cost batteries will
enable us to see more EVs on the roads, battery manufacturers are investing heavily in their
facilities [8,9]. It is desirable that the batteries used in EVs have high power and energy
densities. However, EVs have not yet reached the targeted energy density [10]. To overcome
this problem arising from batteries, the first work to be done brings with it the necessity of
using energy in the most efficient way in EVs. Scientific studies conducted for this purpose
have shown that regenerative braking can increase the range of EVs by 20–30% [11–13].
However, electrical conditions such as fast charging and frequent charging, which we can
see as the reason for this situation, cause negative effects on the vehicle battery and cause the
battery pack or battery cells to deteriorate [14–17]. In addition to increasing the range of EVs,
preventing battery aging is critical for ensuring economic and environmental sustainability.
Although significant advances in battery performance have been made recently [18,19],
damage to batteries due to sudden energy demands is a common problem, especially in
intensive use. This is due to the rapid charging/discharging of batteries during the accelera-
tion and braking of EVs [20]. Batteries perform better when charged/discharged with a low
current because the chemical reactions occur continuously and regularly [21]. However,
when EVs require instantaneous power consumption during acceleration, batteries meet
this demand with high current values [21,22]. Likewise, when a high current is stored in
the batteries during regenerative braking, this variable current can shorten the life of the
battery. When such acceleration and regenerative braking situations are repeated frequently,
especially in urban driving, the battery’s life can be negatively affected [23].
Various battery types are used in EVs, but the most promising, and currently the
most common type of energy storage, is the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery [24,25]. While
Li-ion batteries have a high energy density, their power density is not high enough [26].
Supercapacitors (SCs) have similar electrochemical systems for energy storage and allow
fast charge/discharge processes [27]. Due to their low energy density compared with
batteries, they cannot be directly used as a power source for EVs [27–29]. However, they
are a good option for compensating for high use intensity in short time periods when the
battery power is insufficient. Thus, in hybrid storage EVs with SC, the battery is protected
from high currents and overheating.
In the late 1990s, SCs were introduced by investigating their performance for fast en-
ergy harvesting and sudden acceleration during braking and downhill descent via a SC unit
consisting of 40 × 2 SCs (Panasonic, 2.3 V, 1800 F) installed in a Mazda Bongo Friendee [30].
At the same time, hybridization of SCs with EV batteries, such as valve-regulated lead-acid
(VRLA), nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), and PbA batteries, has been
proposed [31–34]. Researchers have stated that SCs may appear as an alternative to replace
existing storage batteries, as energy density is less important than power density for vehicle
acceleration [34–37]. It has also been stated that a successful energy storage system should
provide more power by improving the vehicle’s performance; the storage system should
have a longer operating life, stable performance at low temperatures, and be lighter and
smaller in size [37]. However, the ultimate use of this application will depend on the devel-
opment of this system and consumer demand. Recent studies have shown that consumers
are reluctant to choose EVs unless they can be used for transportation over longer distances
without range anxiety [38]. Although SCs are not suitable for use as a stand-alone storage
source in EVs, they are a very suitable storage source for the hybrid storage option.
Due to the high cost of SCs, battery–SC hybrid systems have not been widely adopted
or used compared with Li-ion batteries [39]. The most important reason for this is that the
price of a SC with the same energy capacity as a Li-ion battery is 275% higher [40]. However,
studies have shown that the price difference between the lifecycle of SCs and Li-ion batteries
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 3 of 25
is a false issue when the entire lifetime of the EV is considered [41–43]. Studies have shown
that hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) with SCs increase the cost by about 25% but
reduce the operating costs by 10% to 27% by extending the battery life [42].
In addition to all these advantages, an important advantage of SCs compared to Li-ion
batteries is that they have a wide operating temperature range (−20 ◦ C to +80 ◦ C) [44,45].
This provides an advantage in the use of battery–SC hybrid storage systems in EVs. Thus,
using SCs outside the temperature limits of Li-ion batteries can help extend the lifetime of
energy sources. A wider temperature range can facilitate fast charging. The management of
HESS is important and needs to be compatible with the air and liquid thermal management
systems. Another advantage of battery–SC HESSs for EVs is that they do not pose a risk of
ignition and combustion in the event of a traffic accident [46].
The main objective of this study is to increase the battery life by reducing the nega-
tive effects of regenerative braking on the battery in EVs. Since the battery is one of the
most costly components of EVs, a SC was first used to reduce the charge/discharge cycles.
The limitations between these storage components were determined by a fuzzy logic con-
troller. In the study, battery tests were performed using two different simulation programs to
demonstrate the effect of this method on the battery. The ADVISOR and Siemens Simcenter
Flomaster programs were used to perform the tests in the NEDC cycle. In this way, the
effect of the HESS with a SC on battery aging was determined. A review of the existing
literature shows that while the studies generally focus on how the regenerative braking
system works and how the energy is collected, there are limited studies on how to store the
energy obtained and how to use it later [46,47]. This study focuses on the existing gap in
the literature and highlights the innovative approach of the regenerative braking system to
reduce the negative effects on the battery and improve battery life. The simulations clearly
demonstrate the positive impact of the hybrid storage system with a SC on battery life. This
study will be an important step towards the sustainability of EV technology.
The remainder of this paper is organized in the following sections. Section 2 describes
the fuzzy logic methodology; Section 3 describes the design of the energy management
system of the FLC-based hybrid storage EV; Section 4 compares the driving cycles in the
ADVISOR and Siemens Simcenter Flomaster programs; Section 5 presents the results and
discussions of the study; and Section 6 presents the conclusions of the study.
2. Experimental Preparation for Fuzzy Logic Application

The regenerative braking system used in EVs increases the amount of charging cycles
on the battery and has a negative impact on battery life [16]. The HESS proposed in this
study improve the battery charging processes by reducing the negative effects on battery
life. The factors affecting battery life are the temperature of the battery, charging current,
battery state-of-charge (SoC) during regenerative braking, and input values of the SC
SoC fuzzy logic controller. The reason for choosing these values is that depending on the
vehicle’s speed and road condition, the braking force will affect the current, temperature,
and battery SoC values on the battery. Using the experimental studies, the constraints for
the input values of the fuzzy logic controller to be used in the HESS were determined.
2.1. Temperature
Battery capacity tests were performed at different temperatures to determine the effect
of the temperature on the battery and to establish the boundaries of the fuzzy logic controller.
Aspilsan brand 18650 cylindrical Li-ion (NMC) batteries were used in the experiment phase
(Figure 1). The reason for choosing these batteries was to support Türkiye’s domestic and
national battery production. In addition, the possibility of TOGG— the country’s domestic
EV—using these batteries in the future is also considered. In this context, these batteries
are used in this study to encourage domestic battery production and support the domestic
EV industry. The data obtained in this context will provide an important contribution to
EV manufacturers who will use this brand of battery.
periment
fect of the phase (Figure
temperature 1). battery
on the The reason
and to for choosing
establish these batteries
the boundaries was to
of the fuzzy support Tü-
logic
controller. Aspilsan brand 18650 cylindrical Li-ion (NMC) batteries were
rkiye’s domestic and national battery production. In addition, the possibility used in the ex-of TOGG—
periment
the phasedomestic
country’s (Figure 1).EV—using
The reason these
for choosing these
batteries in batteries
the future wasisto support
also Tü-
considered. In this
rkiye’s domestic and national battery production. In addition, the possibility of TOGG—
context, these batteries are used in this study to encourage domestic battery production
the country’s domestic EV—using these batteries in the future is also considered. In this
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 and support
context, these the domestic
batteries EVinindustry.
are used this studyThe data obtained
to encourage in this
domestic context
battery will provide
production 4 ofan
25
important
and supportcontribution
the domestic toEVEV manufacturers
industry. who will
The data obtained usecontext
in this this brand of battery.
will provide an
important contribution to EV manufacturers who will use this brand of battery.
Figure 1. Aspilsan 18650 NMC battery.

Figure 1. Aspilsan
Figure 1. Aspilsan18650
18650 NMC
NMC battery.
battery.
To monitor the behavior of the battery at different temperatures, battery capacity
To monitor the behavior of the
To monitor
experiments werethe behavior
performed at battery
of the C, at
20different
10 ◦battery at 30
◦ C, ◦temperatures,
different C, 50 battery
C, 40 ◦temperatures,
◦ C, and capacity
60 ◦ C ex-
battery capacity
using ex-
a water-
periments
periments were
wereperformed
performed at 10at°C,
10 20
°C,°C,
2030 °C,
°C, 40
30 °C,
°C, 50
40 °C,
°C,and
50 60
°C, °C
andusing
60 a°C
water-
using a water-
circulating cooling bath (Figure 2) and drying oven (Figure 3). Due to the change observed
circulating cooling bath (Figure 2) and drying oven (Figure 3). Due to the change observed
circulating
between cooling
◦ C and
40°C bath◦ C,
(Figure 2)capacity
and drying oven (Figure 3).performed
Due to theatchange observed
◦ C and 45 ◦ C
between 40 and 50 50 battery
°C, battery capacity experiments
experiments were
were performed at 43 °C and 4543°C
between
to 40 °C
moreaccurately
to more
and
accurately 50 °C, battery
investigate
investigate
capacity
this this
range.range. experiments were performed at 43 °C and 45 °C
to more accurately investigate this range.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27

Figure 2. Water-circulating cooling bath with battery capacity experiment at 10 °C. ◦ C.
Figure 2. Water-circulating cooling bath with battery capacity experiment at 10
Discharging at 1C at eight different temperature values was carried out with the
DL24P discharge device, and the results are given in Figure 4. Different batteries were
used at2.each
Figure temperature, and
Water-circulating the tests
cooling bathwere
withstarted after
battery the batteries
capacity were discharged
experiment at 10 °C. at
1C and charged at 1C as they left the factory.
Discharging at 1C at eight different temperature values was carried out with the
DL24P discharge device, and the results are given in Figure 4. Different batteries were
used at each temperature, and the tests were started after the batteries were discharged at
1C and charged at 1C as they left the factory.
Figure 3. Battery capacity experiments at different temperatures using a drying oven.

Figure 3. Battery capacity experiments at different temperatures using a drying oven.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 5 of 25
Discharging at 1C at eight different temperature values was carried out with the
DL24P discharge device, and the results are given in Figure 4. Different batteries were used
at each temperature, and the tests were started after the batteries were discharged at 1C
and charged
Figure at 1C
3. Battery as they
capacity left the factory.
experiments at different temperatures using a drying oven.
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Battery
Battery capacity
capacity test
test at
at 1C
1C charging
charging current at different
current at different temperatures.
temperatures
Figure 4 shows that the highest capacity value was observed at 43 ◦°C.
highest capacity C. Considering
battery heating during the use of EVs, the battery operating temperature was determined
between 00 ◦°C
to be between C and 45◦°C.
and 45 C. The
Thereason
reasonfor
forsetting
settingthe
thebattery
batterytemperature
temperatureinin
this range
this is
range
that if the battery goes out of the ideal operating range, the charging current to be
is that if the battery goes out of the ideal operating range, the charging current to be obtained
from the energy obtained from regenerative braking will be directed to the SC instead of the
battery. Using batteries for charging at low or high temperatures causes permanent capacity
losses in the battery [17]. Considering the results obtained experimentally, although the
Aspilsan company states that this model battery can operate up to 60 ◦ C in the catalog
of use, the temperature is limited to 45 ◦ C to prevent the temperature increase caused by
regenerative braking in the battery within the scope of this study.
2.2. Battery Charging Current

A factor affecting both the battery capacity and battery life is the determination of the
values between which the battery charging current will be. The charging or discharging
rates in the batteries are symbolized by C, and this rate is defined as, for example, the ability
of a 1 Ah battery to maintain a current of 1 A for 1 h. Discharge processes at different values
of the Li-ion battery were performed experimentally. In this way, the limits of the discharge
current to be used in the fuzzy logic controller were determined. The batteries used in
the experiment are offered to the user at a 30% discharge rate from the factory. Operating
between 4.2 V and 2.5 V voltage values, these batteries were first discharged at 1 C and
then charged at 1 C. Discharging at different C ratios was performed at 43 ◦ C with a
DL24P discharger capable of discharging between 0.1 A and 30 A. The battery charging
ability of a 1 Ah battery to maintain a current of 1 A for 1 h. Discharge processes at differ-
ent values of the Li-ion battery were performed experimentally. In this way, the limits of
the discharge current to be used in the fuzzy logic controller were determined. The bat-
teries used in the experiment are offered to the user at a 30% discharge rate from the fac-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 tory. Operating between 4.2 V and 2.5 V voltage values, these batteries were first6 ofdis-25
charged at 1 C and then charged at 1 C. Discharging at different C ratios was performed
at 43 °C with a DL24P discharger capable of discharging between 0.1 A and 30 A. The
battery experiments
current charging current
wereexperiments
performed at 43 ◦performed
were C, and the at 43 °C,capacity
highest and the was
highest capacity
obtained at
wastemperature
this obtained at this temperature
(Figure 5). (Figure 5).
Figure5.5.Discharge
Figure Dischargeexperimental
experimentalsetup
setupat
at43
43◦°C anddifferent
C and differentCCvalues.
values.
Inthis
In thistest
testsetup,
setup,discharges
dischargeswerewereperformed
performedatatC/10,
C/10,C/5,
C/5, C/3,
C/3, C/2,
C/2,C,C,22C,C,33C,C,and
and5
5CCratios.
ratios.The
TheAspilsan
Aspilsan18650
18650NMC
NMCbattery
batteryused
usedin inthis
this study
study has
has aa capacity
capacity of 2900 mAh.
Thiscapacity
This capacityvalue
valueofofthe
thebattery
batterymeans
meansthat
thatititcan
canmeet
meet2.9 2.9AAfor
for11h.h. While
While charging
chargingandand
dischargingprocesses
discharging processeshavehavea positive
a positive effect
effect on on
the the battery’s
battery’s capacity
capacity at lowat Clow C rates,
rates, at
at high
high C rates, some of the energy is converted into heat and causes capacity
C rates, some of the energy is converted into heat and causes capacity loss on the battery. loss on the
battery.
The The evolution
evolution of the capacity
of the capacity as a function
as a function of the discharge
of the discharge rate in
rate is given is Figure
given in6.Figure
6.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Battery
Battery capacity test at
capacity test at 25
25 ◦°C
C at
at different
different C
C ratios.
ratios.
The battery capacity decreased by around 5% of its capacity when the C ratios in-
creased from C/10 to 5 C, while the heating increased from 43.2 to 93.6 °C (Figure 7). The
breaking point of the heat increases is observed above 0.5 C. At high C ratios, some of the
energy during the charge/discharge process is converted into heat energy, decreasing the
battery capacity.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 7 of 25
Figure 6. Battery capacity test at 25 °C at different C ratios.
The battery capacity decreased by around 5% of its capacity when the C ratios in-
creased from C/10
C/10toto5 5C,C,while
while ◦ C (Figure 7).
thethe heating
heating increased
increased fromfrom
43.243.2 to 93.6
to 93.6 °C (Figure 7). The
The breaking
breaking point
point of heat
of the the heat increases
increases is observed
is observed above
above 0.5At
0.5 C. C.high
At high C ratios,
C ratios, somesome of
of the
the energy
energy during
during the the charge/discharge
charge/discharge process
process is converted
is converted intointo
heatheat energy,
energy, decreasing
decreasing the
the battery
battery capacity.
capacity.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Evolution
Evolutionofofthe
thebattery
batterytemperatures during
temperatures thethe
during isothermal discharge
isothermal at 43
discharge at °C
43 with dif-
◦ C with
ferent C ratios.
different C ratios.
In aa fuzzy
In fuzzylogic
logiccontroller,
controller,the
thebattery
battery parameters
parameters used
used in in
an an
EVEVandand
thethe proposed
proposed SC
SC parameters are needed to determine the constraints. The EV battery and motor
parameters are needed to determine the constraints. The EV battery and motor parameters param-
eters to
used used to determine
determine the constraints
the constraints are given
are given in Table
in Table 1. 1.
Table 1. EV battery and motor parameters.
EV Parameters Parameter Values

Battery cell voltage 4.2 V
Battery pack voltage 400 V
Battery capacity 52.4 kWh
Battery cell quantity 4560
Battery weight 340 kg
Engine power 218 HP
Average consumption 16.9 kWh/100 km
There are 95 series-connected battery cells and 48 parallel-connected battery cells in

the EV battery pack. With a motor power of 160 kW, the maximum current to be drawn
from the battery cell of the EV is 8.7 A. The maximum current value to be drawn from the
battery cell corresponds to the 3 C ratio. Formulas (1)–(4) are calculated for transferring the
power gained from regenerative braking to the HESS. (1) is the moment of inertia, (2) is the
aerodynamic drag resistance force, (3) is the rolling resistance force, and (4) is the power
transferred to the HESS.
Iw/t = mw rw 2 + mt rt 2 (1)
where mw is the rim weight (kg), rw is the rim radius (m), mt is the wheel weight (kg), and
rt is the tire sidewall thickness (m).
1
Faero = pCd AV 2 (2)
2
where p is the air density (kg·m3 ), Cd is the drag coefficient, A is the vehicle front surface
area, and V is the speed (km/h).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 8 of 25
h i
Frr = Crr, f ront m f + Crr,back 1 − m f mv gcosα (3)
where Crr is the rolling coefficient, m f is the weight coefficient on the front axle, mv is the
total weight (kg), and g is the gravity acceleration (m/s2 ).
Nt2 N 2f Nt2 N 2f
" ! #
Iw/t
Pb,int = n M/G V nt n f k f b Faero + Frr + mv + 4 2 a x Idriving moment 2 + IM/G 2 (4)
rr rr a x rr a x
where n M/G is the motor-generator efficiency ratio, rr is the transfer rate, nt is the transfer
efficiency, n f is the axle efficiency, a is the variable acceleration (m/s2 ), k is the regenerative
braking coefficient, f b is the coefficient of braking friction, IM/G is the motor-generator moment
of inertia (kg.m2 ), and Pb, int is the power transferred to the hybrid storage system (kW).
Based on these formulas, the energy to be obtained from regenerative braking can
be calculated; however, since this energy varies continuously depending on the road
condition in EVs, certain scenarios should be determined first. In the first scenario, it is
assumed that the vehicle is traveling at 120 km/h and brakes for 12 s after noticing the red
lights. Because there is no slope in this scenario, the energy that the EV will obtain from
regenerative braking can be calculated by calculating the kinetic energy. First, using the
aerodynamic drag resistance force (2), we calculated that the vehicle consumes 5.25 kWh of
energy against the drag resistance. The rolling resistance (3) for dry ground is calculated
as 15.22 kWh. The kinetic energy of the EV at 120 km/h is 0.316 kWh. In addition to
this kinetic energy, the kinetic energy of wheel rotation must be added. The tire size of
the EV used in the study is 235/50/19, and the total tire weight is 30 kg. Based on this
data, the total rotational kinetic energy for the four wheels is 0.25 kWh. Thus, the total
regenerative braking energy will be 0.566 kWh. The regenerative braking energy for EVs
with 80% drivetrain efficiency [48] would be 0.452 kWh. A total of 1627.2 kJ of energy
would be stored within the vehicle’s total braking time of 12 s. This will result in a peak
power of 108.480 kW. With 80% powertrain efficiency in the vehicle, the peak power value
will be 86.784 kW. If this power is divided first by the total battery voltage of 400 V and then
by 48 parallel-connected battery cells, a charging current value of 4.52 A per cell will be
found. This value corresponds to 1.558 C (4.52/2.9 = 1.558) for a 2900 mAh capacity battery.
In the second scenario, a vehicle traveling at 50 km/h is assumed to be driving in the
city. In this drive, 0.0756 kWh of energy will be stored during a full stop, and 0.065 kWh of
energy will be recovered from regenerative braking with 80% powertrain efficiency. This
complete stop will require 5 s of braking. Repeated 100 times for 100 km of city driving, a
total of 6.5 kWh of energy will be stored. For an EV with 16.7 kWh energy consumption
per 100 km, this energy will provide a gain of 38.9 km. In this scenario, 197.9 kJ of energy
will generate a charging current of 2.061 A per battery cell. This value corresponds to 0.710 C
for a 2900 mAh capacity battery.
In the last scenario, the regenerative braking energy that will occur when the vehicle
descends from 650 m above sea level to sea level is calculated. Considering the total road
length of 15 km, the road slope will be 4.33%. Assuming that the vehicle descends this
slope at a speed of 80 km/h, 0.26 kWh of energy will be gained. If this process is repeated
five times along the road, a total of 1.3 kWh of energy will be recovered from regenerative
braking. In this scenario, a charging current of 2.27 A per battery cell will be generated.
This corresponds to a value of 1.277 C for a 2900 mAh capacity battery. In all these scenarios,
the vehicle weight and the driver were calculated. Changing the weight of the vehicle
causes the regenerative braking energy to change. In this case, the charging current value
of the energy gained at different loads to the battery cell is given in Table 2. The weight of a
passenger is assumed to be 80 kg in the calculations.
In the calculations made under different road conditions and different loads from the
three scenarios developed, the charging current gained by regenerative braking to the EV
battery cell reached a high charging current value with a C value of 2.275. Low C rates
during battery charging increase the battery capacity and battery life. In this context, the
SC will be preferred primarily for energy storage from regenerative braking. As soon as the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 9 of 25
instantaneous average consumption exceeds 16.9 kWh, the SC discharges the load by feeding
the electric motor. Thus, the SC will remain empty continuously. When the SC is full, if the
temperature and SoC values are suitable for the battery, charging by limiting the charging
current value by 0.5 C will improve the battery life. If the SC is full of the battery and is not
suitable for energy storage, safe deceleration or stopping will be achieved by mechanical
braking. In the current applications to preserve battery life, the efficiency of the energy to be
stored is lower than that of the method used in this study because of the lack of a HESS.
Table 2. Energy gained from regenerative braking under different loads.
Scenarios Driver Drive + 1 Drive + 2 Full Load

Scenario 1 1.558 C 1.618 C 1.678 C 2.275 C
Scenario 2 0.710 C 0.738 C 0.765 C 1.037 C
Scenario 3 1.277 C 1.326 C 1.376 C 1.866 C
Considering all these scenarios, the SC capacity was calculated to optimally store the
energy gained from regenerative braking. The capacity of a Maxwell brand BCAP0350
model 350 F SC is 0.354 Wh. The SC pack voltage is 400 V, equivalent to the battery pack
voltage, and consists of 150 series connections. To store the energy from regenerative braking
and to direct the peak current value during braking to the SC, three parallel connections are
considered appropriate. In this case, the total capacity of 450 SCs is 159.3 Wh.
When using two SC packs connected in parallel, a capacity of 106.2 Wh is obtained.
This capacity value can store 23.49% of the braking of Scenario 1 with only the driver in the
vehicle. This may cause us to recharge the battery with high current values without being
able to sufficiently transfer the high current values at the beginning of the braking to the SC.
Therefore, the number of SCs is set to 450. Thus, at maximum regenerative braking, 35.24%
of the energy will be transferred to the SC, and high current values will be prevented from
damaging the battery. The parameters of the Maxwell brand BCAP0350 model 350 F SC are
given in Table 3.
Table 3. Parameters of the Maxwell SC model BCAP0350.
SC Parameters Parameter Values

SC cell voltage 2.7 V
SC pack voltage 400 V
Continuous cell current 40 A (for 40 ◦ C)
Maximum cell current 170 A
Internal resistance 0.0032 Ω
Total weight 27 kg
Total capacity 159.3 Wh
Total cost $3000
The continuous maximum current value of the SC is 170 A. In all calculated scenarios,
a maximum charging current of 92.38 A will be obtained for 150 series and three parallel-
connected SC cells. In this case, safe storage will be provided without exceeding the
maximum current of the SCs.
2.3. Battery and Supercapacitor State-of-Charge

For the batteries to charge/discharge healthily, they must be operated within a certain
SoC range. When the studies in the literature are examined, it is seen that the most efficient
operating SoC range of Li-ion batteries is 20–90% [49]. In this context, charge/discharge
operations at low and high SoC values increase the stress on the battery [50]. SCs can
charge and discharge very quickly [51]. Moreover, because of their high power density, SCs
can cater to the sudden acceleration demands in EVs. In addition, the cycle life of SCs is
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 10 of 25
more than 1 million [52]. Because of their high cycle life, they can be operated in a wider
SoC range than batteries. Similarly, their operating temperatures are also wider than those
of Li-ion batteries. In this way, SCs are preferred in applications that require a continuous
charge/discharge, such as regenerative braking. SCs can be operated in the 5–95% SoC
range to achieve high efficiency from their energy density [53,54].
3. Design of Fuzzy Logic System

3.1. Data Preparation
A fuzzy logic control system has four inputs, namely temperature, charging current,
battery SoC, and SC SoC, and two outputs, namely the battery transfer ratio and SC
transfer ratio. The boundary ranges of these inputs were determined by the experimental
studies, and a dataset of 1000 units was created. Table 4 shows the data entered into
the “Matlab® Fuzzy Logic” system. The main objective is to prolong the battery life by
maintaining battery health by directing energy from regenerative braking to the SC under
high temperatures, high charging currents, and high battery SoC conditions.
Table 4. Fuzzy logic dataset.
Fuzzy Logic Input Parameters Fuzzy Logic Output Parameters

No
Temperature (◦ C) Cell C Rate Battery SoC (%) SC SoC (%) Battery Rate (%) SC Rate (%)
1 34 0.395 13 93 62.5 37.5
2 −16 1.594 47 17 0 100
3 −7 0.439 12 28 37.5 62.5
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
999 47 0.458 15 100 100 0
1000 −5 0.544 6 86 75 25
3.2. Building the Model

There are some reasons for choosing the membership functions and the type of mod-
eling in fuzzy logic. In complex systems such as HESS, it is important to have the ability
to model the complex interactions of various input variables. Trapezoidal membership
functions better handle the complexities of such systems, providing flexibility and helping
to make clearer decisions in uncertain situations. Therefore, the membership functions for
the inputs defined in the fuzzy logic control system are characterized as trapezoidal ‘trapmf’
shaped. In terms of the modeling type in fuzzy logic, there are two different approaches.
These are Sugeno-type modeling and Mamdani-type modeling. While Sugeno-type mod-
eling is mainly used to create and analyze a mathematical model of uncertain systems,
Mamdani-type modeling is preferred for creating and interpreting fuzzy logic rule sets
using natural language expressions. The Sugeno-type modeling method was chosen in
order to define the energy transfer rates of batteries and SCs more clearly. In addition,
the Sugeno modeling method is more successful than the Mamdani modeling method in
explaining non-linear relationships, such as in the HESS, clarity of outputs, and ease of
mathematical analysis. Therefore, the Sugeno-type modeling method was chosen for a
clearer description of the battery and SC transfer rates. Table 5 provides the boundary
points of the membership functions. In this table, the input levels are expressed as low (L),
nominal (N), and high (H).
The boundary points provided in Table 5 were determined on the basis of the exper-
iments conducted. The representation of the membership functions for these boundary
points in the Matlab program is illustrated in Figure 8.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 11 of 25
Table 5. Fuzzy logic control system’s membership functions.
Border Points
Input Values and Levels
A B C D
L −30 −15 5 15
Temperature (◦ C) N 5 15 45 55
H 43 70 90 110
L - - 0.08 0.15
Cell C rate N 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.65
H 0.45 0.75 1.5 2
L - - 0 25
Battery SoC (%) N 10 20 80 90
H 75 90 100 -
L - - 0 10
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW SC SoC (%) N 5 15 85 9512 of 27
H 80 95 100 -
Figure8.8.Membership
Figure Membershipfunctions
functionsrelated
relatedto
tothe
thebattery
batterytemperature.
temperature.
After the
After the membership functions
functionsforforall
allthe
theinput
inputvalues
valueswere
werecreated according
created accordingto the
to
specified
the boundary
specified values,
boundary 800 800
values, datadata
points were
points entered
were for the
entered for training phase
the training in the
phase inAN-
the
FIS environment.
ANFIS environment. Based onon
Based these
thesedata,
data,ANFIS
ANFISgenerated
generated81 81rules.
rules. These
These rules are
are shown
shown
inFigure
in Figure9,9,and
andthe
theinterval
intervalvariables
variablesassociated
associatedwith
withthem
themare
areshown
shownin inFigure
Figure10.
10.
A total of 800 data were used in the training phase, while the remaining 100 data were
used in the testing phase, and 100 data were used in the validation phase. In the results
obtained using the ANFIS method, the model achieved very successful learning and could
make decisions with high accuracy rates. The performance of the model with the test data
is given in Table 6. The fact that the R2 value is close to 1 and the MSE and RMSE values are
close to 0 indicates the success of the model. The connection between the input variables of
the model is shown in three dimensions in Figure 11.
Another important feature of the model is the switching between the battery and SC.
The output results can be battery-only, SC-only, or the HESS with different ratios. In the
case of battery-only or SC-only, routing must be provided by switching. Similarly, in the
case of the HESS, the third switch should be used, and the connection between the battery
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 12 of 25
and SC should be disconnected. This is because the internal resistance of the SC is much
smaller than that of the Li-ion battery. Therefore, if the SC SoC ratio is lower than the battery
SoC ratio, the SC may pull the load on the battery. A third switch is needed to prevent this
situation. In addition, thyristors should be used to provide energy storage at different rates
in the HESS.
Figure For this functions
8. Membership storage at variable
related to therates, storage
battery can be provided by changing the
temperature.
trigger angle of the thyristor. This ensures frequency matching between these two storage
AfterThe
methods. theHESS
membership functions
can quickly drawfor all the
energy input
from thevalues
SCs towere created
stabilize accordingpower
momentary to the
specified boundary
fluctuations values,
while turning to 800 data points
the batteries for were enteredenergy
longer-term for theneeds
training
[55].phase inway,
In this the AN-
the
FIS environment.
power stability andBased on these
performance of data, ANFISare
the vehicle generated 81 rules.
ensured while These
at the same rules
timeare shown
ensuring
that the batteries
in Figure last interval
9, and the longer and are protected
variables associatedfrom constant
with them overloading
are shown inorFiguredischarging.
10.

Figure 9. ANFIS rule table.
Figure 9. ANFIS rule table.
Figure10.
Figure 10.ANFIS
ANFISrule
ruleoutput
outputvalues.
values.
A total of 800 data were used in the training phase, while the remaining 100 data
were used in the testing phase, and 100 data were used in the validation phase. In the
results obtained using the ANFIS method, the model achieved very successful learning
and could make decisions with high accuracy rates. The performance of the model with
2
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 13 of 25
Table 6. Performance evaluation of the model.
Performance Measure Performance Value
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW R2 0.927 14 of 27

MSE 0.15
RMSE 0.39
Figure 11. Three-dimensional relationship between input variables in the model.

Figure 11. Three-dimensional relationship between input variables in the model.
4. Simulation and Analysis
4. Simulation and Analysis
In this study, the NEDC’s cycle is simulated, which is close to real-world driving.
In this study,
The NEDC the NEDC’stest
is a standardized cycle is simulated,
procedure in a which is close
laboratory to real-world
environment driving.
and is usedThe
to
NEDC isthe
measure a standardized test procedure
fuel consumption in a of
and emissions laboratory
vehicles. environment and is used
However, in real-world to meas-
conditions,
ureperformance,
the the fuel consumption and emissions
fuel consumption, of vehicles.
and emissions However,
of vehicles in real-world
can often differ fromconditions,
the NEDC
the performance, fuel consumption, and emissions of vehicles can often differ from the
NEDC test results. The reasons for this are traffic, vehicle aging, weather conditions, and
driver behavior. In this study, we minimized this difference by simulating vehicle aging
(battery) and different weather conditions in the simulation environment. However, some
differences may still occur due to driver behavior. Furthermore, the NEDC’s drive cycle
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 14 of 25
test results. The reasons for this are traffic, vehicle aging, weather conditions, and driver
behavior. In this study, we minimized this difference by simulating vehicle aging (battery)
this way, the data obtained takes into account urban, suburban, and congested road con-
and
this different
way, the weather conditions
data obtained takesininto
the account
simulation environment.
urban, suburban,However,
and congestedsome differences
road con-
ditions.
may still occur due to driver behavior. Furthermore, the NEDC’s drive cycle used in this
ditions.
study includes traffic density and congested traffic conditions in the cycle. In this way, the
4.1. ADVISOR Simulation Environment
data obtained takes
4.1. ADVISOR into account
Simulation urban, suburban, and congested road conditions.
Environment
The ADVISOR program was developed by the National Renewable Energy Labora-
The ADVISOR program was developed by the National Renewable Energy Labora-
toryADVISOR
4.1. (NREL) inSimulation
the late 1990s [56]. The ADVISOR program is used in the analysis of con-
Environment
tory (NREL) in the late 1990s [56]. The ADVISOR program is used in the analysis of con-
ventional, hybrid,
The ADVISOR and
programEVs. Since it is an open-source
was developed by the National software,
Renewable many researchers have
ventional, hybrid, and EVs. Since it is an open-source software, manyEnergy Laboratory
researchers have
contributed
(NREL) to the
in thetolate program’s library. In addition, because it works as a Matlab Simulink
contributed the1990s [56]. The
program’s ADVISOR
library. program
In addition, is useditinworks
because the analysis of conventional,
as a Matlab Simulink
module,and
hybrid, it offers
EVs. the flexibility
Since it is an to create a software,
open-source control strategy.
many ADVISORhave
researchers makes agreements
contributed to
module, it offers the flexibility to create a control strategy. ADVISOR makes agreements
with
the commercial
program’s automobile
library. In manufacturers
addition, because it and universities
works as a Matlab to Simulink
ensure that the algorithms
module, it offers
with commercial automobile manufacturers and universities to ensure that the algorithms
reach
the minimum
flexibility uncertainty.
to uncertainty.
create a controlThere are 59 ADVISOR
strategy. different driving configurations
makesconfigurations
agreements with in the program.
commercial
reach minimum There are 59 different driving in the program.
Each configuration parallels real-life situations and is recognized
automobile manufacturers and universities to ensure that the algorithms reach minimum by international institu-
Each configuration parallels real-life situations and is recognized by international institu-
tions [57].
uncertainty. There are 59 different driving configurations in the program. Each configuration
tions [57].
In this
parallels paper,
real-life the proposed
situations and is HESS
recognized and conventional
by international storage system[57].
institutions are designed in
In this paper, the proposed HESS and conventional storage system are designed in
the ADVISOR
In this paper,program. The designed
the proposed HESS and fuzzy logic controller
conventional storage is integrated
system are into the HESS
designed in
the ADVISOR program. The designed fuzzy logic controller is integrated into the HESS
andADVISOR
the analyzed. program.
Before the The blogdesigned
diagram is created,
fuzzy logicthe researcher
controller is first presented
is integrated into the with
HESSthe
and analyzed. Before the blog diagram is created, the researcher is first presented with the
vehicle
and data entry
analyzed. Before screen
the blogin the ADVISOR
diagram program.
is created, On this screen,
the researcher is firstthe researcher
presented withenters
the
vehicle data entry screen in the ADVISOR program. On this screen, the researcher enters
the relevant
vehicle data and
data entry screenis transferred
in the ADVISOR to the next stage,On
program. thethis
blogscreen,
diagram thedesign.
researcher enters
the relevant data and is transferred to the next stage, the blog diagram design.
Based on
the relevant datatheand data entered on to
is transferred thethevehicle data entry
next stage, the blogscreen, a blog
diagram diagram is auto-
design.
Based on the data entered on the vehicle data entry screen, a blog diagram is auto-
matically
Basedcreated
on the datafor the EV, while
entered on the a new
vehicleblog diagram
data is created
entry screen, for the
a blog diagramHESS.isIn the
auto-
matically created for the EV, while a new blog diagram is created for the HESS. In the
matically
automaticallycreated for thediagram,
generated EV, whiledata a newcan blog diagram
be obtained is created
from for the HESS.
all the important unitsIn ofthe
the
automatically generated diagram, data can be obtained from all the important units of the
automatically
EV, such as the generated diagram,engine,
brakes, wheels, data can andbebattery.
obtained Infrom all the the
the HESS, important
battery units
and SC of the
are
EV, such
EV, such asas the
the brakes,
brakes, wheels,
wheels, engine,
engine, and and battery.
battery. In
In the
the HESS,
HESS, the the battery
battery andand SCSC are
are
connected in parallel, and a fuzzy logic controller is added as the control system. Figure
connected in
connected in parallel,and andaafuzzy
fuzzylogiclogic controlleris is added asas the control system. Figure
12 shows theparallel,
blog diagram of the EV, controller
and Figure added
13 shows the
thecontrol system.
blog diagram Figure
of the EV12
12 shows
shows the the
blogblog diagram
diagram of of
the the
EV, EV,
and and
FigureFigure
13 13
shows shows
the the
blog blog
diagram diagramof theofEVthe EV
with
with the hybrid storage system.
withhybrid
the the hybrid
storage storage
system. system.
Figure 12. EV’s blog diagram.

Figure 12. EV’s blog diagram.
Figure13.
Figure 13. Blog
Blog diagram
diagram of
of an
anEV
EVwith
withHESS.
HESS.
Figure 13. Blog diagram of an EV with HESS.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 15 of 25

Among the driving cycles in the ADVISOR program, the two cycles most frequently
used by automobile manufacturers are the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and the
AmongHarmonised
Worldwide the driving cycles
Light in the ADVISOR
Vehicle (WLTC) [58].program, the two
The NEDC cycles
cycle wasmost frequently
preferred until
used
2018, bybutautomobile
the WLTCmanufacturers are thetoNew
cycle was switched WLTCEuropean
drivingDriving
becauseCycle
fuel (NEDC) and the
consumption in
Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle (WLTC) [58]. The NEDC cycle was preferred
conventional vehicles was lower in this cycle than in real life [59]. The WLTC driving cycle until 2018,
but
wasthe WLTCunsuitable
deemed cycle was switched to WLTC
for this study driving
because ofbecause fuel consumption
the excessive regenerative in braking.
conventional
The
vehicles was lower in this cycle than in real life [59]. The WLTC driving cycle
NEDC driving cycle includes both urban and non-urban data. The amount of regenerative was deemed
unsuitable
braking is for
morethisinstudy because
line with realofdriving.
the excessive
Figureregenerative
14 shows thebraking. The NEDC
speed–time graphdriving
of the
cycle
NEDC includes
cycle. both urban and non-urban data. The amount of regenerative braking is more
in line with real driving. Figure 14 shows the speed–time graph of the NEDC cycle.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. NEDC
NEDC driving
driving cycle.
cycle.
The NEDC
NEDC driving
driving cycle
cycle is carried
carried out
out at an ambient temperature
temperature ranging
ranging from
from 2020 ◦°C
C
to 30 °C ◦ C and
and aa driving
drivingcycle
cycledistance
distanceofof10.93
10.93km.
km.TheThemaximum
maximumspeed speedduring
during the cycle
the cycle is
is
120120 km/h,
km/h, andandthethe average
average speed
speed is 33.21
is 33.21 km/h.km/h. In addition,
In addition, the duration
the total total duration
of thisofdrive
this
drive 2 . The majority of driving occurs
is 1184iss,1184
ands,theand the maximum
maximum acceleration
acceleration is 1.06ism/s
1.06 m/smajority
2. The of driving occurs within
within
the citythe
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
city (Figure
(Figure 14). Because
14). Because this driving
this driving cycle includes
cycle includes bothand
both urban urban and
non-urban non-urban
17 of 27driving,
driving, it is a suitable driving technique for EVs in terms of application.
it is a suitable driving technique for EVs in terms of application. Figure 15 shows the Figure 15 shows
speed
the speed
ratios of theratios of the
driving driving
cycle cycle in percentages.
in percentages.
35
30
Percentage driving (%)
25
20
15
10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
km/h
Figure 15. Vehicle speed percentiles used in the NEDC driving cycle.
In the simulation environment, the vehicle’s road conditions in Europe (NEDC) were
In the
simulated, andsimulation environment,
the current the vehicle’s
values drawn from the road conditions
battery in Europe
and HESS were(NEDC) wereThe neg-
analyzed.
simulated, and the current values drawn from the battery and HESS were analyzed. The
negative values represent the charging current from regenerative braking, and the positive
values represent the current drawn from the battery during the driving cycle. The current
values are calculated as the C value per battery and are given in Figure 16. When the cur-
rent values drawn from the battery and the current values from regenerative braking are
analyzed, the battery in the HESS is exposed to 29.1% lower current values than the battery
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
km/h
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 16 of 25
In the simulation environment, the vehicle’s road conditions in Europe (NEDC) were
simulated, and the current values drawn from the battery and HESS were analyzed. The
negative values represent the charging current from regenerative braking, and the positive
ative values represent the charging current from regenerative braking, and the positive values
values represent the current drawn from the battery during the driving cycle. The current
represent the current drawn from the battery during the driving cycle. The current values
values are calculated as the C value per battery and are given in Figure 16. When the cur-
arerent
calculated as the from
values drawn C value
the per battery
battery andand are given
the current in Figure
values 16. When thebraking
from regenerative currentare
values
drawn
analyzed, the battery in the HESS is exposed to 29.1% lower current values than the battery the
from the battery and the current values from regenerative braking are analyzed,
battery in system.
storage the HESS is exposed
This to 29.1%
will contribute lower
to the current
battery’s values
health andthan
helpthe
thebattery
batterystorage system.
to be used
This will
longer. contribute to the battery’s health and help the battery to be used longer.
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Battery C rate
0.5
0
1
35
69
103
137
171
205
239
273
307
341
375
409
443
477
511
545
579
613
647
681
715
749
783
817
851
885
919
953
987
1021
1055
1089
1123
1157
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
The ADVISORDriveprogram
cycledoes
timenot support a SC storage system. However, by modify-
(seconds)
ing the blog diagram, testing can be performed by defining the SC catalog data as a bat-
Battery Storage HESS
tery. The test starts at 70% SoC and 70% SC SoC in the NEDC drive cycle. The HESS com-
pleted the driving cycle with a 7.28% battery loss, whereas the battery storage system
Figure 16. Current values in the NEDC driving cycle in the ADVISOR program.
completed
Figure the driving
16. Current values cycle
in thewith
NEDCa 15.64% battery
driving cycleloss. When
in the the testprogram.
ADVISOR results are analyzed,
it is seen that the fuzzy logic controller makes a positive contribution to the average energy
consumption
The ADVISOR withprogram
the SC. Figure
does17not
shows the SoC
support a SCchange in the
storage systems
system. during the
However, bydrive
modifying
the cycle.
blog diagram, testing can be performed by defining the SC catalog data as a battery.
The test In simulation
starts at 70%tests
SoCperformed
and 70% in SCthe ADVISOR
SoC program,
in the NEDC it is cycle.
drive not possible to change
The HESS completed
the outdoor temperature. In addition, the program does not allow the determination of
the driving cycle with a 7.28% battery loss, whereas the battery storage system completed
the internal resistance of the battery and the change in the battery SoC value at the begin-
the driving cycle with a 15.64% battery loss. When the test results are analyzed, it is seen that
ning of the test. Due to these limitations of the program, simulations were also performed
the and
fuzzy logic controller
compared makes aSimcenter
with the Siemens positiveFlomaster
contribution to thewhich
program, average energy
has more consumption
advanced
withfeatures.
the SC. Figure 17 shows the SoC change in the systems during the drive cycle.
70.00
68.00
66.00
64.00
62.00
Battery SoC (%)
60.00
58.00
56.00
54.00
52.00
50.00
1
34
67
100
133
166
199
232
265
298
331
364
397
430
463
496
529
562
595
628
661
694
727
760
793
826
859
892
925
958
991
1024
1057
1090
1123
1156
Drive cycle time (seconds)
Figure 17. Battery SoC replacement in NEDC driving cycle in ADVISOR program.
Figure 17. Battery SoC replacement in NEDC driving cycle in ADVISOR program.
4.2. Siemens Simcenter Flomaster Simulation Environment
This program provides more possibilities than the ADVISOR program in changing
the motor, battery, and outdoor parameters. It can also be integrated with the Matlab pro-
gram. In this way, the fuzzy logic controller was integrated into the system, and driving
cycles were realized. Values are defined for 40 different components used in the modeling
and the properties of these components. While the model for the EV is created automati-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 17 of 25
In simulation tests performed in the ADVISOR program, it is not possible to change

the outdoor temperature. In addition, the program does not allow the determination of the
internal resistance of the battery and the change in the battery SoC value at the beginning
of the test. Due to these limitations of the program, simulations were also performed and
compared with the Siemens Simcenter Flomaster program, which has more advanced features.
4.2. Siemens Simcenter Flomaster Simulation Environment

This program provides more possibilities than the ADVISOR program in changing the
motor, battery, and outdoor parameters. It can also be integrated with the Matlab program.
In this way, the fuzzy logic controller was integrated into the system, and driving cycles
were realized. Values are defined for 40 different components used in the modeling and the
properties of these components. While the model for the EV is created automatically19inofline
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27
with the data entered on the vehicle data entry screen, the EV battery model is designed for
the hybrid storage system. In this model, data can be obtained from all units of the EV, such
as the brakes, wheels, engine, and battery. In the HESS, the battery and SC are connected in
internal resistance created in the program for the battery used in this study is shown in
parallel and a fuzzy logic controller is integrated as the control system. Figure 18 shows the
Figure 19.
EV blog diagram modeled in the Simcenter Flomaster program.
Figure 18. EV
EV control
control blog diagram modeled in the Simcenter Flomaster program.
In this program, outdoor and in-cabin temperatures can be adjusted to obtain the
closest-to-reality results on battery usage values. It also allows changes to the battery’s
initial SoC and battery capacity. The Simcenter Flomaster program allows customization
of all battery parameters. In this context, it creates an internal resistance model, which
is the most important variable for battery health. The three-dimensional relationship of
the internal resistance created in the program for the battery used in this study is shown
in Figure 19.
In the simulation environment, the vehicle’s road conditions in Europe (NEDC driving
cycle) were simulated at different outdoor temperatures and different battery SoC values,
and then the current values that passed through the battery and HESS were examined.
The battery data of the EV that was modeled in the simulation is defined as 4560 battery
Figure 19. Internal resistance changes depending on battery temperature and SoC in the Simcenter
Flomaster program.
In the simulation environment, the vehicle’s road conditions in Europe (NEDC driv-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 18 of 25
units with 95 series and 48 parallel connections. In this study, 2900 mAh batteries were
tested at −10 ◦ C, 0 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C, 20 ◦ C, 20 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, 40 ◦ C, and 50 ◦ C outdoor temperatures.
At all these outdoor temperatures, the EV cabin temperature was kept constant at 20 ◦ C.
The current values obtained from the Simcenter Flomaster program at a 20 ◦ C outdoor
temperature are calculated as the C value per battery (Figure 20). The regenerative braking
rate was defined as 80%, and the battery’s initial SoC was defined as 70%. When the current
values through the battery and the current values from regenerative braking are analyzed,
the battery in the hybrid storage system is exposed to 28.7% lower current values than the
Figure 18. EV control blog diagram modeled in the Simcenter Flomaster program.
battery storage system.
the current values through the battery and the current values from regenerative braking
are analyzed,
Figure
Figure19. theresistance
19.Internal
Internal battery in
resistance the hybrid
changes
changes storage
depending
dependingon system
onbattery is exposedand
batterytemperature
temperature to
and28.7%
SoCininlower
SoC the current
theSimcenter
Simcenter
Flomaster
values program.
than the
Flomaster program.battery storage system.
3
In the simulation environment, the vehicle’s road conditions in Europe (NEDC driv-
ing cycle) were simulated at different outdoor temperatures and different battery SoC val-
2.5 ues, and then the current values that passed through the battery and HESS were exam-
ined. The battery data of the EV that was modeled in the simulation is defined as 4560
2 battery units with 95 series and 48 parallel connections. In this study, 2900 mAh batteries
1.5 were tested at −10 °C, 0 °C, 10 °C, 20 °C, 20 °C, 30 °C, 40 °C, and 50 °C outdoor tempera-
tures. At all these outdoor temperatures, the EV cabin temperature was kept constant at
Battery C rate
1 20 °C. The current values obtained from the Simcenter Flomaster program at a 20 °C out-
door temperature are calculated as the C value per battery (Figure 20). The regenerative
0.5
braking rate was defined as 80%, and the battery’s initial SoC was defined as 70%. When
0
1
33
65
97
129
161
193
225
257
289
321
353
385
417
449
481
513
545
577
609
641
673
705
737
769
801
833
865
897
929
961
993
1025
1057
1089
1121
1153
1185
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
Figure 20. Current values in the NEDC driving cycle in the Simcenter Flomaster program.
Figure 20. Current values in the NEDC driving cycle in the Simcenter Flomaster program.
The
The Simcemter
Simcemter Flomaster
Flomaster program
program waswas tested
tested at
at aa 70%
70% battery
battery charge
charge and
and aa 50%
50% SC
SC
charge.
charge. The hybrid storage system completed the driving cycle with a 4.15% battery loss,
The hybrid storage system completed the driving cycle with a 4.15% battery loss,
whereas the
whereas the battery
battery storage
storage system
system completed
completed the
the driving
driving cycle
cycle with
with aa 5.02%
5.02% battery
battery loss.
loss.
Figure
Figure 21
21 shows
shows the
the SoC change in
SoC change in the systems during
the systems during the
the driving
driving cycle.
cycle. Figure
Figure 22
22 shows
shows
the
the battery
battery SoC
SoC values
values obtained
obtained after
after the
the driving
driving cycle
cycle at
at aa 20
20 °C
◦ C outdoor
outdoor temperature
temperature and
and
different SoC values
different SoC values of
of the
the battery.
battery.
Different percentage gains were obtained by starting the driving cycle with different
SoC ratios of the battery. This is because fuzzy logic protects the battery’s health by select-
ing different storage methods at different SoC ratios. The same is true for different tem-
perature values. Figure 23 shows the battery SoC values obtained because of the driving
cycle at 70% battery and a 50% SC SoC ratio and different outdoor temperatures.
cycle, the range of the EV without regenerative braking with battery storage was 218 km,
cycle,
235 kmthe range
with ofregenerative
only the EV without regenerative
braking, and 243braking
km with with battery storage
a combination was 218 km,
of regenerative
235 km and
braking withhybrid
only regenerative braking,
storage. Thus, and
both the 243 of
range kmthewith
EVahascombination of regenerative
increased and the battery
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 19 of 25
braking
life and positively
has been hybrid storage. Thus, both
contributed thetorange
to due of the EV
less battery use.has increased and the battery
life has been positively contributed to due to less battery use.
70
70
69
69
68
68
(%)(%)
67
SoCSoC
67
66
Battery
66
65
Battery
65
64
64
63
63
62
1 1
32 32
63 63
94 94
125125
156156
187187
218218
249249
280280
311311
342342
373373
404404
435435
466466
497497
528528
559559
590590
621621
652652
683683
714714
745745
776776
807807
838838
869869
900900
931931
962962
993993
1024
1055
62
1024
1055
Figure 21. Battery SoC replacement in NEDC driving cycle in Simcenter Flomaster program.
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
(%)(%)
60
SoCSoC
50
50
Battery
40
Battery
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0 10 30 50 70 90
10 30 50 SoC
Initial Battery 70 90
Initial Battery SoC
Figure
Figure22.
22.Battery
Batteryvariation
variationatatdifferent
differentSoC
SoCvalues.
values.
Figure 22. Battery variation at different SoC values.
Different percentage gains were obtained by starting the driving cycle with different
SoC ratios of the battery. This is because fuzzy logic protects the battery’s health by selecting
different storage methods at different SoC ratios. The same is true for different temperature
values. Figure 23 shows the battery SoC values obtained because of the driving cycle at
70% battery and a 50% SC SoC ratio and different outdoor temperatures.
When the battery SoC was 10%, the system used the SC more to prevent the battery
from deep discharging. When the battery SoC is 90%, a similar situation is realized, and
the battery is prevented from creating a security weakness by charging to full capacity.
Considering all the different SoC values, the battery consumed 20.43% less energy in the
HESS. The battery utilization rate also changed with the change in outdoor temperature,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 20 of 25
and the battery utilization rate decreased by 21.3% in the tests performed at six different
outdoor temperatures. When the outdoor temperature was 50 ◦ C, the battery SoC increased
as the system reduced its battery usage. Because of the reduced battery utilization, the
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2024,
2024, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 22 of
heat generated by the battery pack is reduced, and the energy consumption for cooling
22 of 27
27
is
reduced. Figure 24 shows the heat energy generated by the battery pack during the driving
cycle at 70% battery, a 50% SC SoC, and a 20 ◦ C outdoor temperature.
Battery Storage
HESS
66
66
65.5
65.5
(%)
SoC (%)
BatterySoC
65
65
Battery
64.5
64.5
64
64
-10
-10 00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50
Ambient Temperature
Ambient Temperature (°C)
(°C)
Figure 23.
Figure 23. Battery
Battery SoC
Battery SoC obtained at
SoC obtained at different
different temperatures.
different temperatures.
33
2.5
2.5
(kW)
Generation(kW)
22
HeatGeneration
1.5
1.5
11
Heat
0.5
0.5
00
11
31
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
331
361
391
421
451
481
511
541
571
601
631
661
691
721
751
781
811
841
871
901
931
961
991
1021
1051
31
61
91
121
151
181
211
241
271
301
331
361
391
421
451
481
511
541
571
601
631
661
691
721
751
781
811
841
871
901
931
961
991
1021
1051
Drive cycle
Drive cycle time
time (seconds)
(seconds)
Battery Storage
HESS
Figure 24.
Figure 24. Heat generation
generation of the
the battery in
in the NEDC
NEDC driving cycle
cycle (kW).
Figure 24. Heat
Heat generation of
of the battery
battery in the
the NEDC driving
driving cycle (kW).
(kW).
5. Results
5. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
The comparison
The comparison ofof the
the HESS
HESS controlled
controlled byby fuzzy
fuzzy logic
logic with
with the
the battery
battery storage
storage sys-
sys-
tem was carried out in the ADVISOR and Simcenter Flomaster programs. The
tem was carried out in the ADVISOR and Simcenter Flomaster programs. The NEDC driv-NEDC driv-
ing cycle
ing cycle was
was used
used in
in the
the simulations,
simulations, and
and the
the current
current values
values on
on the
the battery
battery and
and battery
battery
SoC were
SoC were compared.
compared. Although
Although SCs
SCs lack
lack aa high
high energy
energy density,
density, they
they quickly
quickly store
store the
the in-
in-
stantaneous energy demands from regenerative braking and quickly meet the instantane-
stantaneous energy demands from regenerative braking and quickly meet the instantane-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 21 of 25
The HESS produced 46.84% less heat than the standard battery system during the
NEDC driving cycle. Thus, the battery’s health was preserved by preventing the increase
in internal resistance that would occur in the battery because of battery heating. Thus, the
HESS contributed positively to both the vehicle range and battery life. During the driving
cycle, the range of the EV without regenerative braking with battery storage was 218 km,
235 km with only regenerative braking, and 243 km with a combination of regenerative
braking and hybrid storage. Thus, both the range of the EV has increased and the battery
life has been positively contributed to due to less battery use.
5. Results and Discussion

The comparison of the HESS controlled by fuzzy logic with the battery storage system
was carried out in the ADVISOR and Simcenter Flomaster programs. The NEDC driving cy-
cle was used in the simulations, and the current values on the battery and battery SoC were
compared. Although SCs lack a high energy density, they quickly store the instantaneous
energy demands from regenerative braking and quickly meet the instantaneous energy
demands during sudden acceleration. In this way, the consumption values on the battery
were reduced
the battery andreduced
were the battery’s health
and the was maintained
battery’s health wasbymaintained
reducing the
byhigh current
reducing thevalues
high
in the energy
current valuesstored
in the and
energyconsumed from
stored and regenerative
consumed frombraking on thebraking
regenerative battery.on
Figure 25
the bat-
shows the current
tery. Figure values
25 shows thegenerated on the generated
current values battery by on
thethe
HESS in ADVISOR
battery and Simcenter
by the HESS in ADVI-
Flomaster programs.Flomaster programs.
SOR and Simcenter
2.5
2
Battery C rate
1.5
0.5
0
1
36
71
106
141
176
211
246
281
316
351
386
421
456
491
526
561
596
631
666
701
736
771
806
841
876
911
946
981
1016
1051
1086
1121
1156
-0.5
ADVISOR Simcenter Flomaster
Figure 25. Comparison of the current values generated by the HESS on the battery.
Figure 25. Comparison of the current values generated by the HESS on the battery.
The ADVISOR
The ADVISOR program,
program, on on the
the other
other hand,
hand, starts
starts the
the battery’s
battery’s initial
initial SoC
SoC value
value with
with
only 70%. For this reason, the tests of the battery at different SoC values
only 70%. For this reason, the tests of the battery at different SoC values were performedwere performed
using the
using theSimcenter
SimcenterFlomaster
Flomasterprogram.
program. InIn addition,
addition, tests
tests at different
at different outdoor
outdoor tempera-
temperatures
tures and heat generation values of the battery were performed using
and heat generation values of the battery were performed using the Simcenter Flomaster the Simcenter Flo-
master program.
program. In the
In the EV withEV thewith the the
HESS, HESS, the current
current values values
on the on the battery
battery decreased
decreased by
by 29.1%
29.1% in the ADVISOR program and 28.7% in the Simcenter Flomaster
in the ADVISOR program and 28.7% in the Simcenter Flomaster program. Similarly, the program. Similarly,
the battery
battery SoC values
SoC values decreased
decreased by 7% by 7%ADVISOR
in the in the ADVISOR
programprogram
and 4.15%and 4.15%
in the in the
Simcenter
Simcenter Flomaster
Flomaster program. program.
Martyushev et
Martyushev et al.
al. [60]
[60] reduced
reduced the the energy
energy consumption
consumption by by 5%
5% byby optimizing
optimizing thethe
power distribution
power distribution between
between the the SCs and batteries
SCs and batteries in
in composite
composite energy
energy storage
storage systems.
systems.
efficiency was increased from 4.1% to 6.7% by optimizing
Furthermore, the energy efficiency optimizing the
flywheel device
parameters of the flywheel device andand the
the energy
energy management
management strategy.
strategy. As a result of
their simulation study, Song et al. [61] argued that the total cost of the HESS during a 10-
year operation, including capital costs, electricity costs, and battery replacement costs, is
25.9% less than current battery prices. Da Silva et al. [62] developed a multi-objective op-
timization dual HESS and achieved a 19.57% range increase and 22.88% battery life exten-
sion compared to a single HESS-equipped EV. In the existing literature studies, a HESS
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 22 of 25
their simulation study, Song et al. [61] argued that the total cost of the HESS during a
10-year operation, including capital costs, electricity costs, and battery replacement costs,
is 25.9% less than current battery prices. Da Silva et al. [62] developed a multi-objective
optimization dual HESS and achieved a 19.57% range increase and 22.88% battery life
extension compared to a single HESS-equipped EV. In the existing literature studies, a HESS
system based on a regenerative braking system is quite scarce. In this study, simulations in
the ADVISOR and Siemens Simcenter Flomaster programs show that the HESS is effective
in maintaining the battery’s health and optimizing energy consumption, especially in
regenerative braking situations. The integration of SCs in the storage and utilization
of the battery contributes to a significant reduction in average energy consumption, an
increase in vehicle range, and the preservation of battery health. This study provides more
comprehensive results than other studies by presenting a comprehensive analysis with
tests performed over a wide temperature range and data obtained at different SoC values.
6. Conclusions
There has been a marked increase in the popularity of EVs, driven by growing environ-
mental concerns and market demand. However, electrochemical energy storage systems
are not yet competitive with fuel-based vehicles. One of the main reasons is the limited
lifetime of battery systems, which necessitates a redesign of the energy storage systems.
In this context, SCs in the HESS offer a solution for batteries that are weak. However, the
installation of battery/SC systems is more complex than the integration of two different
electrochemical power sources. The timing of the charging or discharging of each electro-
chemical cell is an important factor that needs to be carefully managed. This requires a
complex handling procedure, which is different from the regular testing of electrochemical
cells. This study aims to attract the interest of various researchers and focus on the design
of local battery/SC systems, especially for EVs. In this direction, an energy storage system
is designed by evaluating the performance of the battery at different temperatures, SoCs,
and currents using a fuzzy logic controller.
This study highlights the potential of the HESS to enhance the battery performance
in EVs. The research results underscore the remarkable effectiveness of the HESS in bol-
stering EV performance, concurrently ensuring battery longevity and optimizing energy
usage. In simulated NEDC driving cycles using both the ADVISOR and Siemens Simcenter
Flomaster programs, the HESS showcased significant reductions in battery capacity loss.
Specifically, the HESS demonstrated a remarkable 7.28% reduction in loss compared to
the battery storage system’s 15.64% in the ADVISOR program and a notable 4.15% loss
compared to the system’s 5.02% in the Siemens Simcenter Flomaster program. Further-
more, the HESS contributed substantially to reducing on-battery currents by 29.1% in the
ADVISOR program and 28.7% in the Siemens Simcenter Flomaster program. These reduc-
tions effectively alleviate high current stresses on the battery. Temperature variations also
played a crucial role, with tests conducted in the Siemens Simcenter Flomaster program
revealing a significant 21.3% reduction in the average battery utilization rate. Moreover,
during the NEDC drive cycle, the HESS demonstrated a noteworthy 46.84% reduction in
heat generation within the battery. The HESS played an instrumental protective role by
preventing temperature rises and mitigating the increase in internal resistance, thereby
positively contributing to the battery’s life and health. Additionally, tests conducted at
various SoC values revealed an average energy consumption reduction of 20.43% with the
implementation of the HESS. Remarkably, during the NEDC driving cycle, the integration
of the HESS led to a notable 3.4% increase in driving range compared to traditional bat-
tery storage systems. This underscores the significant potential of the HESS in extending
EVs operational distances, offering tangible benefits to users while enhancing an overall
efficiency and sustainability in transportation. In summary, these findings affirm that the
HESS significantly enhances the EV’s performance while preserving its battery life and
optimizing energy consumption. The widespread adoption of the HESS is poised to drive
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 23 of 25
down energy consumption in EVs, accelerating countries’ efforts to achieve their carbon
emission reduction targets effectively and expeditiously.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Ş. and M.Ö.; Methodology, M.Ş. and Y.R.E.; Investiga-
tion, M.Ş.; Resources, M.Ö. and Y.R.E.; Data curation, M.Ş.; Writing—original draft, M.Ş. and Y.R.E.;
Writing—review and editing, M.Ö. and Y.R.E.; Visualization, M.Ş.; Supervision, M.Ö. and Y.R.E.;
Project administration, M.Ö. and Y.R.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support of the Konya Necmettin Erbakan Univer-
sity (NEU) Science and Technology Research and Application Center (BITAM).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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1 Department of Electric Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University,

Received: 13 March 2024

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14073077 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

2. Experimental Preparation for Fuzzy Logic Application

Figure 1. Aspilsan 18650 NMC battery.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27

Figure 3. Battery capacity experiments at diﬀerent temperatures using a drying oven.

2.2. Battery Charging Current

Table 1. EV battery and motor parameters.

EV Parameters Parameter Values

There are 95 series-connected battery cells and 48 parallel-connected battery cells in

Table 2. Energy gained from regenerative braking under different loads.

Scenarios Driver Drive + 1 Drive + 2 Full Load

Table 3. Parameters of the Maxwell SC model BCAP0350.

SC Parameters Parameter Values

2.3. Battery and Supercapacitor State-of-Charge

3. Design of Fuzzy Logic System

Table 4. Fuzzy logic dataset.

Fuzzy Logic Input Parameters Fuzzy Logic Output Parameters

3.2. Building the Model

Table 5. Fuzzy logic control system’s membership functions.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27

Table 6. Performance evaluation of the model.

Performance Measure Performance Value

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW R2 0.927 14 of 27

Figure 11. Three-dimensional relationship between input variables in the model.

Figure 12. EV’s blog diagram.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3077 15 of 25

Drive cycle time (seconds)

Battery Storage HESS

In simulation tests performed in the ADVISOR program, it is not possible to change

4.2. Siemens Simcenter Flomaster Simulation Environment

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27

Drive cycle time (seconds)

Battery Storage HESS

5. Results and Discussion

ADVISOR Simcenter Flomaster

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