Human Culture and Diversity Reading Guide

Shearn, Isaac. (2020). “Chapter 5: Subsistence”. In Perspectives: An Open Introduction to

Cultural Anthropology, Second Edition. Edited by Nina Brown, Thomas McIlwraith and
Laura Tubelle de Gonzá lez. Arlington, VA: American Anthropological Association. Pp. 96-
118.

1. What is a subsistence system?

A subsistence system is the set of practices used by members of a society to acquire

food.

2. What is “carrying capacity”, and what were Malthus’ main arguments about it?
How have other scholars, such as Ester Boserup, challenged Malthus’
assumptions?

Anthropologists use the term carrying capacity to quantify the number of

calories that can be extracted from a particular unit of land to support a human
population.

In his 1798 publication An Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus

argued, “the power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the
earth to produce subsistence for man.”1 He suggested that human populations
grow at an exponential rate, meaning the population climbs at a rate that is
constantly increasing. However, the availability of resources in the environment
increases at only an arithmetic rate, which means that left unchecked human
populations would soon outstrip the environment’s ability to provide
sustenance. Malthus famously argued that war, famine, and disease were “good”
or at least “functional” in the sense that they kept populations from growing too
large.

The Danish economist Ester Boserup, for example, argued that human history
reveals a connection between population growth and cultural innovation,
particularly innovation in farming techniques. Because necessity is the mother of
invention, she reasoned, the pressure of having more mouths to feed could be
the dynamic that drives societies to develop new solutions.

3. What is a “domestic economy”, and why is it important for anthropologists to

study this?

Domestic economy is the process of managing a household’s finances.

When anthropologists first began to examine subsistence systems, they started like
all scientists do, with classification. Early on, anthropologists saw the benefit of
grouping similar societies into types, or categories, based on the range of practices
they used in the quest for food. These groupings allowed for comparisons between
cultures.
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4. What is the difference between “immediate return systems” and “delayed return
systems”?

An immediate return system is when people get food the same day e.g. fishing and
hunting. A delayed return system is when food is obtained at a later date such as
harvesting planted crops.

5. Define/explain foraging as mode of subsistence, and describe the social

structures, gender roles, patterns of settlement, and political organization that
tend to characterize foraging societies.

Foraging, sometimes known as hunting and gathering, describes societies that rely
primarily on “wild” plant and animal food resources.

The social structures in foraging societies typically consists of small, egalitarian

groups.

Gender roles are met by a division of work. The men do most of the hunting and
fishing while the women did more work around the house/domestic work.

They are mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic societies.

Political organization is dispersed, with leadership solely based on age and

experience.

6. Define/explain pastoralism as mode of subsistence, and describe the social

structures, gender roles, patterns of settlement, and political organization that
tend to characterize foraging societies.

Pastoralism is a subsistence system that relies on herds of domesticated livestock.

Pastoralist societies typically consist of small communities where social status is

determined by the extent of livestock ownership.

There is a big difference in gender roles. Men took care of the herds and woman
took care of tasks such as milking and taking care of children.

Pastoralists also lead nomadic or semi-nomadic lives.

Again, informal leadership is the star of political organization. With leaders gaining
titles due to their expertise and ability of solving conflicts through negotiation.
Human Culture and Diversity Reading Guide

7. Define/explain horticulture as mode of subsistence, and describe the social

structures, gender roles, patterns of settlement, and political organization that
tend to characterize foraging societies.

Horticulture is the mode of subsistence where limited technology and manual

labour is used to cultivate crops.

Horticultural societies are defined by extended families and/or little communities.

Division of labour can also be seen in the gender roles of this society where the men
work in land clearing and hunting, while women focus on planting and food
preparation.

Settlement can be sedentary or semi-sedentary. Some societies practice shifting

cultivation which may result in a semi-nomadic society every once in a while.

Political organization is ideally decentralized as well, with informal governance and

discussions to find solutions to ongoing issues.

8. Define/explain agriculture as mode of subsistence, and describe the social

structures, gender roles, patterns of settlement, and political organization that
tend to characterize foraging societies.

Agriculture is the systemic cultivation of domesticated plants and animals.

Social structures are more complex, with larger communities and hierarchies based
on wealth and status.

Gender roles tend to be more firmly defined, with men often engaged in farming and
women in tasks related to food processing and childcare.

Patterns of settlement are generally sedentary.

Political organization can vary from decentralized informal governments, to more

formalized leaderships with centralized governments.
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9. How do modes of subsistence shape our worldviews, and how we perceive, use,
and interact with our environments? In what kinds of societies is the concept of
“private property” central? What are the social and ecological consequences?

Modes of subsistence shape our worldviews by forcing us to rely on our

environment in order to produce food. Thus, we try to preserve what the land
provides, from animals to plants. In agricultural societies, there is a concept of
“private property”. Socially, it can cause economic inequality, marginalization, and a
lack of diversity in the spread of land. Additionally, on an ecological standpoint, it
often leads to destruction of habitats, pollution, and climate change.

10. What are some of the impacts of the global agriculture system?

The global agriculture system has fed a large number of people and communities
throughout the years. In the world today, 3.83 billion people rely on agrifood
systems for adequate nutrition and satiation. However, studies have also shown that
the global agriculture system has had a negative effect on the environment, due to
the large number of landmass it holds up, with the EPA confirming that it
contributes to 10% of the greenhouse gas emission globally.