FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

DESIGN OF A FAULT DETECTION AND

INDICATION UNIT

Supervisor:

Date submitted:
DECLARATION
I, , declare that the contents of this project report represent my own unaided work, and that the
report has not previously been submitted for academic examination towards any qualification.
Furthermore, it represents my own opinions and not necessarily those of the Technical
University of Mombasa.

NAME: JACKSON K.MASILA

Signed Date

ii
ABSTRACT
Fault detection and indication on power line has been very difficult in our country and it
really needs a method that is suitable to efficiently analyse the kind of faults, indication
methodology to the responsible authority and some means of controlling the line or isolating
the line to avoid continued failure or damage that it may result.There are different types of
faults. Some are temporary and others are permanent. Most power consumers remain in
darkness or make losses in their business because of faults caused by others. Means of
incorporating isolation of fault line or lines at the instance of occurrence is necessary to help
and protect power breakdown to consumers whose network are health and responding. At the
same time, indicating the type of fault and if necessary action to be taken by the immediate
response technical team will save time, protect consumers from breakdown and losses and
also protect the line from massive damage from serious faults. Permanent faults should be
isolated and possibly alternative means provided to ensure consumers are connected to the
grid always with minimum time possible. A unit ofelectronic components can solve this
problem.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank:
 Kjell svensson and Viola svensson, for giving me parental love and care and the help
throughout my education period.
 All my lecturers in Tum for translating my dreams into real a profession especially my
supervisor mr. for his help through my project.
 All my classmates, for being loyal and real, being my friends and as well my new
family at Tum during my career training.

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this to my family who gave up on everything to ensure my dreams comes true, for
loving, caring and support. Not forgetting my classmates, they really care and supported me
throughout the college education.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................................................ii

ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................................................iv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Overall objective.............................................................................................................................................1

1.3 Specific Objectives.........................................................................................................................................1

1.4 Problem statement...........................................................................................................................................2

1.5 Assumptions....................................................................................................................................................2

Significance and Motivation of Study...................................................................................................................2

1.5.1 Significance.............................................................................................................................................2
1.5.2 Motivation of Study.................................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................3

2.1 introduction.....................................................................................................................................................3

2.1.1 Transmission lines...................................................................................................................................3

2.1.2 Requirement of transmission lines..........................................................................................................3
2.1.3 Selection of voltage for high transmission lines......................................................................................3
2.1.4 Choices of conductors:............................................................................................................................5
2.2 Nature and causes of faults:............................................................................................................................6

2.2.1 Lightning.................................................................................................................................................6
2.2.2 Pollution...................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.3 Fires.........................................................................................................................................................7
2.3 TYPES OF FAULTS.......................................................................................................................................8

2.4 Literature survey...........................................................................................................................................10

2.4.1 Distributed power quality measurement using smart sensor.................................................................10

2.4.2 Standard scada and human machine interface..................................................................................10
2.4.3 Application protocol..............................................................................................................................11
2.4.4 Mobile phone based scada.....................................................................................................................11
2.5 project gap...................................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................................................12

Methodology........................................................................................................................................................12

3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................12

3.1.1 Types of faults.......................................................................................................................................12

3.1.2 Shunt Faults...........................................................................................................................................12
3.1.3 Series Faults...........................................................................................................................................13

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 3.1.4 Shunt Fault Computation........................................................................................................................13
3.1.5 Series Fault Computations.....................................................................................................................22
3.2 DESIGN.....................................................................................................................................................26
3.2.1 Circuit component functions and performance specifications...............................................................26
3.2.3 Overall circuit diagram and circuit operation........................................................................................35
3.2.1 Design overview or summary................................................................................................................43
3. 3 CONSTRUCTION...........................................................................................................................................43

3.3.1 Procurement of components..................................................................................................................43

3.3.2 Simulation testing stage.........................................................................................................................44
3.3.3 Breadboard testing stage.........................................................................................................................44
3.3.4 Soldering - strip board stage..................................................................................................................45
3.4 TESTING......................................................................................................................................................47

3.4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................47
3.4.2 Identifying functional tests to be done..................................................................................................47
3.4.3 Functional test measurements and results obtained................................................................................49
3.5 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION.......................................50

3.5.1 Challenges encountered during design and implementation the project................................................50

3.5.2 Recommendation....................................................................................................................................50
3.5.3 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................................51
APPENDIX A.....................................................................................................................................................52

APPENDIX B.....................................................................................................................................................53

REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................52

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Single line to ground fault......................................................................................8

Figure 2.2 Line to line fault......................................................................................................9
Figure.2.3 Double line to ground.............................................................................................9
Figure.2.4 Three phase fault.....................................................................................................9
Figure3.1.1 Single line to ground fault..................................................................................15
Figure 3.1.2 Equivalent circuit of single line........................................................................16
Figure.3.1.3Double line to ground circui..............................................................................19
Figure.3.1.4 Sequence network for double............................................................................20
Figure3.1.5 Three phase balanced circuit.............................................................................21
Figure3.1.6 One line open general repres.............................................................................22
Figure. 3.1.7 One line open.....................................................................................................23
Figure.3.1.8...............................................................................................................................23
Figure.3.1.9Two line open......................................................................................................24
Figure 3.2.1 Block Diagram of the Projec 1..............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.2.1 Block Diagram of the Project...........................................................................26
Fig 3.2.2 arduino uno..............................................................................................................27
Figure 3.2.3 Sensor Description.............................................................................................32
Figure 3.2.4 Current Sensor Connection..............................................................................32
Figure 3.2.5 LED I-V Characteristics....................................................................................33
Figure 3.2.6 LED Series resistor circuit................................................................................34
Power Supply...........................................................................................................................35
Fig 3.2.7 power supply circuit 1.............................................................................................36
Fig 3.2.8 transformer...............................................................................................................36
Fig 3.2.9 rectifier circuit.........................................................................................................37
Rectifying Circuit....................................................................................................................37
Figure 3.3 LM7805 – Pin Diagram 1.....................................................................................39
Figure 3.3.1 Filtering Circuit.................................................................................................40
Figure 3.3.2 circuit diagram...................................................................................................42
Table 3.3 Components obtained for circuit construction....................................................43
Figure 3.3.4.proteous circuit 1...............................................................................................44
Figure 3.3.5. System ok simulation............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.3.6 faults........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.3.7 under and overvoltage...........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Figure 3.3.8...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.3.9..............................................................................................................................45

ix
List of tables
Table 1….................................................................................................11
Table 2…..................................................................................................13
Table 3…..................................................................................................14

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Today, technology has become an integrated part of people's lives. It has, and continues to
influence many aspects of daily life and has allowed better social interaction. The creation of
many devices such as mobile phones and computers have caused many people to rely on
technology to communicate with their friends, store information such as under voltages, over
voltages and operating conditions of home utilities. This has led to come up with a unit that
will incorporate technology in detecting faults by allowing transmission only when the
physical variables been monitored are at desired levels. Intelligent unit of the power system,
facilitate the reduction of power losses during transmission and power consumption as
highlighted by the global community, academic institutions, and State administration. To gain
full utility and customer protection dimensions, the idea of a transmission management and
automation system will enable technologies used in recent years, attracting a great deal of
attention in the energy industry and academia Such studies.
Fault is simply defined as a number of undesirable but unavoidable incidents can temporarily
disturb the stable condition of the power system that occurs when the insulation of the system
fails at any point. Moreover, if a conducting object comes in contact with a bare power
conductor, a short circuit, or fault, is said to have occurred. The causes of faults are many,
they include lighting, wind damage, trees falling across transmission lines, vehicles or aircraft
colliding with the transmission towers or poles, birds shorting lines or vandalism.
Protection system’s main function is to detect and indicate faults from the power system in
time to ensure safety, minimize equipment damage and maintain power system stability
.Protection of power systems requires an understanding of system faults, their detection, and
safe isolation of the faulted device.
1.2 Overall objective
To implement a phase fault detection and indication unit for transmission lines
1.3 Specific Objectives
1. To conduct literature review of a fault detection and indication unit in transmission
lines.
2. To design a unit for detection and indication over voltage protectionin transmission
lines.
3. To build system for fault detection and indication
4. To test thesystem for power protection

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1.4 Problem statement
To reduce the duration of outages and minimise response time to major faults,
optimise reliability of supply, it is inevitable for power transmission companies to search for a
low-cost unit device with low power consumption that will relay accurate fault information at
real-time back to the control centre. This research work seeks to design an automatic and
efficient fault detection and indication system for overhead power linessystem.

1.5 Assumptions
It is assumed that no automation controller that is not specifically designed for control should
be used.
During simulation, causing a short circuit between lines is impossible hence an error will
occur as a result.
This research will carry out study to detect and indicate faults thus preceding work will be
carried out by the specialised personnel.

1.5 Limitations

Automation controllers have several electrical requirements that must be met in order to
ensure proper performance, correct algorithm and real time communication.
Significance and Motivation of Study
1.5.1 Significance

This project is important as it easily enhances easy and cost friendly as an efficient means of
fault detection and indication, fast response and protection against damage of electrical
devices and machines. In contrast, both supply companies and consumers merit on this project
as equipment and devices will be protected from over voltage. The company will easily track
the problem and easily service as soon as possible giving the consumer a merit of efficiency
as a measure of their service to the consumer.

1.5.2 Motivation of Study

Supply companies and consumers merit on this project as equipment and devices will be
protected from over voltage. The company will easily track the problem and easily service as
soon as possible giving the consumer a merit of efficiency as a measure of their service to the
consumer

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CHAPTER TWO:LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 introduction
2.1.1 Transmission lines
The electric energy produced at generating stations is transported over high voltage
transmission lines to utilization points. In the early days (until 1917), electric systems were
operated as isolated systems with only point-to-point transmission at voltages that are
considered low by today’s standard
2.1.2 Requirement of transmission lines
Transmission lines should transmit power over the required distance economically and satisfy
the electrical and mechanical requirements prescribed in particular cases. It would be
necessary to transmit a certain amount of power, as a given power factor, over a given
distance and be within the limit of given the regulation, efficiency and losses. The lines
should stand the weather conditions of the locality in which they are laid. This would involve
wind pressures and temperature variation at the places and the lines should be designed for
the corresponding mechanical loading. The regulation would give the voltage drop between
the sending-end and the receiving-end. The possibility of a corona formation and
corresponding loss would be another consideration. The charging current of the line depends
on the capacity of the line and should not exceed the limit. As far as the general requirements
of transmission lines are concerned, the lines should have enough capacity to transmit the
required power, should maintain 3 continuous supply without failure, and should be
mechanically strong so that there are no failures due to mechanical breakdowns also

2.1.3 Selection of voltage for high transmission lines

With increase in the power to be transmitted over long distances, use of high voltages for
power transmission has been developed. However, a choice could be made out of the standard
voltages that are used in the country. The voltage selected has to be economical and depends
on the cost of the lines, cost of apparatus such as transformers, circuit breakers, insulators, etc.
This cost increases rapidly for voltages in the range of 230 kV and above. For higher power, it
is worthwhile to check whether the required power can be transmitted using lower power
voltages, e.g. transmission at 230 kV using capacitors installed on the line instead of higher
voltages. The voltages used as standards in many countries 11 kV, 22 kV, and 33 kV for short
lines, 66 kV and 110 kV for medium lines and 132 kV, 166 kV, 230 kV and above for long
lines.

3
In the selection of voltage of transmission lines, the existing and future voltage of the other
lines in the vicinity should be considered. This is required for the possible interconnection of
the grid lines. In such cases, it may be necessary to choose voltages higher than the most
economical voltage. Possible developments in the location should also be considered in
justifying the choice of voltage. The choice of voltage is also liked with the conductor size,
when transmitting the required power.

4
The power to be transmitted and the distance over which it is to be transmitted together
decide the voltage to a certain extent.
As regards to the distance of transmission, 11 kV and 33 kV lines are used for short distances,
while the other lines may be used for the appropriate distances. This is just a very rough guide
for preliminary work, to start detailed design of the line required. The choice of conductors,
etc. also affects the choice. In designing a transmission line, It would, therefore, be
worthwhile to consider two or three possible voltages and two or three conductor sizes to
obtain the required characteristics of the line within the given limitations.

2.1.4Choices of conductors:
The conductors available are hard-drawn copper or stranded conductors, or ACSR conductors.
For short lines with comparatively low voltages up to 33 kV, copper conductors are used if
available. For high-voltage lines, the increase in the span and the weight of the conductors to
be supported becomes an important consideration. ACSR conductors are commonly used for
high-voltage work. In most countries where copper is not available in plenty and needs to be
imported, it would be worthwhile to use ACSR conductors wherever possible.
The size of the conductor selected depends on the length of the transmission line, load on the
line and the voltage of the line. For a given loss of energy, expressed as percentage of the
energy to be transmitted, the cross section of the conductor as well as its weight varies
inversely as the square of the voltage of the line. The loss in the transmission line is 3I2r per
unit length of the line, where r is the 5 resistance per unit length of the line. The current in the
line depends on the voltage and the power factor of the load to be supplied. As the voltage
increases, the cross section of the conductors reduces, and up to a certain extent, use of higher
voltages reduces the loss. However, for high voltages (above 166 kV) other losses should be
considered, i.e. due to leakage over insulators and Corona loss. The value of the charging
current also increases for the high voltages and this affects the line current. The cost of the
conductors depends on their weight. The safe current carrying capacity in amperes for bare
copper stranded overhead.

5
2.2 Nature and causes of faults:
The nature of a fault is simply defined as any abnormal condition, which causes a reduction in
the basic insulation strength between phase conductors, or between phase conductors and
earth or any earthed screens surrounding the conductors. In practice, a reduction is not
regarded as a fault until is it is detectable, that is until it results either in an excess current or
in a reduction of the impedance between conductors, or between conductors and earth, to a
value below that of the lowest load impedance normal to the circuit. Thus a higher degree of
pollution on an insulator string, although it reduces the insulation strength of the affected
phase, does not become a fault until it causes a flashover across the string, which in turn
produces excess current or other detectable abnormality, for example abnormal current in an
arc-suppression coil. Following are some of the main causes

2.2.1 Lightning
More than half of the electrical faults occurring on overhead power transmission lines are
caused by lightning (see Figure 2.1). The main conventional approaches for reduction of the
lightning flashover faults on power lines are lowering of the footing resistance and employing
of multiple shielding wires, and differential insulation.
However, these methods have not been sufficient to prevent flashover faults. In the meantime
application of arresters to lines has been a better solution in recent years. This alternate
approach is to install an arrester to prevent the flashover of insulator assemblies. It is
important that the arrester should be strong enough in order to withstand excessive lightning
strikes. A newly developed suspension-type line arrester has been developed by incorporating
ZnO elements into the shed of a conventional suspension insulator (Figures 2.3 and 2.4). It
has an arrester function along with the normal electrical and mechanical functions of a line
insulator. It is a gapless type that has the advantage of reliable surge absorption with no delay
in discharge. The new arrester holds promise not only for the prevention of lightning faults,
but also as means of achieving economical insulation in the overall transmission systems.

6
2.2.2 Pollution
Pollution is commonly caused by deposited soot or cement dust in industrial areas, and by salt
deposited by wind-borne sea-spray in coastal areas. A high degree of pollution on an insulator
string, although it reduces the insulation strength of the affected phase, does not become a
fault until it causes a flashover across the string, which in turn reduces excess current or other
detectable abnormality, for example abnormal current in an arc-suppression coil

2.2.3Fires
The occurrence of fire under transmission lines is responsible for a great number of line
outages in many countries. Faults are mainly due to conductor to

7
ground short circuit at mid-span or phase-to-phase short circuit depending on line
configuration and voltage level. To reduce these outages to a minimum, the clearance of
existing lines must be increased in forests. Clearing and vegetation on the line right of way in
such areas is also a consideration. Another problem arising from burning is the
contamination of the insulators due to the accumulation of particles (soot, dust) on its
surfaces. In this case, the line insulation requirements should be determined in such a way
that the outages under fire could be reduced to a minimum.
Other causes of faults on overhead lines are trees, birds, aircraft, fog, ice, snow loading,
punctured or broken insulators, open-circuit conductors and abnormal loading.

2.3 TYPES OF FAULTS

Power system faults may be categorized as shunt faults and series faults. The most occurring
type of shunt faults is Single Line-to-ground faults (SLG), which one of the four types of
shunt faults, which occur along the power lines. This type of fault occurs when one
conductor falls to ground or contacts the neutral wire. It could also be the result of falling
trees in a winter storm.
The second most occurring type of shunt faults is the Line-to-Line fault (LL). It is the result
of two conductors being short-circuited. As in the case of a large bird standing on one
transmission line and touching the other, or if a tree branch fall on top of the two of the
power lines.

Third type of fault is the Double Line-to-Ground fault (DLG), Figure 2.7. This can be a result
of a tree falling on two of the power lines, or other causes. The fourth and least occurring type
of fault is the balanced three phase (Figure 2.8), which can occur by a contact between the
three power lines in many different forms.

Figure 2.1: Single line to ground fault

8
 Figure 2.2: Line to line fault

Figure.2.3: Double line to ground

Figure.2.4: Three phase fault

9
Series faults can occur along the power lines as the “result of an unbalanced series impedance
condition of the lines in the case of one or two broken lines for example. In practice, a series
fault is encountered, for example, when lines (or circuits) are controlled by circuit breakers
(or fuses) or any device that does not open all three phases; one or two phases of the line (or
the circuit) may be open while the other phases or phase is closed.
2.4 Literature survey
2.4.1 Distributed power quality measurement using smart sensor

De la Rosa et al (2010) addressed the challenges and trends in the development of web-based
distributed Power Quality (PQ) measurement and analysis using smart sensors. Registered
users can configure the sensors, adjust sensitivity levels and specify deployment location and
email notification addresses. The developed website also provides a number of ways to view
data from single or aggregated monitors. The authors addressed low cost Internet power
monitor, which is cost-effective at the single user level. In addition, the reliance on standard
web browsers eliminates the need for significant investment in software and hardware
infrastructure that is typically required for other measurement systems

2.4.2 Standard scada and human machine interface

Salihbegovic et al (2009) illustrated a standard SCADA and Human

Machine Interface (HMI) system, which has been significantly customized and extended
through its open hardware and software architecture. Network centred, distributed PLC
system with SCADA functions and several levels of field buses interconnected with HMI part
of the system is described.

Configuration and PLC controllers programming, data server configuration, operator panels
design and way of managing the control system using a standard Web browser, e.g. Internet
Explorer issues are addressed.

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2.4.3Application protocol

Application Protocol (WAP), so the expenditure of connection is considerably low.

A formal methodology was proposed by Hussak and Yang (2007) to reduce the amount of
information displayed to remote human operators at interfaces to large-scale process control
plants of a certain type. The reduction proceeds in reduced subsets of components, which
gave full information about the state of the whole system, are generated by determining
functional dependencies between components.

2.4.4 Mobile phone based scada

Ozdemir and Karacor (2006) published work on mobile phone based SCADA.

Study results showed that the conditions in a process plant of an automation system are harsh
and the site is remote. Resources for data communication are difficult to obtain under these
conditions, thus a wireless channel communication through a mobile phone is practical and
efficient in a process control environment. Also, monitoring and control of the plant process is
performed with the use of present GSM base stations, where no cost of network setting is
required. Exchange of data with SCADA system is accomplished through General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) or Wireless
2.5 project gap
ElectricityCompany in Kenya has not utilised systems of fault detection and indication system
to control faults on the lines of transmission. This has resulted to faults taking more than
twelve hours and leading to inconveniences to most businesses and therefore affecting the
country’s economy.

The system design unit is cost friendly, simple and most modes that rely on the power lines
power to communicate a fault will not be necessary since once power fails they fail. The unit
in the control room will indicate line fault type which is an easier method to deal and respond
in time relying to qualified personnel.

Communication devices may fail, due to interference by magnetic emissions or satellite

failure resulting to communication error or a delayed information, and in turn drag the
company delivery service to its consumers but this system does not rely on the RF or any
communication medium as it is readily available in the substations to monitor faults.

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CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
3.1Introduction
Fault or short-circuit studies are obviously an essential tool for the electric energy systems
engineer. The task here is to be able to calculate the fault conditions and to provide protective
equipment designed to isolate the faulted zone from the remainder of the system in the
appropriate time. The least complex category computationally is the balanced fault. This
tempts the engineer to base his decision on its results. The balanced fault could (in some
locations) result in currents smaller than that due to any other type of fault. However, the
interrupting capacity of breakers should be chosen to accommodate the largest of fault
currents.
A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference
come in contact with each other. The contact may be a physical 4metallic one, or it may occur
through an arc. In the metal-to-metal contact case, the voltage between the two parts is
reduced to zero. On the other hand, the voltage through an arc will be of a very small value:
3.1.1 Types of faults
3.1.2 Shunt Faults
1. Single line-to-ground faults

2. Line-to-line faults

3. Double line-to-ground faults

4. Balanced or symmetrical three phase faults

Overhead lines are constructed of bare conductors. Wind, sleet, trees, cranes, kites, airplanes,
birds, or damage to supporting structure are causes for accidental faults on overhead lines.
Contamination of insulators and lightning over voltages will in general result in faults.
Deterioration of insulation in underground cables results in short circuits. This is mainly
attributed to aging combined with over loading. About 75 percent of the energy system’s
faults are due to the shunt fault type and result from insulator flashover during electrical
storms. Only one in twenty faults are due to the balanced fault

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3.1.3 Series Faults
1. One line open

2. Two line open

The series types of faults occur due to an unbalanced series impedance condition of the lines.
This could occur when fuses or any device, which does not open all three phases, one or two
phases, controls circuits. It is also the result of one or two broken lines, or impedance inserted
in one or two lines. Such faults could occur as a result of one or two phases of the line open
while the other phase or phases are closed.
When the system impedances and admittances are constants the method of symmetrical
components can be used to determine fundamental frequency currents and voltages in the
system with one or two open conductors. The existing impedance of a transformer is an
example of impedance, which is not constant, but varies with the applied voltage

As a result of a fault, currents of high value will flow through the network to the faulted
point. The amount of current will be much greater than the desired thermal ability of the
conductors in the power lines or machines feeding the fault. Which causes temperature to rise
which in turn may cause damage by annealing of conductors and insulation charring. In
addition to this, the low voltage in the neighborhood of the vault will render the equipment
inoperative
3.1.4Shunt Fault Computation
3.1.4.1Single Line –to- Ground
Faults
Assume that the phase is shorted to ground at the fault point F as shown in figures 3.1. Phase
b and c currents are assumed to be negligible, and we can thus write
𝐼𝑏 = 𝑖𝑐 = 0

The sequence currents are obtained as follows:

To find the positive sequence value we use

𝐼𝑎1 1
2
= (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎 𝐼𝐶 )
3

This gives𝐼𝑎1=1𝑎
3

For the negative sequence

13
𝐼𝑎 = 1𝑎/3

14
Likewise for the zero sequence

We can then conclude then that in the case of a single line-to-ground fault, the sequence
currents are equal, and we write

With the generators normally producing balanced three phase voltages, which are positive
sequence only, we can write

Let us assume that the sequence impedaghnces to the fault are given by Z1, Z2, Z0. We can
write the following expressions for sequence voltages at the fault

15
The fact that phase a is shortened to the ground is used. Thus

We also recall that

We conclude

Or

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below

Figure3.1.1: Single line to ground fault

16
 Figure 3.1.2: Equivalent circuit of single line

We can now state the solution in terms of phase currents

For phase voltages we have

The last two expressions can be derived easily from the basic relations.
For phase b, we have

17
Which reduces to

Which reduces
to Which
reduces to

Which reduces to

We obtain

Similarly we get the results for phase c

3.1.4.2Double Line-to-Ground Faults
In this case, we will consider a general fault condition. We assume that phase b has fault
impedance of Zf ; phase c has a fault impedance of Zf ; and the common line-to-ground fault
impedance is Zg
The boundary conditions are as follows:

The potential difference between phase b and c is thus

Substituting in terms of sequence currents and voltages, we have

18
As a result we get

The sum of the phase voltages is

In terms of sequence quantities this gives

Recall since Ia=0; we have

Thus we can assert that

Substituting for Va0 above, we have

The above reduces

And now we have

Consequently

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It is clear from above equations that the sequence networks are connected in parallel, which
could be seen from the equivalent circuit we obtain the positive sequence current.

The negative sequence current in

Finally we have

Figure.3.1.3:Double line to ground circui

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 Figure.3.1.4: Sequence network for double

3.1.4.3 Balanced Three-Phase Vault

Let us now consider the situation with a balanced three-phase fault on phases a, b, and c, all
through the same fault impedance Zf. This fault condition is shown in Figure 3.7. It is clear
from inspection of this figure that the phase voltages at the fault are represented by

The positive sequence of voltages are obtained using

It can be concluded that

However for the currents we have

21
The zero sequence voltage is given as

For a balanced source we have

By combining the equations we get that

As a result

Again by combining our equations we get

𝐼𝑎2 = 0
Finally

𝐼𝑎0=0

Figure3.1.5: Three phase balanced circuit

22
3.1.5 Series Fault Computations
3.1.5.1 One Line Open (OLO)
from our observation, the line for one the open line conductor in phase a is infinity, whereas
the line impedances for the other two phases have some finite values Therefore, the
positive, negative, and zero sequence currents can be expressed as

And by current division

Or simply

Where

Figure3.1.6 One line open general representation

23
 Figure. 3.1.7 One line open:

3.1.5.2 Two Line Open (TLO)

If two lines are open as shown then the lime impedances for the OLO in phases b and c are
infinity, whereas the line impedance of phase a has some finite.,

Figure.3.1.8

24
Therefore

And

By inspection, the positive, negative and zero currents can be expressed as

Figure.3.1.9Two line open:

25
FAULTS PROBABILITY SEVERITY
OF
OCCURRENCE
%

L-G 85 Least Severe

L-L 8

L-L-G 5

L-L-L 2 Most Severe

L-L-L-G 2

Table 3 Faults statistics

26
3.2 DESIGN

ADC
Current
Transformer.

TRIP
INDICATING Microcontrolle
LCD
LED r

FAULT
SENSORS
Figure 3.2.1: Block Diagram of the Pro ject

The block diagram consist of the following

3.2.1 Circuit component functions and performance

specifications Controller
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 datasheet. It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analogue inputs, a 16
MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller.

27
 Fig 3.2.2: arduino uno

3.2.1.1Advantages of ARDUINO UNO over other Microcontrollers

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for
physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Net media’s BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handy board,
and many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of
microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also
simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage over
other systems:

1. Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other

microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be
assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than Ksh
2000.Cross-platform - The Arduino software runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and
Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
2. Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino programming environment is
easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of
as well.
3. For teachers, it's conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so
students learning to program in that environment will be familiar with the look and
feel of Arduino

28
 4. Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open
source tools, available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can
be expanded through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical
details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming language on
which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into your Arduino
programs if you want to.
5. Open source and extensible hardware - The Arduino is based on Atmel's ATMEGA8
and ATMEGA168 microcontrollers. The plans for the modules are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own
version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced
users can build the breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it
works and save money
Specifications of Arduino Uno
Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB
used by boot loader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can
come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be
connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack.
Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and VIN pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied
with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board
may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and

29
 damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are
as follows:
VIN; The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source
(as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source).
You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack,
access it through this pin.

5V; this pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.

A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.

GND. Ground pins.

IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin
voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the
outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can
be used as an input or output, using pin Mode (), digitalWrite (), and digitalRead ()
functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40
mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 k Ohms.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial
data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2
USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt

on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.

30
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite ()
function.

SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communication using the SPI library.

LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10
bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values).
By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change
the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference ()
function. Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library
relay circuit which is connected with a transistor.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
LCD is the most common message display device used to display ASCII character. LCDs
have become a cheap and easy way to get text display for embedded system. The Common
displays are set up as 16 to 20 characters by 1 to 4 lines
Specifications;
1. Low-noise analog signal path
2. Device bandwidth is set via the new FILTER pin
3. 5 μs output rise time in response to step input current
4. 80 kHz bandwidth ▪ Total output error 1.5% at TA = 25°C
5. Small footprint, low-profile SOIC8 package
6. 1.2 mΩ internal conductor resistance
7. 2.1 kVRMS minimum isolation voltage from pins 1-4 to pins 5-8
8. 5.0 V, single supply operation
9. 66 to 185 mV/A output sensitivity
10. Output voltage proportional to AC or DC currents
11. Factory-trimmed for accuracy
12. Extremely stable output offset voltage
13. Nearly zero magnetic hysteresis
14. Ratiometric output from supply voltage

31
The Allegro® ACS712 provides economical and precise solutions for AC or DC current
sensing in industrial, commercial, and communications systems. The device package allows
for easy implementation by the customer. Typical applications include motor control, load
detection and management, switched-mode power supplies, and overcurrent fault protection.
The device consists of a precise, low-offset, linear Hall sensor circuit with a copper
conduction path located near the surface of the die. Applied current flowing through this
copper conduction path generates a magnetic field which is sensed by the integrated Hall IC
and converted into a proportional voltage. Device accuracy is optimized through the close
proximity of the magnetic signal to the Hall transducer. A precise, proportional voltage is
provided by the low-offset, chopper-stabilized BiCMOS Hall IC, which is programmed for
accuracy after packaging. The output of the device has a positive slope (>VIOUT (Q)) when
an increasing current flows through the primary copper conduction path (from pins 1 and 2, to
pins 3 and 4), which is the path used for current sensing. The internal resistance of this
conductive path is 1.2 mΩ typical, providing low power loss. The thickness of the copper
conductor allows survival of the device at up to 5× overcurrent conditions.
The terminals of the conductive path are electrically isolated from the sensor leads (pins 5
through 8) hence it allows the ACS712 current sensor to be used in applications requiring
electrical isolation without the use of opto-isolators or other costly isolation techniques. The
ACS712 is provided in a small, surface mount SOIC8 package. The lead frame is plated
with 100% matte tin, which is compatible with standard lead (Pb) free printed circuit board
assembly processes. Internally, the device is Pb-free, except for flip-chip high-temperature
Pb-based solder balls, currently exempt from RoHS. These devices are fully calibrated prior
to shipping from the factory.

32
ACS712 Module Pin Outs and Connections

The picture below identifies the pin outs for the ACS172 Modules. Pay attention to the
polarity at the load end of the device. If you are connected as illustrated below, the output
will raise. If you connect it opposite of this picture, the output will decrease from the 2.5 volt
offset.

Figure 3.2.3 Sensor Description

As mentioned before, these modules are primarily designed for use with micro-controllers like
the Arduino. In recent applications, the connections would be as picture below:

Figure 3.2.4 Current Sensor Connection

If the light bulb shown in the picture above were disconnected, the output of the ACS712
module would be 2.500 volts. Once connected, the output would be scaled to the current
drawn through the bulb. If this were a 5 Amp module and the light bulb pulled 1 Amp, the
output of the module would be 2.685 volts.

33
Light Emitting Diode

Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-dependent devices with its forward voltage drop V F,
depending on the semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on the forward biased LED current.

Most common LED’s require a forward operating voltage of between approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward current
rating of about 10 to 30 mA, with 12 to 20 mA being the most common range. Both the forward operating voltage and
forward current vary depending on the semiconductor material used but the point where conduction begins and light is
produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue LED. The exact voltage drop will of course depend
on the manufacturer because of the different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across the LED at a
particular current value, for example 20mA, will also depend on the initial conduction V Fpoint. As an LED is effectively a
diode, its forward current to voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode color as shown below.

Figure 3.2.5: LED I-V Characteristics.

Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to flow through it, as it is a current dependent
device with their light output intensity being directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED.As the
LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power supply it should be current limited using a series resistor
to protect it from excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as it will be destroyed
almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. From the table above we can see that each LED
has its own forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the semiconductor
material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of forward conduction current, typically for a forward
current of 20mA.

In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series resistor, used to limit the forward current to a
safe value from say 5mA for a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output is needed.

34
LED Series Resistance.
The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm’s Law, by knowing the
required forward current IF of the LED, the supply voltage VS across the combination and the
expected forward voltage drop of the LED, V F at the required current level, the current
limiting resistor is calculated as:
LED Series Resistor Circuit

Figure 3.2.6 LED Series resistor circuit

Light Emitting Diode Example No1

An amber colored LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected to a 5.0v stabilized DC power supply. Using the
circuit above calculate the value of the series resistor required to limit the forward current to less than 10mA. Also calculate
the current flowing through the diode if a 100Ω series resistor is used instead of the calculated first.

1). series resistor required at 10mA.

2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

35
We remember from the resistors tutorials that resistors come in standard preferred values. Our first calculation
above shows that to limit the current flowing through the LED to 10mA exactly, we would require
a 300Ω resistor. In the E12 series of resistors there is no 300Ω resistor so we would need to choose the next
highest value, which is 330Ω. A quick re-calculation shows the new forward current value is now 9.1mA, and
this is ok.

3.2.3 Overall circuit diagram and circuit

operation Power Supply

Any circuit needs power to operate. This required power can be obtained by using a
transformer, rectifier and regulators. Circuits needs 5V to 12V DC supply. The Power Supply
is a Primary requirement for the project work. The required DC power supply for the base
unit as well as for the recharging unit is derived from the mains line. For this purpose centre
tapped secondary of 12V-012V transformer is used. From this transformer we getting 5V
power supply. In this +5V output is a regulated output and it is designed using 7805 positive
voltage regulator. This is a 3 Pin voltage regulator; can deliver current up to 800 milliamps.
Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current or voltage into a unidirectional
one. This component used for rectification is called ‘Rectifier’. A rectifier permits current to
flow only during positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage. Thus, pulsating DC is
obtained for a smooth DC power.

Block Diagram

36
Block Diagram of power supply

Circuit of power supply:

+12v
1N 4007 X2

230v/12v-0-12v 2200uF/25v
500mATransformer

100uF/25v

Fig 3.2.7 power supply circuit

Diodes are used as rectifiers. There are various types of diodes. A semiconductor diode is a
solid-state device consisting of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other
an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor diode can flow in one
direction only-form emitter to collector-the diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary
for rectification. The rectified Output is filtered for smoothening the DC, for this purpose
capacitor is used in the filter circuit. These filter capacitors are usually connected in parallel
with the rectifier output and the load. The AC can pass through a capacitor but DC cannot, the
ripples are thus limited and the output becomes smoothed. When the voltage across the
capacitor plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back into voltage and current. Thus, the
fluctuation in the output voltage is reduced considerable

3.2.4Transformer:
The centre-tapped transformer is preferred to the full bridge rectifier when the output DC
current is high and the output voltage is low.

37
 Fig 11b

3.2.5 Rectifying circuit:

The best is using a full wave rectifier

 Its advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.

 Higher Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF).
 1N4007 diodes are used as it is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage of
1000v whereas 1N4001 is 50V

Fig 3.2.9 rectifier circuit

Rectifying Circuit

Calculating Load Voltage and Currents Using the ideal diode model, the peak load voltage for
the full wave rectifier is Vm. The full wave rectifier produces twice as many output pulses as
the half wave rectifier. This is the same as saying that the full wave rectifier has twice the
output frequency of a half wave rectifier. For this reason, the average load voltage (i.e. DC
output voltage) is found follows as
Vave = 2Vm / Φ
Peak Inverse Voltage

38
When one of the diodes in a full-wave rectifier is reverse biased, the peak voltage across that
diode will be approximately equal to Vm. This point is illustrated in figure 11. With the
polarities shown, D1 is conducting and D2 is reverse biased. Thus, the cathode of D1 will be
at Vm. Since this point is connected directly to the cathode of D2, its cathode will also be
Vm. With –Vm applied to the anode of D2, the total voltage across the diode D2 is 2Vm.
Therefore, the maximum reverse voltage across either diode will be twice the peak load
voltage.
PIV  2Vm

3.2.6Voltage Regulator
A regulated power supply is very much essential for several electronic devices due to the
semiconductor material employed in them have a fixed rate of current as well as voltage. The
device may be damaged if there is any deviation from the fixed rate. The AC power supply is
converted into a constant DC by this circuit. Help of a voltage regulator DC will fix
unregulated output fixed to a constant voltage.
Voltage regulator circuit is made up of linear voltage regulator 7805 along with capacitors
and resistors with bridge rectifier made up from diodes. From giving an unchanging voltage
supply to building confident that output reaches uninterrupted to the appliance, the diodes
along with capacitors handle elevated efficient signal conveyed. The regulated power supply
is a device that mechanized on DC voltages and it can uphold its output accurately at a fixed
voltage all the time although if there is a significant alteration in the DC input voltage. ICs
are mainly used in the circuit to maintain the exact voltage, which is followed by the power
supply. A regulator is mainly employed with a capacitor connected in parallel to an input
terminal and an output terminal of an IC regulator. For the checking of gigantic alterations in
the input as well as in the output filter, capacitors are used. While the bypass capacitors are
used to check the small period spikes on the input and output level. Bypass capacitors are
mainly of small values that are used to bypass the small period pulses straight into the
Earth.As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.
7805 IC Rating:

 Input voltage range 7V- 35V

 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range VMax = 5.2V ,VMin = 4.8V

39
Figure 3.3 LM7805 – Pin Diagram

Capacitors:

Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of capacitors. It is given
by;

 Y=1/(4√3fRC) (as the capacitor filter is used)

F = frequency of AC (50 Hz)

R = resistance calculated

R = V/Ic

V = secondary voltage of transformer

 V = 6√2 = 8. 4
 R = 8.45/500Ma = 16.9Ω standard 18Ω chosen

C = filtering capacitance

40
We have to determine this capacitance for filtering;

Y = Vac-rms/Vdc

Vac-rms = Vr/2√3

Vdc = VMax - (Vr/2)

Vr = VMax - VMin

 Vr = 5.2 - 4.8 = 0. 4V
 Vac-rms = .3464V
 Vdc = 5V
 Y = 0 .06928

Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y = 1/
(4√3fRC).Thus,

C = 2314 µF and standard 2200µF is chosen.

Datasheet of 7805 prescribes to use a 0.01μF capacitor at the output side to

avoid transient changes in the voltages due to changes in load and a 0.33μF at the input side
of regulator to avoid ripples if the filtering is far away from regulator.

Figure 3.3.1:Filtering Circuit

Sensing Unit

Potentiometer && Current Sensor;

V0 = VI (R1/ (R1+R2))
For the design of 10kΩ;

41
V0 = VI (R1/ (R1+R2))
R1 = 10kΩ; from the data sheet,
R2 = 10kΩ;
V0 = 5 (10000/ (10000+10000)) = 5/2 =2.5v
For the design of 50kΩ;
V0 = 5(10000/ (10000+50000)) = 5/6 = .8333v

For LED’S design,

Arduino I/O ports output approximately =15mA to 20mA hence according to Ohms law,
V = IR
VARDUINO = 5V,
R = V/I
=5/15
=330Ω
PULL down resistor LM35 & LDR
V = IR;
I = V/R,
For the design of 10kΩ;
V = 5V and therefore I = (5/10000)
=.5mA;
For the design of 50kΩ;
= (5/50,000)
=.0001A
=0.1mA
For the design of 5kΩ,
I = (5/5000) =1mA
Out of my design, I realized that having 10kΩ pull up resistor, which maintained a gain of
0.5mA in resetting the microcontroller was efficient, compared to 5kΩ and 50kΩ
respectively.

42
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.3.2 circuit diagram

The circuit has several parts.

1. Mains-input of the 240 mains power supply.
2. Ac-dc conversion circuit.
3. Sensors
4. Controller
5. Display devices

43
The circuit uses the current sensor to detect any fault on the lines of supply and utilizes the
display unit to indicate the kind of faults.

3.2.1 Design overview or summary

Since the circuit design information and specification was reached, function and operation of
components, the circuit design can be implemented by simulation and testing on a breadboard.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION
3.3.1 Procurement of components

All Component’s available on my list were obtained locally from an online shop in
Nairobi by the name NEROKAS engineering solution. Prices were fair enough plus
the consideration of transport to Mombasa. They took shortest time possible to
deliver my order

Table 0.1 Components obtained for circuit construction

Components
LCD diplay 1
current sensor 1
Atmega328p 1
Resistors 6
Crystal oscillator 1
Capacitors 3
LEDs 6
Soldering Wire 1m
Insulation tape 1
Strip board 1
Arduino board 1

44
3.3.2Simulation testing stage
The project will be simulated with a proteus software as softwaresare very expensive at this
level.Simulation can be adjusted, monitored and controlled. Once an overvoltage occursto a
surpassed threshold or the set point or desired value the indicators would go ON indicating
that the final control element has been actuated by the actuators to define the fault phase line.
L1
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT
LCD1(VDD) LCD1
MAIN SCREEN

R1
330R

RV1 ARD1

VDD
VEE
VSS

RW
RS

D7
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
E
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

11
10

12
13
14
84%

ON
Reset BTN

FAULT

www.TheEngineeringProjects.com
1k
+88.8 AREF
D1 Volts PB5/SCK
13
LED-GREEN 12
PB4/MISO
RESET 11
~ PB3/MOSI/OC2A
10
~ PB2/OC1B
9
~ PB1/OC1A
PENCIRCUIT FAULT L2 8
PB0/ICP1/CLKO
GND GND
1121
ATMEGA328P-PU

7
ANALOG IN

PD7/AIN1
6
A0 ~ PD7/AIN1
5
PC0/ADC0
R2 A1
PC1/ADC1
PD5/T1/OC0B
~
4 OK SYSTEM
330R A2 PD4/T0/XCK
3
PC2/ADC2
A3 PC3/ADC3
~ PD3/INT1/OC2B
2
A4 PD2/INT0
PC4/ADC4/SDA PD1/TXD 1
B1 A5 PC5/ADC5/SCL PD0/RXD 0
5V

ARDUINO UNO

RV2
+88.8
B2 Volts
50%

5V D2
LED-GREEN

1k

GND
SERIAL SCREEN
RV3
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT L3 RXD
R3 VT52, VT100, ANSI
330R TXD
61%

RTS
+88.8
Xmodem, Ymodem, Zmodem
Volts CTS
1k

D3
LED-GREEN
GND

Figure 3.3.4.proteous circuit

3.3.3Breadboard testing stage

In this stage, all components were tested on a breadboard before attached on PCB. A
breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit design. The
breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be
inserted. The holes are most commonly spaced 0.1“apart to accommodate standard DIP
components. A typical breadboard that includes a top and bottom power distribution rails is as
shown below

45
 Figure 3.3.9

3.3.4 Soldering - strip board stage

The PCB was a single sided copper board which was etched. The soldering of components
was done using a soldering gun, solder wire and solder sucker. A drill was used to drill on the

PCB

46
3.3.5 Housing
The interphase or the block diagram is to connect the hardware which in this case are the field
devises like the sensors and the switching devices and final control element in this case are, ,
LEDs and LCDS. It uses virtual instruments on its screen to show how they vary with varying
fluctuating voltage from the voltage sensors

47
3.4 TESTING
3.4.1Introduction
Simulation testing has worked well on most faults. Testing a line to line fault was not
possible. Due to lab precautions, line to line and the three phase shorting will not be tested
but only the open circuit, under or over voltage or line to ground will be tested.
With a health system, where voltage on all the lines are at the required point, the lcd indicates
each line status. At the same time, the indicating red LED will remain off while the blue LED
will remain of as seen after running the system program
3.4.2 Identifying functional tests to be done
The simulation function effectively as expected.
L1
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT
LCD1(VDD) LCD1
MAIN SCREEN

R1
330R

RV1 ARD1

VDD
VEE
VSS

RW

D7
RS

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
E
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

11
10

12
13
14
84%

ON
Reset BTN

www.TheEngineeringProjects.com FAULT
1k
+4.20 AREF
D1 Volts PB5/SCK
13
LED-GREEN 12
PB4/MISO
RESET 11
~ PB3/MOSI/OC2A
10
~ PB2/OC1B
9
~ PB1/OC1A
8
PENCIRCUIT FAULT L2 PB0/ICP1/CLKO
GND GND
1121
ATMEGA328P-PU

7
ANALOG IN

PD7/AIN1
6
A0 ~ PD7/AIN1
5
PC0/ADC0
R2 A1
PC1/ADC1
~ PD5/T1/OC0B
4 OK SYSTEM
330R A2 PD4/T0/XCK
3
PC2/ADC2
A3 PC3/ADC3
~ PD3/INT1/OC2B
2
A4 PD2/INT0
PC4/ADC4/SDA PD1/TXD 1
B1 A5 PC5/ADC5/SCL PD0/RXD 0
5V

ARDUINO UNO

RV2
+2.50
B2 Volts
D2
50%

5V
LED-GREEN

1k

GND
SERIAL SCREEN
RV3
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT L3 RXD
R3 VT52, VT100, ANSI
330R TXD
61%

RTS
+3.05
Xmodem, Ymodem, Zmodem
Volts CTS
1k

D3
LED-GREEN
GND

Figure 3.3.5. System ok simulation

.
When an open circuit occurs, the fault LED blinks and the lcd indicates the open line which
can be as a result of falling trees, insulation puncture or lightining. The blue LED blinks but
goes off if all the lines are open.

48
 L1
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT
LCD1(VDD) LCD1
MAIN SCREEN

R1
330R

RV1 ARD1

VDD
VEE
VSS

RW

D7
RS

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
E
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

11
10

12
13
14
84%

ON
Reset BTN
FAULT

www.TheEngineeringProjects.com
1k
0.00 AREF
D1 Volts 13
LED-GREEN PB5/SCK
PB4/MISO
12
RESET 11
~ PB3/MOSI/OC2A
10
~ PB2/OC1B
~ PB1/OC1A
9
PENCIRCUIT FAULT L2 PB0/ICP1/CLKO
8
GND GND

1121
7

ATMEGA328P-PU
ANALOG IN
PD7/AIN1
6
A0 ~ PD7/AIN1
5
PC0/ADC0
R2 A1
PC1/ADC1
~ PD5/T1/OC0B
4 OK SYSTEM
330R A2 PD4/T0/XCK
3
PC2/ADC2
A3 PC3/ADC3
~ PD3/INT1/OC2B
2
A4 PD2/INT0
PC4/ADC4/SDA PD1/TXD 1
B1 A5 PC5/ADC5/SCL PD0/RXD 0
5V

ARDUINO UNO

RV2

+2.50
B2 Volts
50%

5V D2
LED-GREEN

1k

GND
SERIAL SCREEN
RV3
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT L3 RXD
R3 VT52, VT100, ANSI

330R TXD
61%

RTS
0.00
Xmodem, Ymodem, Zmodem
Volts CTS
1k

D3
LED-GREEN
GND

Figure 3.3.6 faults

When the potentiometers are varied each at a time, the system is able to indicate an under
voltage on over voltage and correction is undertaken by the standby personnel to correct the
lines deviation. Since a fault has been detected, the red LED goes on indicating presence of a
fault.

L1
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT
LCD1(VDD) LCD1
MAIN SCREEN

R1
330R

RV1 ARD1
VDD
VEE
VSS

RW

D7
RS

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
E
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

11
10

12
13
14
18%

ON
Reset BTN

FAULT
www.TheEngineeringProjects.com

1k
+0.90 AREF
D1 Volts 13
LED-GREEN PB5/SCK
PB4/MISO
12
RESET 11
~ PB3/MOSI/OC2A
10
~ PB2/OC1B
~ PB1/OC1A
9
PENCIRCUIT FAULT L2 PB0/ICP1/CLKO
8
GND GND
1121

7
ATMEGA328P-PU
ANALOG IN

PD7/AIN1
6
A0 ~ PD7/AIN1
5
PC0/ADC0
R2 A1
PC1/ADC1
~ PD5/T1/OC0B
4 OK SYSTEM
330R A2 PD4/T0/XCK
3
PC2/ADC2
A3 ~ PD3/INT1/OC2B
PC3/ADC3 2
A4 PD2/INT0
PC4/ADC4/SDA 1
B1 A5 PC5/ADC5/SCL
PD1/TXD
PD0/RXD 0
5V

ARDUINO UNO

RV2
+4.70
B2 Volts
94%

5V D2
LED-GREEN

1k

GND
SERIAL SCREEN
RV3
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT L3 RXD
R3 VT52, VT100, ANSI

330R TXD
61%

RTS
+3.05
Xmodem, Ymodem, Zmodem
Volts CTS
1k

D3
LED-GREEN
GND

Figure 3.3.7 under and overvoltage

49
If a short circuit between lines to ground (L-G) double line to ground (LL-G) or if all the lines
fails, the fault is detected and indicated according to the kind of fault.

L1

OPENCIRCUIT FAULT
LCD1(VDD) LCD1
MAIN SCREEN

R1
330R

RV1 ARD1

VDD
VEE
VSS

RW
RS

D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
E
1
2
3

4
5
6

7
8
9

11
10

12
13
14
69%

ON
Reset BTN
FAULT

www.TheEngineeringProjects.com
1k
+3.45 AREF
D1 Volts 13
LED-GREEN PB5/SCK
12
PB4/MISO
RESET 11
~ PB3/MOSI/OC2A
10
~ PB2/OC1B
~ PB1/OC1A 9
PENCIRCUIT FAULT L2 PB0/ICP1/CLKO
8
GND GND

ATMEGA328P-PU
1121
7

ANALOG IN
PD7/AIN1
6
A0 ~ PD7/AIN1
PC0/ADC0 5
R2 A1
PC1/ADC1
~ PD5/T1/OC0B
4 OK SYSTEM
A2 PD4/T0/XCK
330R PC2/ADC2 3
A3 ~ PD3/INT1/OC2B
PC3/ADC3 PD2/INT0 2
A4
PC4/ADC4/SDA PD1/TXD 1
B1 A5
PC5/ADC5/SCL PD0/RXD 0
5V

ARDUINO UNO

RV2
+2.65
B2 Volts
53%

5V D2
LED-GREEN

1k

GND
SERIAL SCREEN
RV3
OPENCIRCUIT FAULT L3 RXD
R3 VT52, VT100, ANSI
330R TXD
61%

RTS
+3.05
Xmodem, Ymodem, Zmodem
Volts CTS
1k

D3
LED-GREEN
GND

3.4.3Functional test measurements and results obtained

The unit will give results varying depending on the type of fault

Figure 3.3.8

50
3.5 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

3.5.1Challenges encountered during design and implementation the project

.The project simulation had a lot of problems due to the fact that some of the components
were not found within the tool box of the PROTEOUS software.The double line to ground
simimulation coud not be archived due most of the components were not active in its tool
box. Finding software for simulation was not easy as I had to download it from the internet
where by during simulation, sometimes not responding, or fails to work as per the command
of the c program.

3.5.2Recommendation
The faculty of engineering and technology together with the university management should
find to solve these software problems to ease simulation.
Looking at the project, improvements can be implemented to ensure that the system is able to
command signals for isolation of faulty lines. It is clear that the system can be used from
transmission lines, equipment protection and also for domestic use. Therefore, it can be a
universal system.

51
3.5.3Conclusion.
The design part of the project is fully completed and implemented. The project progress and
the time management schedule are well managed and are up to date.
The electric utilities companies are expected to provide consumers with a continuous and
high quality service at a competitive and reasonable cost. This means that they have to insure
the reliability of the system to provide consumers with a service what is consistent with the
safety personnel and equipment, and meet their demands within specified voltage and
frequency.
Faults in the transmission lines are one of the elements that the reliability of the system is
affected by. The more faults that take place, the less reliable the system is, since they could
cause outages in the power system, which may result in an interruption of the service.
Therefore, when designing the power transmission systems, electric companies are expected
to follow the set of standard specifications. keeping in mind that the further away
transmission lines are from natural elements, such as trees, the less faults occurrences will be
and the more reliable the power system will be.
The loss of energy through faults is costly both to the energy companies and the consumers.
Proper protection of transmission systems, and also the protection of the equipment by
implementing reliable electronic systems that can display the type of fault in all substations
for easy troubleshooting and maintenance.
Power companies in this country can be encouraged to employ trained personnel to handle
outages of the lines. Unskilled employees will increase production cost as they can result to
delays or cause more problems and the cost be reflected to consumer, but skilled and trained
expertise will minimise faults and reduce cost of production hence consumption cost will go
down. This can only be archived by absorbing graduates who has the passion of developing
modules such as this of one of fault detection and indication unit.

52
REFERENCES

Layane Abboud; Andrea Cozza; Lionel Pichon, “Utilization of Matched Pulses to

Improve Fault Detection in Wire Networks,” Department de Recherche en
Electromagnetisme, 2009.

[3] M. Sperandio; G. Lopes, “Fault Location in Distribution Networks by Combining

Studies of the Network and Remote Monitoring of Protection Devices,” 46th
International Universities Power Engineering Conference,5-8th September 2011.

[4] Masaaki Kando, “Fault Detection Method with Antennas,” Proceedings of the 5th
International Conference on Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials, May
25-30,1997.

[5] H. Geisler; R.A. Guinee, “A Novel Correlation Tester for Multicore Power Cable
Fault Finding and Identification using Pseudonoise Sequences,” IEEE, 2009.

[6] Time Domain Reflectometry Theory Application Note 1304-2, Agilient Technologies,
Aug. 2002, www.agilient.com.

[7] S.J. Lee, et al. “An intelligent and efficient fault location and diagnosis scheme for
radial distribution systems.” IEEE Transactions on Powe Delivery, v. 19, n.2, pp.524-
532, 2004.

53