7

Chap. 3: Spectrum Representation

• Spectrum : A graphical representation of the frequency content of a signal.

• We will show that

∑
N
x(t) = A0 + Ak cos(2πfk t + ϕk )
k=1
∑
N
= X0 + Re{ Xk · ej2πfk t }, where Xk = Ak · ejϕk
k=1
⇒ (Complicated sinusoidal waveforms can be constructed with a sum of
sinusoidal signals.)
• We will construct the spectrum of x(t)

3.1 Spectrum of sinusoidal signals

• A continuous signal:
∑
N
x(t) = A0 + Ak cos(2πfk t + ϕk )
k=1
∑N
Ak jϕk j2πfk t Ak −jϕk −j2πfk t
= A0 + { e ·e + e ·e }
k=1
2 2
∑N
1 1
, X0 + { Xk · ej2πfk t + Xk∗ · e−j2πfk t }
k=1
2 2

where Xk = Ak · ejϕk

• Set of frequency components :

1 1 1 1
{(fk , Xk )} = {(0, X0 ), (f1 , X1 ), (−f1 , X1∗ ), (f2 , X2 ), (−f2 , X2∗ ),
2 2 2 2
1 1 ∗
. . . , ( XN , fN ), ( XN , −fN )}
2 2
 8

• Spectrum : Plot of {(Xk , fk )}

Fig. 1. Plot of Spectrum {(Xk , fk )}

• Exercise: x(t) = 10 + 14 cos(200πt − π/3) + 8 cos(500πt + π/2)

 9

• Example : Brain Signals

Fig. 2. Brain signals

Fig. 3. Spectrums of brain signals

⇒ It is much easier to analyze brain signals with spectrum.

 10

3.2 Spectrums of multiplicative signals

• Many signals are created by multiplications of sinusoid signals.

- Audio effect such as combat sounds
- Music sounds
- Amplitude modulation
• Multiplication of sinusoids
- Multiplication of sinusoids can be decomposed into sums of sinusoids.

Ex: x(t) = sin(10πt) · cos(πt)

1 j10πt 1 1
= {e − e−j10πt } · {ejπt + e−jπt } = {ej11πt + e−j9πt − ej9πt − e−j11πt }
2j 2 4j
1 1
= {(ej11πt − e−j11πt ) + (ej9πt − e−j9πt )} = {2j · sin(11πt) + 2j sin(9πt)}
4j 4j
( )
1 1 1 π 1 π
= sin(11πt) + sin(9πt) = cos(11πt − ) + cos(9πt − )
2 2 2 2 2 2

• Spectrum of Beat signals

x(t) = cos(2πf1 t) + cos(2πf2 t) = Re{ej2πf1 t } + Re{ej2πf2 t } (f1 < f2 )

= Re{ej2πf1 t + ej2πf2 t } = Re{ej2π(fc −f△ )t + ej2π(fc +f△ )t }

1 1
where fc = (f1 + f2 ) : center freq., f△ = (f2 − f1 ) : deviation freq.
2 2
= Re{ej2πfc t · (e−j2πf△ t + ej2πf△ t )}

= Re{ej2πfc t · 2 cos(2πf△ t)}

= 2 cos(2πf△ t) · cos(2πfc t)

Fig. 4. Spectrum of beat signal

 11

• Waveforms of a Beat signal

Ex) x(t) = 2 cos(2π · (20)t) · cos(2π · (200)t)
⇒ fc = 200 Hz, f△ = 20 Hz
⇒ f1 = 180 Hz, f2 = 220 Hz

Fig. 5. Analysis of Beat Signal

• Amplitude modulation
x(t) = v(t) · cos(2πfc t)
|{z} | {z }
signal to be transmitted carrier signal

Ex) x(t) = (5 + 2 cos(40πt)) · cos(400πt)

Fig. 6. Spectrum of amplitude modulated signal

 12

3.3 Periodic Waveforms

• Periodic signals
∑
N
x(t) = A0 + Ak cos(2π · k · f0 t + ϕk ), f0 : Fundamental freq.
k=1
⇒ A periodic signal whose period is To (= 1/fo ) can be represented by the
sum of sinusoids whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental freq.
f0 .
• Spectrum of periodic signals
∑
N
x(t) = A0 + Ak cos(2πk · f0 · t + ϕk )
k=1
∑N
= X0 + Re{ Xk · ej2πkf0 t }
k=1

where X0 = A0 , Xk = Ak ejϕk = |Xk |ej ∠Xk

Fig. 7. Spectrum of a periodic signal.

⇒ Spectrum of a periodic signal has signal components at only k · fo (k =

0, ±1, ±2, . . . ), i.e., only the integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
 13

• Ex: Normal Brain signal

Fig. 8. Spectrum of brain signal and signals as adding frequency components

 14

• Ex : Determine the fundamental freq. of the following spectrum.

13 ′ 7 ′ f′ f′
{f ′ , f , f } = {20, 26, 35} · ⇒ f0 =
10 4 20 20

• Ex : The following signal is NOT periodic (although it seems to be periodic).

√ √
x(t) = 2 cos(20πt) = 23 cos(20π 8t) + 25 cos(20π 27t)
15
 16

3.4 Fourier Series (Spectrum of continuous periodic signals)

• Any periodic signal even with finite discontinuities can be represented by a

linear weighted sum of sinusoids of which frequencies are integer multiples
of fundamental frequency.
∞
∑
x(t) = x(t + mTo ) = Ao + Ak cos(2πkf0 t + ϕk )
k=1
∞
∑
= X0 + Re{ Xk ej2πkf0 t }, where To = 1/fo .
k=1

• Fourier Series : A way to obtain Xk for x(t) = x(t + mTo ).

∑N
1
x(t) = X0 + Re{ Xk ej2πfo t }, f0 =
k=1
T0
 ∫ T0

 2 −j2πkf0 t


 T0 0 x(t)e dt : k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Xk = ∫ T



 1
 x(t)dt :k=0
T0 0

∞
∑ ∫
1
* If we de denote x(t) = Xk e j2πkf0 t
, Xk = x(t)e−j2πkt/T0 dt.
k=−∞
T0 <T0 >
 17

• Derivation of F.S
∫
jm T2π t jl T2π t
ejn T0 t · e−jl T0 t dt
2π 2π
<e 0 ·e 0 >=
<T0 >
 0 : m ̸= l
= = T0 · δml
T :m=l
0

∫
jk T2π t
x(t) · e−jk T0 t dt
2π
< x(t) · e 0 >=
∫<T0 >∑
Xl ejl T0 t ) · e−jk T0 dt
2π 2π
= (
<T0 l
∞
∑ ∫
ejl T0 t · e−jk T0 dt
2π 2π
= Xl
l=−∞ <T0 >

∑∞
= Xl · T0 · δlk
l=−∞

 T ·X :l =k
0 l
=
0 : l ̸= k
∫
1
x(t)e−jk T0 t
2π
⇒ Xk =
T0 <T0 >
 18

• Ex : Square wave :


1 : 0 ≤ t < T20
x(t) =
 −1 : T0 ≤ t < T
2 0

∫ T0 /2 ∫ T0
2 2
- FS Coefficient : Xk = e−j2πkt/T0 dt + (−1)e−j2πkt/T0 dt
T0 0 T0 T0 /2

T0
2 e−j2πk( 2 )/T0 − e−j2πk(0)/T0
= { }+
T0 −j2πk/T0
T0
(−2) e−j2πk(T0 )/T0 − e−j2πk( 2 )/T0
{ }
T0 −j2πk/T0

e−jπk − 1 e−jπk − e−j2πk 2 − 2e=jπk

= + =
−jπk −jπk jπk


jπk : k = ±1, ±3, ±5, . . .
4
2{1 − (−1)k }
= =
jπk 0 : k = 0, ±2, ±4, ±6, . . .
 19

- Spectrum for square wave

- Summing harmonic sinusoids

 20

3.5 Fourier Transform

• Spectrum for continuous Non-periodic signal x(t) ̸= x(t + T0 ) .

∫ ∞
Fourier Tr. : X(ω) = x(t)e−jωt dt, ω = 2πf
−∞

↕ F.T
∫ ∞
1
Inverse Fourier Tr. : x(t) = X(ω)ejωt dω
2π −∞

 1 : |t| ≤ T
1
• Ex : Rectangular wave : x(t) =
 0 : |t| ≥ T
1

∫ ∞ ∫ T1
−jωt
Fourier. Tr. : X(ω) = x(t)e dt = e−jωt dt
−∞ −T1

sin(ωT1 )
=2 , 2T1 sinc(ωT1 )
ω

Fig. 9. Spectrum of rectangular wave.

−at
• Ex : Exponential wave : x(t) = e u(t), a>0
 21

• Ex : Spectrum of square wave

• Observation
- Spectrum by Fourier series is discrete on freq. domain
- Spectrum by Fourier Transform is continuous on freq. domain
⇒ Discrete spectrum on freq. domain ↔ Periodic on time domain
⇒ Continuous spectrum on freq. domain ↔ Non-Periodic on time domain

- Fourer Series Xk is the discrete version of Fourier Transform X(ω)

1
⇒ Xk = X(ω)|ω=kω0 =k T2π
T0 0
22
23