Design of a Packed Bed Thermal

Storage Unit for a Solar System

B.T. Kulakowski
F. W. Schmidt
Mechanical Engineering Department,
The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pa. 16802
A method for the design and sizing of a packed bed thermal storage unit for a hot
air solar heating system is presented. A controlled bypass of the heat storage unit
during the retrieval process is used in order to maintain the fluid temperature
leaving the system at a constant value. The use of a bypass arrangement with a
closed air circulation loop for the collector enables the storage unit to operate at a
higher mean temperature and the system to utilize the maximum allowable pressure
drop. This results in a greater heat storage per unit volume of storage material. The
complete solar system is simulated numerically during both the heating and retrieval
modes of operation to obtain a set of design charts for sizing the thermal storage
unit. In the simulation, consideration is given to geographical location, composition
of the storage bed and the maximum allowable pressure drop across the bed. A set
of design curves for State College, Pennsylvania, is presented.

Introduction
There is great interest at the present time in the utilization
of solar energy for the heating of private residences and
commercial buildings. An integral part of these solar systems
is the storage device which receives the heat from the collector
during the energy collection portion of the cycle and
discharges the heat to the building environment during the
retrieval process. This paper deals with the design of a packed
bed unit for a hot air solar collector system.
The design and sizing of a storage unit for solar systems is a
very complicated process since it requires that all the system
components: collector, storage unit, and auxiliary equipment,
be taken into consideration. The daily variation in the solar
energy incidented on the collector and the daily heat load must
be adequately represented. Since these latter two items vary in
an irregular fashion from day to day, a statistical approach to
reflect all possible combinations is desired. One of the
methods commonly used in the design of solar systems is the
f-chart method described by Beckman et al. [1]. A somewhat
simpler approach has been proposed by Kreider and Kreith
[2].
A number of different factors were taken into con-
sideration in developing the design recommendations
associated with these two methods and many simplifying
assumptions were necessary. A very simple mathematical
model was used for the storage bed in the generation of the f-
charts. Beckman et al. [1] made the following general
recommendations relative to the design of storage units for air
heating systems:
9
Collector air flowrate: 0.005-0.02 m 3 / s / m 2 (1-4
cfm/ft 2 ) of collector surface
s
Storage capacity: 0.152-0.457 mVm 2 (0.5-1.5 ft 3 /ft 2 ) of
collector surface
Contributed by the Solar Energy Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
SOLAR ENERGY ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the Solar Energy Division
March 30, 1981.
9
Pebble size: 1.27-3.8 cm (0.5 to 1.5 in.) in diameter
» Pressure drop in bed: 0.25-0.76 cm (0.1 to 0.3 in.) of
water
The following quantities associated with the storage unit were
used in the development of f-charts for an air heating system:
» Collector air flowrate: 0.01 m 3 / s / m 2 (2 cfm/ft 2 ) of
collector surface
« Bed volume: 0.25 m V m 2 (0.825 ftVft 2 ) of collector
surface
Correction factors are used to modify the f-charts when the
flow rate is different than 0.01 m 3 / s / m 2 (2 cfm/ft 2 ) and the
bed volume differs from 0.25 m V m 2 (0.825 ftVft 2 ).
Several reports on the design of storage systems for solar
units have been prepared under the sponsorship of the
Department of Energy [3, 4]. In the Argonne report [3] it is
recommended that one of the available calculation methods,
f-charts or the Kreider-Kreith method, be used to determine
the size of the collector. The volume of the storage unit is
assumed to be directly proportional to the collector area as
previously noted. The sizing of the storage unit, its frontal
area and length, is based entirely on pressure drop con-
siderations or on storage unit length limitations imposed by
the placement of the unit in the structure.
Balcomb [4] bases his design of the storage unit on the
pressure drop and heat-transfer characteristics of packed beds
obtained by Dunkle and Ellul [5]. These characteristics were
obtained for a symmetric regenerator operating with uniform
inlet temperatures. The design chart was constructed so that
the storage unit retained 95 percent of the available energy.
Recently, accurate methods for the prediction of the
performance of storage units have been presented by Schmidt
and Wilmott [6]. These methods have the capabilities of
predicting the performance of the unit while it is subjected to
time-wise variations in inlet fluid temperature and flowrate.
The model of the heat storage unit proposed by Hughes et al.

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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram ot solar system
[7] considers the mass flow rate through the storage unit and
the convective film coefficient to be constant. When bypass is
used these quantities are not constant.
The purpose of this paper is to present a method for the
design of the packed rock beds used for thermal energy
storage in a simple solar collection system which takes into
account the thermal response characteristics of the complete
system. In the formulation of the design procedure, emphasis
was placed on developing a simple, yet accurate, method
which can easily be used by contractors, heating and ven-
tilation engineers, and consulting engineers.
Design Considerations
After careful consideration it was decided that the bypass
arrangement shown in Fig. 1 should be used during the heat
retrieval process. In this system a portion of the cool fluid
stream passes through the energy storage unit while the
remainder of the stream bypasses the unit. The two streams
are combined before the fluid is sent to satisfy the heating
load.
In a counterflow thermal storage unit without bypass, the
initial temperature of the fluid leaving the unit will be ap-
proximately equal to the maximum temperature of the air
leaving the collector at the end of the heat storage period. As
the retrieval process continues the temperature of the fluid
leaving the storage unit will decrease. The difference between
the fluid temperature at the beginning and the end of the
retrieval process is frequently referred to as the ' 'temperature
swing" of the unit. If the storage device is oversized, low heat
storage per unit volume of storage material, the "temperature
swing" will be reduced.
The bypass arrangement provides a mechanism by which
the amplitude of the "temperature swing" of the combined
fluid streams can be controlled during the entire energy
retrieval process. The energy can thus be stored at a higher
average temperature since the large "temperature swings" at
the regenerator outlet will be modulated by the bypass stream
The higher mean temperature storage results in better
utilization of the storage material, higher energy storage/unit
volume. A closed system may be used during the energy
storage period to insure that the maximum amount of
collected energy is stored. The complete system is shown in
Fig. 1. Increased insulation of the ducting, collector, and the
storage unit is needed to minimize the heat lost to the
surroundings due to the higher operating temperature of the
system.
There are many instances where a very small "temperature
swing" is desirable. For residental or commercial heating
systems the temperature of the air supplied can be maintained
at a selected value during the complete retrieval process,
minimizing any discomforts which might result from a large
"temperature swing." Cyclic losses which result from the
rapid heating up of the duct work to a high temperature and
the subsequent loss of some of this energy to the surroundings
are reduced. Although this paper concentrates on residential
and commercial heating applications, the design techniques to
be presented are applicable to other applications such as crop
drying which requires a constant hot air temperature stream.
Thermal Model of a Solar System
The design procedure developed in this paper is based on
the results obtained from the computer simulation of the solar
system shown in Fig. 1. The system is composed of a
collector, a reversible fan, a bypass air controller for the
retrieval process and the packed rock bed storage unit. Each
component of the system will now be described in detail.
Collector. The path taken by the air flowing through the
collector and storage unit during the storage process is shown
by the solid line in Fig. 1. Note that it is a closed loop and thus
the temperature of the air leaving the collector is dependent on
the incidented solar radiation and the temperature of the air
leaving the storage unit.
The solar collector was modeled using the well-known
Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation for the rate of useful energy
flow from the collector [8]
m c
ff l - e x p ( - L^^)][S(
m c
Ta)-UL(Tp-T(l)} (1)
V jj '*
The following parameters were used:
loss coefficient, UL =4.0W/m 2 (1.269 Btu/ft 2 hr)
efficiency factor, F' = 0.8
solar transmittance absorptance product, ra = 0.85
air flow rate through collector, 0.01 m / 3 / s / m 2 (2 cfm/ft2) of
collector surface
orientation, south
tilt angle, latitude + 15 deg

Ac = collector surface area

A
f = bed frontal area
c = specific heat
d = rock diameter Qc = rate of energy flow from the e = porosity
F' = collector efficiency factor collector /* = absolute viscosity
G = mass velocity S(ra) = insolation on a tilted surface P = density
g = conversion factor T = temperature T = time
K = volumetric heat transfer Ta = ambient temperature
coefficient Subscripts
L = bed length
uVL == collector loss coefficient
air flow rate per m 2 of / = fluid (air)
m = mass collector surface area / = inlet
m = flow rate X = space variable in the m = storage material
AP = pressure drop direction of the flow of air 0 = outlet

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 Insolation. Many factors were considered in the selection of
the method for determining the total insolation. The
simulation of the system shown in Fig. 1 required that hourly
solar data be used. One possible method was that described by
I
Kreith and Kreider [9]. In the use of this method for the
present simulation, two uncertainties were identified. One
involves the accurate determination of the hourly percent of 0£
possible insolation, kt. The other is concerned with correc-
tions for cloud cover and air mass. It was decided that the use
of this method for the determination of the total collector
insolation, although of reasonable accuracy if the above
noted uncertainties were cleared up, should be postponed to a
future study. Modification of the program to incorporate this
method or one of the newer methods being developed can be
easily accommodated.
The method selected for the estimation of the total collector
insolation, while having certain inaccuracies, was simple and
thought to give reasonable data. It was based upon the hourly
data given in the 1977 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook 1r
for a clear day. The hourly insolation is a function of the
month, geographical location, and the tilt angle of the
collector. For each month the monthly total collector in-
solation per day was calculated using the procedure described
in Kreider and Kreith [2]. The ratio of the average monthly §
insolation per day to the total insolation for a clear day ob-
tained using the ASHRAE data was found. The hourly clear
day radiation was then corrected by multiplying it by the
FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, kg/rn's
previously calculated ratio.
Fig. 2 Daily energy retrieval, State College, Pa.

Packed Bed Storage Unit. The air flows through the packed
bed during the retrieval process in a counterflow manner. The
performance of the packed bed of rocks was described by the 1
following equations:
™Jcf dTf = T,„ - 77
(2)
Afhu dx §
<*
m,„c„, dT„, T
-Tf-Tm (3)
AfLhv dr S
The thermal conductivity of the bed in the direction of flow
was considered to be zero while that in the direction per-
pendicular to the flow was considered to be infinite. The
amount of air flowing through the bed varied, depending on
the amount bypassed.
The heat-transfer coefficient, h„, which is a function of the -J

flow rate through the bed, was calculated using the S

Uj
correlation of Dunkle and Ellul [5].
h„dA f
= 2.4Re" (4) •O
c,m
/"</ Ul
where the Reynolds number is defined by U)

rhfd
Re = (5)
lxjAf
The physical properties of the storage material, granite, were
considered to be constant. The density of the rocks was 2675
kg/m 3 (167 lb m /ft 3 ) and the specific heat was 0.88 kJ/kg°C FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, kg/m2s
(0.21 Btu/lb m °F). The porosity of the bed, e, fraction of the Fig. 3 Daily energy retrieval, State College, Pa.
total volume occupied by the air, greatly influences the
pressure drop while it has less dramatic effect on the heat
model" [6]. These equations were solved numerically, using a
storage characteristics of the bed for a given length. A value
uniform grid pattern with 200 subdivisions along the unit's
of 0.4 was used in obtaining the data to be presented. Two
length and up to 14,400 time steps to assure high accuracy of
variables which were considered of primary importance in the
the computer results.
design of the storage unit were the diameter of the rocks and
the total pressure drop through the bed. The effect of Bypass Control. A bypass arrangement was used during the
variations in these quantities on the performance charac- heat retrieval process in order to maintain the temperature of
teristics was investigated. the air delivered to the load at a constant value of 37.8°C. The
Equations (2, 3) incorporating the described simplifying temperature of the air returning from the load was also
assumptions are frequently referred to as the "simplified considered to be time independent and to have a value of

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 15°C. The air circulated through the storage unit was ter- be used. Either one of the following two methods can then be
minated when the bed was no longer able to maintain the used to size the storage unit.
desired discharge temperature. The first method to be described is initiated by selecting the
bed length. This method may be attractive when spatial
Simulation. The solar system shown in Fig. 1 was simulated
requirements exist which limit the length of the packed bed.
using the procedure described by Kulakowski and Schmidt
Once the bed length is selected, the mass velocity, G, can be
[10]. The air was not circulated through the storage unit until
determined using the dashed line in either Fig. 2 or 3. The
its temperature at the exit of the collector was greater than the
average daily energy retrieval for each month is determined
mean temperature of the storage bed. The storage process was
using the K-S curves. To illustrate the procedure in more
terminated once the averaged bed temperature was greater
detail, the average daily energy retrieval for a packed bed 1.83
than the temperature of the air leaving the collector. As noted
m (6 ft) long will be determined. The mass velocity is found to
previously, the retrieval process is terminated when the
be 0.21 kg/m 2 s (2.58 lb m /ft 2 m) from Fig. 2. The average
temperature of the air leaving the bed is below 37.8°C. In an
daily retrieval rate per square meter of collector area obtained
effort to obtain a consistent evaluation of the performance of
from the K-S curves are:
the system, the storage-retrieval process was repeated on a
daily basis until periodic operating conditions were obtained. Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
The procedure followed in generating the results to be Daily retrieval MJ/m 2 4.94 6.47 8.86 9.48
presented is as follows. All calculations are based on a unit
collector surface area.
(a) The geographical location is selected. Month Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
(b) An hourly insolation on the titled collector for a clear Daily retrieval MJ/m 2 12.05 10.1 6.87 5.05
day is obtained using ASHRAE data. The total daily in-
solation is determined by integrating the hourly quantities. The heating load and the retrieval rates are compared and the
These calculations are repeated for each month. surface area of the collector selected which best meets the
(c) The average monthly insolation for an average day is heating load. The best match is usually made in March or
calculated using the procedure described by Kreider and November. If a collector surface area of 46.45 m 2 (500 ft2) is
Kreith (9). selected, the averaged daily amount of energy supplied for
(d) A ratio energy of the average monthly insolation (c) to space heating is:
the total clear day insolation (b) is determined. The corrected
hourly insolation on a tilted surface for each month is Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
determined. Heat supplied MJ/day 230 301 411 441
(e) A maximum pressure drop through the bed, rock
diameter, and ambient temperature surrounding the collector
are selected.
(/) The mass velocity of the air, G, is selected, and the Month Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
length of the bed calculated using the maximum pressure drop Heat supplied MJ/day 560 469 320 235
across the bed.
(g) The average amount of heat recovered per day for the
cyclic operation of the system during the month is determined The frontal area of the bed is
using the computer program. This represents one point on the
performance (to be noted as K-S) curves. vAcPf _ 0.01(46.45)(1.057)
(h) A new value of mass velocity is selected and steps (/) = 2.34 m 2
and (g) repeated until the complete K-S curve is obtained. This G 0.21
procedure is repeated for each month.
where v is 0.01 m 3 / s / m 2 of the collector surface area
(2cfm/ft 2 ). If a circular cross section is used, the unit will be
0.086 m (2.9 ft) in diameter. The total volume of the storage
Results and Design Methods bed is 4.2822 m 3 (154 ft3) (0.092 m 3 / m 2 of collector surface
The performance of the solar system shown in Fig. 1 for area).
State College, Pennsylvania, was determined using the An alternative way of sizing the storage unit is to select the
previously described procedure. The pressure drop across the surface area of the collector so that the unit is economically
packed storage bed was 0.76 cm (0.3 in.) of water, the rock feasible. It is apparent that a collector of sufficient size to
diameter was 2 cm (0.788 in.), and the porosity of the storage meet the space heating demands throughout the year is not
unit was 0.40. The results are shown (as solid lines) in Figs. 2 practical for most locations. The size of the collector is thus
and 3. No calculations were performed for the summer selected so that the system can meet the demand from March
months (May, June, July, and August) when the space heating to November. In December, January, and February, auxiliary
load was negligible for this location. These performance heating will be required. The total heat loads for March and
curves will be referred to as the K-S curves. November, the most critical months, are divided by the
The pressure drop across the packed bed is determined collector surface area and the number of days in the month to
using the relationship proposed by Ergun and repeated in obtain a daily energy retrieval requirement for each month.
reference [6]. The equation is The K-S curves are used to determine the appropriate mass
velocities. The design is based on the smaller value of G. The
AP G(l-e) 150(1 - 6 ) M / 1
75G + (6) length of the bed is then determined using the pressure drop
1
Pfde ['•
L d curve to see if the unit is within acceptable limits. If the bed is
This relation is plotted as a dashed line in Figs. 2 and 3. too long, a larger collector surface area is selected and the
There are two ways in which the K-S curves can be used to calculations are repeated. If the bed is too short, a smaller
size the storage unit for a solar space heating system. The first collector surface area is selected and the design rechecked.
step, regardless of the method used, is to determine the Once the correct collector surface area is found, the K-J
monthly space heating requirement of the building. A curves are used to determine the mass velocity, G. The bed
procedure similar to that described by Beckman et al. [1] can length determined from the pressure drop relationship!

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 I
I
i
i
a
s

O.I 0.2 0.3 OA

FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, kg/m2s
0.1 0.2 05 OA 0.5
Fig. 6 Effect of rock diameter on daily energy retrieval for Dec, State
FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, kg/m£s College, Pa.
Fig. 4 Effect of bed porosity
uniform packing and void fraction. If this is not done the
thermal performance of the solar system can be significantly
altered. The interrelationships between porosity and mass
velocity for a given pressure drop can be clearly seen from
Fig. 4. As an example for a mass velocity of 0.244 kg/m 2 s and
a pressure drop of 0.76 cm of water the length of the bed for
€ = 0.35 is 0.823 m while that for e = 0.45 is 2.13 m.
Another significant variable in the design of a storage bed is
the rock diameter. All the results presented are for a rock
diameter of 2 cm (0.79 in.) In Figs. 5 and 6, the performance
of a bed composed of rocks 6 cm (2.36 in.) in diameter is
given.
The effect of the maximum pressure drop across the bed on
the sizing of the storage unit has been investigated. The results
for maximum pressure drops of 0.38 cm and 0.76 cm of water
are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. They indicate that if the allowable
pressure drop is decreased, the bed must be shortened and the
frontal area increased in order to obtain the same thermal
characteristics for the system.

Sample Design Calculations

FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, kglmzs
Fig. 5 Effect of rock diameter on daily energy retrieval for Sept., State
College, Pa,
dashed line on Figs. 2 and 3, and the frontal area is deter-
mined using the procedure described in the previous method.
One can see from equation (6) that the pressure drop is
strongly influenced by the porosity of the packed bed. It is
thus very important that the bed be properly constructed to
insure that the rocks are uniformly distributed to give a
The K-S method will be used to size a solar system for
providing space heating for the building described in Example
7, Chapter 21 of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
(1972) if it were located in State College, Pennsylvania. The
system has to meet the heat demand from March to
November. In December, January, and February, auxiliary
heating will be required.
The selected bed length is 1.515 m and the mass velocity
determined using the dashed line in either Fig. 2 or 3 is 0.23
kg/m 2 s. The collector surface area required to meet the load
is obtained by dividing the daily space heating load by the
retrieval rate per square meter of collector area. The collector
surface area needed to meet the requirement for March is 83.4
m 2 while that for November is 89.2 m 2 . The 89.2 m 2 collector
is selected. The frontal area is 4.17 m 2 (circular cross section
is 1.15 m in diameter) and the pressure drop is 0.76 cm of
water for a packed bed with a porosity of 0.4. The results of
the analysis are shown in the following table.

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 Table 1 Heating load and solar energy retrieval collector
area - 89.2m2 storage unit length - 1.515m t \
1 -2.0
-

Month
Space heating
load
MJ/day
Heat supplied
MJ/day
% heating
requirement
supplied
r "•
\
\
\
Jan. 8.51 x 1CT2 3.89 x W2 45.8 \
Feb. 8.25 x 102 7.36 X 102 89.2 r> 1.6
Mar. 6.35 x 102 6.79 x 102 a \
Apr. 3.60 x 102 7.2 x 10 a
- \
May 1.47 x 10 a \
June 1.68 x 10 10.
a \
July 3.23 x 10 a \ ^ _
Aug. 9.67 x 10 a 1.2 ;
s
I
Sept. 8.33 x 10 8.9 x l(r2 a ^ . A P -076 cm water
Oct. 2.76 X 102 8.
7.79 x 10 2 a
Nov. 5.37 x 1022 5.37 X 10 100
Dec. 7.93 X 10 3.95 x 102 49.8
"Daily retrieval of energy exceeds the space heating requirement in 6.
J\ /s{ 0.8 §

.
4.

-0M

I
z.

.
AP =0.38 cm wafer^^^ ^ " ^ T "~ "* "

I
.
0, 1 , I . I . 0.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0A 0.5
FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY, k$/m2s
8 Fig. 8 Effect of maximum pressure drop on daily energy retrieval for
Dec, State College, Pa.

it
5:
if
CD
0.2 0.15 0.4
kg/m2s
FRONTAL MASS VELOCITY,
Fig. 7 Effect of maximum pressure drop on daily energy retrieval for
Sept., State College, Pa.
Conclusions
A very simple method has been developed for the design of
a packed bed storage unit for a solar system used to supply
hot air for space heating. The system is composed of a solar
collector, a packed rock bed storage unit, a reversible fan and
retrieval system using bypass to obtain a uniform delivery air
temperature. The design is based upon the K-S curves which
have been generated through the simulation of the system
using the digital computer. The simulation takes into con-
sideration the geographical location of the system, the
composition of the packed storage bed, the maximum
pressure drop across the bed, and the temperature of the
ambient air surrounding the collector. A set of curves for
State College, Pennsylvania, have been generated.
The results of tests recently carried out at Penn State on the
storage unit bypass arrangement showed the technical
feasibility of the bypass concept discussed in the paper. The
tests also revealed a satisfactory agreement between the ex-
perimental results and the results predicted by computer
simulation of equations (2) and (3). The proposed design
method should, however, still be verified on a full scale
system either by the design and construction of a unit for
space heating or by the modification of an existing unit to
conform to the system previously described.
It is anticipated that the heat retrieval in the actual unit will
be slightly less than that predicted, because the simulation
does not take into consideration the heat lost by the air as it
passes through the ducts connecting the collector and storage
unit or the heat lost from the storage unit to the surroundings.
These losses can be greatly reduced by insulating the ducts and
storage unit. If necessary, the computer program can be
modified to account for these losses. The K-S curves can also
be generated for other geographic locations.
Acknowledgments
This study was in part funded by the Conservation
Program, Department of Energy, Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, New York.
References
1 Beckman, W. A., Klein, S. A., and Duffie, J. A., Solar Heating Design,
Wiley Interscience, New York, 1977.
2 Kreider, J. F., and Kreith, F., Solar Heating and Cooling, Hemisphere
Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1975.
3 Cole, R. L., Nield, K. J., Rohde, R. R., and Wolosewics, R. M., Design
and Installation Manual for Thermal Energy Storage, Argonne National
Laboratory, ANL-79-15, Feb. 1979 (also 2nd ed., Jan. 1980).
4 Balcomb, J. D., Passive Solar Design Handbook, Vol. 2, LASL for
DOE/CS 0127/2, Jan. 1980, pp. 192-205.
5 Dunkle, R. V., and Ellul, W. M. J „ "Randomly-Packed Particulate Bed
Regenerators and Evaporative Coolers," Mech. and Chem. Engr. Trans. I.E.
Aust.,\ol. MC8, 1972, p. 117.
6 Schmidt, F. W., and Willmott, J. A., Thermal Energy Storage and
Regeneration, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1980.
7 Hughes, P., Klein, S. A., and Close, D. J., "Packed Bed Thermal Storage
Models for Solar Air Heating and Cooling Systems," ASME Journal of Heat
Transfer, Vol. 98, 1976, pp. 336-338.
8 Duffie, J. A., and Beckman, W. A., Solar Energy Thermal Processes,
Wiley Interscience, New York, 1974.
9 Kreith, F., and Kreider, J. F., Principle of Solar Engineering,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, D.C., 1978.
10 Kulakowski, B. T., and Schmidt, F. W., "DiscreteControl Algorithm for
a Heat Storage System," ASME Dynamic Systems, Measurements and Con-
trol, Vol. 102, p. 226-232, 1980.

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