points on the impact of European liberal thought on the Indian national

movement:

Introduction of Democratic Ideals: European liberal thought introduced the concepts of

democracy and representative government, which influenced Indian leaders to demand
similar political rights.

Equality Before Law: The liberal idea of equality before the law inspired Indians to
challenge discriminatory practices inherent in colonial rule.

Secularism: The separation of state and religion in liberal thought encouraged Indian
nationalists to envision a secular state.

National Sovereignty: The principle of national sovereignty led to the demand for self-
rule and the end of colonial domination.

Economic Liberalism: Free trade and economic liberalism exposed the exploitative
nature of colonial economic policies and motivated the push for economic self-
su iciency.

Liberty and Individual Rights: The emphasis on individual liberty and rights fueled
movements against oppressive colonial laws.

Rationalism and Scientific Approach: Liberal emphasis on rationalism and science

influenced Indian reformers to challenge traditional social structures.

Education and Enlightenment: The liberal value placed on education spurred the
establishment of modern educational institutions in India.

Critique of Imperialism: Liberal critiques of imperialism provided a theoretical

foundation for anti-colonial sentiments.

Social Reform Movements: Liberal ideas about social reforms led to movements against
caste discrimination and for women’s rights.

Freedom of Press: Inspired by liberal values, Indian leaders fought for the freedom of the
press against colonial censorship.

Rule of Law: The concept of the rule of law led to demands for legal reforms and a
transparent judicial system.

Constitutionalism: The idea of constitutionalism influenced Indian leaders to demand a

constitution for India.

Liberal Nationalism: The fusion of liberal thought with Indian nationalism created a
unique blend that sought independence through non-violent means.
Human Dignity: The liberal notion of human dignity opposed the dehumanizing aspects
of colonial rule.

Political Mobilization: Liberal ideas helped in mobilizing a wide range of social classes
for the national movement.

Unity in Diversity: The liberal principle of unity in diversity became a cornerstone for the
Indian nationalist movement.

Internationalism: Liberal internationalism influenced Indian leaders to seek support

from other nations and participate in global a airs.

Civil Disobedience: The liberal doctrine of civil disobedience was adopted by leaders
like Gandhi to resist colonial laws.

Labor Rights: European liberal thought on labour rights influenced the formation of
trade unions and labour movements in India.

Anti-Racism: Liberal opposition to racial discrimination resonated with Indian leaders

who fought against racial bias under colonial rule.

Self-Determination: The liberal concept of self-determination became a rallying cry for

India’s independence.

Parliamentary Practices: Exposure to European parliamentary practices guided the

formation of India’s legislative procedures.

Liberal International Order: The desire to be part of a liberal international order

motivated India to seek independence.

Cultural Exchange: Liberal thought encouraged cultural exchange, leading to a

synthesis of European and Indian ideas that enriched the national movement.

These points reflect the profound influence of European liberal thought on the shaping
of the Indian national movement, contributing to the development of a vision for an
independent, democratic, and inclusive India.

constitutional development in India up to 1947:

Regulating Act of 1773: Marked the beginning of constitutional governance in India,

establishing the o ice of the Governor-General of Bengal and creating a Supreme Court
in Calcutta.

Pitt’s India Act of 1784: Distinguished between the commercial and political functions
of the East India Company and introduced the Board of Control to oversee its a airs.
Charter Acts: Extended the Company’s rule and introduced significant changes like the
Charter Act of 1833, which made the Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General
of India.

Government of India Act of 1858: Transferred the control of Indian territories to the
British Crown, post the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Indian Councils Act of 1861: Initiated the process of decentralization by restoring the
legislative powers of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies.

Indian Councils Act of 1892: Increased the number of additional members in the
legislative councils and introduced the principle of representation.

Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act of 1909): Provided for separate electorates
for Muslims and expanded the legislative councils.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act of 1919): Introduced dyarchy in

provinces and expanded the legislative assemblies.

Simon Commission (1927): Appointed to report on the working of the constitutional

system in India and recommend changes.

Nehru Report (1928): The first major Indian e ort to draft a constitutional framework,
which recommended dominion status for India.

Round Table Conferences (1930-1932): Gathered various Indian leaders to discuss

constitutional reforms.

Communal Award (1932): Announced by the British Prime Minister, it provided separate
electorates for various communities including the Depressed Classes.

Government of India Act of 1935: The most extensive constitutional reform, it provided
provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure.

Congress Ministries (1937-1939): Formed in several provinces after elections, providing

practical experience in governance.

August O er (1940): Proposed Indian participation in the British war e ort in exchange
for post-war self-government.

Cripps Mission (1942): Proposed a new Indian constitution after the war, which was
rejected by Indian leaders.

Quit India Movement (1942): A mass protest demanding an end to British rule, leading to
widespread repression.

Wavell Plan (1945): Proposed the reconstitution of the Executive Council with equal
numbers of Indian and British members.
Cabinet Mission (1946): Recommended a union of India comprising both British India
and the princely states with a federal government.

Interim Government (1946): Headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, it was the first government
with majority Indian ministers.

Constituent Assembly Elections (1946): Elected to draft the Constitution of India, with
the Congress winning a majority of the seats.

Mountbatten Plan (1947): Proposed the partition of India and the establishment of the
dominions of India and Pakistan.

Indian Independence Act (1947): Passed by the British Parliament, it ended British rule
in India and established the two new dominions.

Radcli e Line (1947): Demarcated the boundary between India and Pakistan.

Adoption of the Constitution (1949): The Constituent Assembly adopted the new
Constitution of India on November 26, 1949, which came into e ect on January 26,
1950.

These points encapsulate the gradual evolution of constitutional governance in India,

culminating in the creation of a sovereign democratic republic.

points on the social reform movement in modern India:

Origins in Bengal Renaissance: The movement began in Bengal with the Bengal
Renaissance, which was a cultural, social, and intellectual awakening in the 19th
century.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Considered the father of the Indian Renaissance, he founded the
Brahmo Samaj and worked to abolish practices like Sati.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: He was instrumental in the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856
and promoted women’s education.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati: Founded the Arya Samaj, which worked towards the
eradication of caste discrimination and the promotion of Vedic values.

Swami Vivekananda: Established the Ramakrishna Mission and emphasized the

upliftment of the masses and the importance of education.

Theosophical Society: Founded by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott, it aimed to

revive ancient Indian wisdom and spiritualism.
Jyotirao Phule: Worked for the upliftment of the lower castes and opened schools for
girls and the marginalized communities.

Savitribai Phule: One of the first female teachers in India, she fought for women’s rights
and education.

Pandita Ramabai: A social reformer and educator who advocated for the rights and
education of women.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Fought against caste discrimination and was instrumental in framing
India’s constitution, ensuring social justice for all.

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy: Started the Self-Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu, advocating
rationalism and opposing caste.

Mahatma Gandhi: His philosophy of non-violence and Satyagraha influenced social

reform movements across India.

Sri Narayana Guru: Led a movement against caste oppression and promoted new
values of social equality in Kerala.

Reform in Literature: Writers like Rabindranath Tagore and Premchand used literature as
a medium for social reform.

Women’s Franchise Movement: This movement in the early 20th century fought for
women’s right to vote.

Temple Entry Movements: Aimed at allowing the so-called lower castes to enter Hindu
temples.

Anti-Untouchability Movements: Led by figures like Gandhi and Ambedkar, these

movements sought to abolish untouchability.

Child Marriage Restraint Act: Also known as the Sarda Act, it was passed in 1929 to
prohibit child marriages.

Hindu Code Bills: A series of laws that were enacted to reform Hindu personal law and
promote gender equality.

Muslim Social Reformers: Leaders like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan worked for the educational
and social upliftment of Muslims.

Sikh Reforms: The Singh Sabha Movement worked to purify Sikhism of superstitions and
caste discriminations.

Parsi Reforms: Reformers like Dadabhai Naoroji worked for the betterment of the Parsi
community and played a role in the national movement.
Christian Reformers: Indian Christians like K.T. Paul advocated for social reforms within
the Christian community.

Legislative Reforms: The British Indian government passed several acts influenced by
the social reform movement, such as the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act.

Legacy: The social reform movement laid the foundation for modern Indian society,
promoting values of equality, justice, and human dignity.

These points highlight the multifaceted nature of the social reform movement in modern
India, which was characterized by e orts to eradicate social evils and bring about
progressive changes in society.

points on the impact of the social reform movement in modern India on

Indian culture:

Eradication of Sati: The movement led to the abolition of the inhumane practice of Sati,
where widows were forced to immolate themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre.

Promotion of Widow Remarriage: Reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

championed the cause of widow remarriage, leading to the Widow Remarriage Act of
1856.

Fight Against Caste Discrimination: Movements like the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj
worked towards the eradication of caste-based discrimination and untouchability.

Women’s Education: The movement significantly contributed to the opening of schools

for girls and higher education for women.

Rationalism: It encouraged a rational and scientific approach to life, challenging

superstitions and blind faith.

Cultural Revival: There was a revival of Indian arts, literature, and music, inspired by the
pride in Indian culture that the reform movements fostered.

Legal Reforms: The movement led to legal reforms that improved the status of women
and marginalized communities.

Inter-Caste Marriages: The reform movements encouraged inter-caste marriages,

promoting social unity.

Language and Literature: Reformers used vernacular languages to reach a wider

audience, enriching Indian literature.
Nationalism: The movements instilled a sense of national pride and identity,
contributing to the rise of Indian nationalism.

Religious Tolerance: The movements promoted religious tolerance and understanding

among di erent faiths.

Abolition of Child Marriage: E orts by reformers led to laws against child marriage, such
as the Sharda Act of 1929.

Social Equality: The movements advocated for social equality, influencing the cultural
mindset towards a more egalitarian society.

Personal Law Reforms: The Hindu Code Bills reformed personal laws, impacting family
life and social customs.

Healthcare Reforms: Emphasis on healthcare and sanitation improved public health

and awareness.

Civic Rights: The movements laid the groundwork for civic rights and responsibilities in
independent India.

Cultural Synthesis: Interaction with Western culture led to a synthesis of ideas,

enriching Indian culture.

Artistic Expression: Artists and writers found new themes of social reform and national
awakening for their work.

Empowerment of Marginalized: The movements empowered marginalized groups,

leading to their greater participation in cultural activities.

Reform in Religious Practices: Practices like animal sacrifice and ritual purity were
questioned and reformed.

Cultural Organizations: Many cultural organizations were established to promote the

arts and social reforms.

Gender Roles: The movement challenged traditional gender roles, leading to a gradual
change in the cultural perception of gender.

Environmental Awareness: Some reformers also brought attention to environmental

conservation as part of cultural responsibility.

Cultural Festivals: Reform movements led to the establishment of new festivals and the
reformation of old ones to promote social harmony.

Legacy: The social reform movement left a lasting legacy on Indian culture, making it
more progressive, inclusive, and diverse.
These points illustrate the profound and multifaceted impact of the social reform
movement on the cultural landscape of modern India, paving the way for a society that
values equality, rationality, and human dignity.

points on the economic history of India during the British period:

Pre-Colonial Prosperity: Prior to British rule, India was a prosperous region with a
significant share of world trade and high levels of industrial output.

Colonial Exploitation: The British East India Company established a monopoly over
Indian trade and imposed heavy taxes on Indian goods.

Deindustrialization: India experienced a decline in traditional industries due to British

policies favoring imports from Britain.

Drain of Wealth: Economic policies during the British Raj resulted in the transfer of
wealth from India to Britain, impoverishing the Indian economy.

Land Revenue Systems: The introduction of the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and
Mahalwari systems changed land ownership patterns and revenue collection.

Famines: Mismanagement and exploitative policies led to several famines, notably the
Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and the late 19th-century famines.

Cash Crops: The British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like cotton and indigo,
which disrupted food grain production.

Railways and Infrastructure: The British developed railways primarily to facilitate

resource extraction and troop movement, not for the welfare of Indians.

Banking and Finance: European banking institutions were established, focusing on

serving the interests of British trade and administration.

Economic Policies: The British implemented policies that transformed India into a
colonial economy, serving the needs of the British economy.

Trade Imbalance: Indian markets were flooded with British goods, while Indian products
faced barriers in Britain, leading to a trade imbalance.

Agricultural Stagnation: British policies led to agricultural stagnation, with little

technological advancement or improvement in yields.

Textile Industry Decline: The once-thriving Indian textile industry faced decline due to
competition from mechanized British textiles.
Raw Material Supply: India became a supplier of raw materials like cotton to British
industries, while finished goods were exported back to India.

Labor Migration: Many Indians were sent as indentured laborers to other British
colonies, a ecting the labor force in India.

Commercialization of Agriculture: Agriculture became more commercialized, with a

focus on crops that served British interests.

Tax Burden: High taxes and revenue demands placed a significant burden on Indian
peasants and artisans.

Economic Divergence: The economic policies of the British led to a divergence between
the economies of India and the West.

Monetary Policies: The British established a uniform currency and banking system,
which facilitated trade within India and with Britain.

Industrial Policy: There was a lack of industrial policy to promote Indian industries,
leading to a dependency on British manufactured goods.

Education and Skill Development: The British neglected education and skill
development, which hindered the growth of an industrial workforce.

Fiscal Policies: Fiscal policies were designed to maximize revenue for the British
government, often at the expense of Indian welfare.

Urbanization: British rule saw the rise of urban centers, but these were primarily
administrative and military hubs rather than centers of Indian enterprise.

Global Economic Integration: Colonial India remained economically integrated with the
world, with high levels of trade, investment, and migration.

Legacy of Underdevelopment: The economic policies of the British left a legacy of

underdevelopment and a skewed economic structure that independent India had to
address.

These points outline the transformation of India’s economy under British rule,
highlighting the shift from a diverse economy to one that served colonial interests,
leading to long-term economic challenges for India.

points on the Mansabdari system in India:

1. The Mansabdari system was a grading system used by the Mughal rulers to fix the
rank and salary of a Mansabdar.
2. Mansabdars were nobles who occupied various positions in the administration of the
Mughal Empire.

3. They were appointed and dismissedby the Mughal Emperor.

4. The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab (rank).

5. Mansabdars were appointed to allcivil and military posts.

6. They were liable to be transferred from one branch of the administration (civil) to
another (military).

7. The Mansabdar appears to be a Central Asian institution.

8. There is a view that this institution came to India with Babur.

9. However, during Babur’s time, instead of the term of Mansabdar, the term Wajahdar
was used.

10. Mansabdari was the administrative system implemented by Mughal Emperor Akbar
in 1571.

11. Akbar institutionalized and reformed it on the basis of military and civil
administration.

12. During Akbar’s rule, there were approximately 1,800 Mansabdars.

13. During the rule of Aurangazeb, there were approximately 14,500 Mansabdars.

14. The power to recruit and promote Mansabdars was in the hands of the Mughal
Emperor.

15. Usually, Mansabdars were also recruited on the basis of suggestions given by
Mirbakshi.

16. The Mughals enrolled people of all races and religions into government jobs.

17. A person wishing to join the royal service had to petition through a noble, who
presented a tajwiz to the emperor.

18. Tajwiz was a petition presented by a nobleman to the emperor, recommending that
an applicant be recruited as mansabdar.

19. The word ‘Mansab’ originates from the Arabic Language. It means position or rank.

20. There were 66 Mansabdar categories in total, but there were only 33 in practise.

21. The appointment of Mansabdars was based on a decimal system.

22. Within this system, Akbar attempted to integrate the three major functionaries,
namely the nobility, the armed forces, and the bureaucracy, into a common pool of
administration.

23. The lowest rank of Mansabdar commanded ten soldiers while the highest rank
mansabdar commanded ten thousand soldiers at once.

24. The ranks also did not pass down to the families.

25. The Mansabdari System, there were 33 categories of Mansabdars.

Mughal emperor Akbar instituted the Mansabdari System as new administrative

machinery and a revenue system. The Mansabdari system was a grading system used
by Mughal rulers to determine a Mansabdar's rank and salary. They were nobles who
held various positions in the Mughal Empire's administration. The Mughal Emperor
appointed and dismissed them.

Mansabdari System - Origin

The Mansabdari system can be traced back to Changez Khan.

Changez Khan organised his army on a decimal basis, with the lowest unit being ten and
the highest ten thousand (toman) whose commander was known as 'Khan.' Babur was
the first to introduce it to North India.

However, it was Akbar who institutionalised it in Mughal military and civil administration
after reforming and introducing two new concepts, namely 'Zat' and 'Sawar.'

Mansabdari System of Akbar - Background

Mansabdari was a unique system that was formally introduced by mughal emperor
Akbar in 1571 AD. Mansab is an Arabic term that means rank or position.

As a result, Mansabdar means a rank holder or an o icer. The Mansabdari system came
from Central Asia. There were 66 Mansabdar categories in total, but there were only 33
in practise.

The appointment of Mansabdars was based on a decimal system; within this system,
Akbar attempted to integrate the three major functionaries, namely the nobility, the
armed forces, and the bureaucracy, into a common pool of administration.

Mansab was ranked between 10 and 10,000. However, during Akbar's reign, the
maximum was 5000, and Akbar granted the mansab of 7000 only to a few distinguished
nobles of the time, namely Mirza Ajij Koka and Raja Maan Singh, the former being
Akbar's foster brother and the latter related to him by matrimonial ties.
Although the word mansabdar was a generic term, only those with ranks up to 500 were
called mansabdars, those with ranks 500-2500 were called Amirs, and those with ranks
2500 and above were known as Amir Umda or Amir-i-azam.

Because it was a single service, a person was supposed to start at the bottom and work
their way up.

However, the king could and frequently did appoint distinguished people to higher
positions.

Nature

Mansabdari System - Nature

The mansabdars were the imperial structure's ruling section. Mansabdars were said to
be the pillars of Mughal administration; in fact, the entire nobility belonged to mansabs;
among them, one or more held a mansab.

The Mansabdari system was nothing more than a noble or mansabdar system in which a
mansabdar or noble was granted the rights to hold a jaguar, which meant revenue
assignments (not the land itself) for services rendered.

The authority bestowed upon them was not unbridled, but with direct control of these
nobles in the hands of the king.

Structure

Mansabdari System - Structure

The mansab or rank was denoted by two representations: personal rank (called zat) and
cavalry rank (called sawar).

Every mansabdar was given the rank of both zat and sawar, and he was paid two rupees
per horse.

A mansabdar was given a thousand rupees extra allowance if he received the rank of
five hundred sawars.

Furthermore, a mansabdar's duties were not in accordance with the mansab or position
he held. Higher rank did not always imply a higher post for a mansabdar.

For example, even though Raja Man Singh was not a minister, he held a higher rank than
Abul Fazal, who was a minister in the Emperor's court.

The emperor was the sole authority who conferred, decreased, increased, and resumed
the mansab. He also promoted those who excelled in military service.
In exchange for military service, the o icers were given territorial commands. They had
to bring a fixed number of men-at-arms, horses, and elephants to the field and were
rated based on the numbers, which were known as Zats.

As a result, they were referred to as Mansabdars of 10, 20, 100, and 1000, and so on.

Zat and Sawar Rank

Zat and Sawar Rank

By 1591 AD, the mansab member was adopted in the form of a pair. The first value of the
pair was Zat, and the second value was Sawar.

The Sawar ranked the actual number of horsemen he was expected to entertain, while
Zat indicated the personal pay and noble status.

Abul Fazl classified mansabdars into three types:

If the Zat and Sawar mansab were equal, he belonged to the first category of
mansabdar.

If the Sawar mansab was half of the Zat mansab, the mansabdar belonged to the
second category.

If the Sawar mansab was less than half of the Zat mansab, it fell into the third category.

Only in exceptional circumstances, such as war or foreign aggression, would the

number of Sawar mansab exceed that of Zat mansab. This additional increase in Sawar
was known as Mashrut mansab, and the system was abolished once the necessity was
met.

Mansabdars were only appointed by the ruler. However, the mansabdar were appointed
only on the recommendation of MirBakshi.

However, if the mansabdar was promoted, he was promoted based on the number of
Zat, which increased his salary. The principle of demotion for poor performance existed,
but it was rarely used.

Each Mansabdar was given dual responsibility for both civil and military obligations.
Akbar established the rule of Dahbisti.

The general rule was that for every ten sawars, there should be twenty horses (i.e, each
mansabdar should appointed to him).

This was done to ensure the nobility of the cavalry, which was the main fighting force of
the mughals. If the mount became tired, injured, or died, a backup horse was required.

Changes introduced by Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Changes introduced by Jahangir and Shah Jahan

The Mansabdari system was established by Akbar, but it was modified by Jahangir and
Shah Jahan:

Changes made by Jahangir

Jahangir made changes to the Mansabdari system shortly after Akbar's death, reducing
the system of two Aspas to one.

This meant that the number of soldiers was increased uno icially if required by the
mansabdar, but the number of sawar was not to be entered in the sawar numerically
granted to them.

The benefit of this was that he could keep more soldiers without incurring financial
costs.

Changes made by Shah Jahan

Another reform in the Mansabdari system occurred during the reign of Shah Jahan. The
number of Mansabdars increased, but there was a land shortage due to the Jagirdari
crisis.

During Shah Jahan's reign, an order was issued to reduce the number of sawar under a
specific Mansabdar.

Mansabdar were now to be paid on a monthly basis. If a mansabdar did not receive the
total salary for the year, he could reduce the number of sawars under him. He was now
unable to pay Mansabdar's entire salary.

If a mansabdar did not receive his six-month salary, he was allowed to reduce the
number of sawars, but their rank and classification did not change.

Mansabdari System under Mughals

Mansabdari System under Mughals

It kept changing from Akbar to Aurangzeb. During Akbar's reign, there were nearly 1800
mansabdars, but by the end of Aurangzeb's reign, their number had risen to nearly
14,500.

The jagirs were given to Mansabdar in such a way that they could not be transferred to
another's name.

Thus, the post of Mansabdar was not hereditary in any way, and after his death or
dismissal, the emperor confiscated his personal estate, deducting what he (Mansabdar)
owed to the state and returning the balance to his heir. This law or rule was known as
zabti.

If the son of a mansabdar was granted a mansab, he had to restart his tenure as
mansabdar according to the rules and regulations imposed by the emperor.
This measure was incorporated into the system so that the mansabdar could not abuse
his position and exploit the masses.

Merits

Mansabdari System - Merits

The Mansabdari system was a unique and distinct system that formed the backbone of
the mughal administration. It is said that the mughal state functioned well until the
system broke down.

It introduced the concept of uniformity in administration, which led to political

unification.

It also weakened the caste and feudal system which were the two major flaws of the
era.

As a result, it became mandatory for mansabdars to appoint soldiers from all castes
and religions.

As a result, Shiva Ji and Sher Shah used this system. There was no discrimination based
on caste or religion, and they were now placed on an equal footing. As a result, the ruler
was able to gain the loyalty of all his subjects.

The Mansabdari system was successful in limiting the power of the feudal and nobility
classes. They were no longer considered nobility, but rather an administrative class,
with fixed service conditions imposed on them.

This Mansabdari system increased the ruler's power and further consolidated and
crystallised the polity of the monarchial form of governance, and from the time of Akbar,
the mughal state moved towards an intense form of administration.

Demerits

Mansabdari System - Demerits

However, the system was inherently flawed, as contemporary writers, particularly

Badayuni, have illustrated during Akbar's first half-reign.

Mansabdars defrauded the government by bringing men from the streets dressed in
military uniforms and passing them o as soldiers.

It was not uncommon for troops to substitute poor horses for good ones provided by
military departments. It took Akbar many years to eradicate corruption.

But this was only possible because of Akbar's exceptional ability as a leader and
administrator, as well as his vigilance and discipline.
The lack of strong successors in the mughal empire gave Mansabdar immense power,
and they attempted to enter political a airs and play the role of nobility.

Because the Mansabdari system was highly centralised, it could only function under a
strong ruler.

As a result, a lot depended on the personality of the ruler, and this weakness emerged
right after the death of Aurangzeb as the mughal empire witnessed a series of weak and
incompetent rulers, which led to factionalism in the administration of the empire.

Each mansabdar wanted to work on their own interests, making it di icult to maintain a
balanced and uniform system of administration.

The Mansabdari system lacked an organic centre and lacked the cohesive force that
must always be present in a national army.

The mansabdars received their pay from the emperor and paid their troops themselves.
This made the troops more loyal to the mansabdars than to the king.

Conclusion

Despite its flaws, the mansabdari system had a significant impact on the medieval
military establishment. However, it could only function under capable leadership, which
was only possible until the reign of Aurangzeb. Later, the Mansabdari system proved to
be weak, leading to the empire's fragmentation. However, it also combined with several
advantages, such as certain Rajput Mansabdars being diplomatically used against
other Rajput chiefs with whom they were at odds. This system ensured the mansabdars'
steadfast loyalty to the emperor.

points on the Dandi March in India:

The Dandi March was a mass civil disobedience movement.

It was started by Mahatma Gandhi.

The march was against the salt tax imposed by the British government in India.

The march was led by a large group of people from Sabarmati Ashram.

The march started on 12th March 1930.

The march ended in Dandi, a coastal town in Gujarat.

The march ended on 5th April 1930.

The march was to break the salt law by the production of salt from seawater.
The march was also known as the Salt Satyagraha.

The march lasted for 24 days.

The march was a direct action campaign of tax resistance.

The march was a nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly.

Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers.

The march spanned 387 kilometres (240 mi).

Growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way.

When Gandhi broke the British Raj salt laws at 8:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large-
scale acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws by millions of Indians.

After making the salt by evaporation at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the
coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way.

The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 40 km
(25 mi) south of Dandi.

However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the
planned action at Dharasana.

The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to
the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel
coverage.

The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi’s
release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table
Conference.

Although over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha.

The British did not make immediate major concessions.

The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi’s principles of non-violent
protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth-force".

The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence
on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil
Rights Movement for civil rights for African Americans and other minority groups in the
1960s.

points on Sufism in India:

Sufism is a mystical form of Islam that emphasizes the importance of personal
experience and direct knowledge of God.

Sufism in India has a rich and profound history, playing a pivotal role in shaping the
cultural and religious landscape of the Indian subcontinent.

Sufism emerged in the 11th century, emphasizing a direct connection with the Divine.

Sufis purify their hearts, advancing through maqamat stages on a journey to divine
communion.

Sufism spread through Iran, Khurasan, Transoxiana, Egypt, Syria, and Baghdad in the
10th century, fostering spiritual growth within the Islamic world.

The origins of Sufism in India can be traced back to the early spread of Islam in the
Indian subcontinent, which began in the 7th century with the arrival of Muslim traders
and conquerors.

The development of Sufism in India was greatly influenced by the mystical and ascetic
traditions of Persia (modern-day Iran), where Sufism itself had its origins.

Sufism in India took on a unique character as it integrated elements of Indian spirituality

and mysticism.

Sufi saints recognized the existing spiritual traditions in India and incorporated them
into their practices, making Sufism more accessible to the local population.

This integration helped Sufism transcend religious boundaries and resonate with people
of various backgrounds.

The early Sufi saints in India, often referred to as “awliya” or “sufi masters,” played a
crucial role in spreading Sufi teachings.

Sufism is a school of practice that focuses on the spiritual search for God and shuns
materialism.

There are many schools of Sufism all over the world and in India too.

Most of them trace their lineage to early Islamic history, from the time of Prophet
Muhammad himself.

The term ‘Sufi’ is probably derived from the Arabic word ‘suf’ which means ‘one who
wears wool’.

Another possible origin of the word is ‘safa’ which means purity in Arabic.

The other terms for the Sufi are Wali, Faqir and Darwesh.

Islam entered India in the 7th century CE in the form of merchants from Saudi Arabia
who traded with the western coastal regions of India.
Sufism, however, gained prominence in the 10th and 11th centuries during the reign of
the Delhi Sultanate.

In India, Sufism adopted many native Indian concepts such as yogic postures, music
and dance.

Sufism found adherents among both Muslims and Hindus.

There were two broad Sufi orders: Bashara – Those who obeyed Islamic laws. Beshara –
Those who were more liberal.

The Beshara was also called ‘mast kalandar’. They comprised wandering monks who
were also called Baba.

Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread
into India in the 11th century.

Most of the Sufis (mystics) were persons of deep devotion who disliked the display of
wealth and degeneration of morals following the establishment of the Islamic empire.