A species is defined as a group of organisms that can reproduce to

produce fertile offspring. These species can be classified into groups by

the features that they share. e.g. all mammals have bodies covered in
hair, feed young from mammary glands and have external ears
(pinnae/pinnas)

The Binomial System

Organisms were first classified by Linnaeus in a way that allows the
subdivision of living organisms into smaller and more specialised
groups. The species in these groups have more and more features in
common the more subdivided they get

He named organisms in Latin using the binomial system where the

scientific name of an organism is made up of two parts starting with the
genus (always given a capital letter) and followed by the species (starting
with a lower case letter)

When typed binomial names are always in italics (which indicates they
are Latin) e.g. Homo sapiens

The sequence of classification is: (domain) Kingdom, Phylum, Class,

Order, Family, Genus, Species
How Organisms are Classified
As technology advanced, microscopes, knowledge of biochemistry and
eventually DNA sequencing allowed us to classify organisms using a
more scientific approach. Studies of DNA sequences of different species
show that the more similar the base sequences in the DNA of two
species, the more closely related those two species are (and the more
recent in time their common ancestor is). This means that the base
sequences in a mammal’s DNA are more closely related to all other
mammals than to any other vertebrate groups.

Common Cell Structures

● The cells of all living organisms contain the following:
○ Cytoplasm
○ Cell membrane
○ DNA as genetic material (either found in the nucleus or free
in the cytoplasm)

Three Domain Classification by Carl Woese:

Bacteria (Eubacteria)--> Prokaryotic organisms that do not have a true

nucleus.

Archaea (Archaea)--> Contains ancient prokaryotic organisms which do

not have a true nucleus. Have an independent evolutionary history and
their biochemistry is different from other forms of life.

Eukarya (Protoctist, Plant, Fungi, Animal)--> Organisms that have a true

nucleus
The Five Kingdoms
● Prokaryote Kingdom→ Made up of prokaryotic cells, have an
absence of true nucleus and organelles. Have a circular DNA.

● Protoctista Kingdom→ Made up of eukaryotic cells. Have a

sub-group: Protozoa→ Animal-like protoctista with no cell wall.

● Fungus Kingdom→ Are Eukaryotic, have cell walls made up of

chitin, feed saprotrophically (feed on rotten/dead matter), hyphae
are elongated cells. A group of them makes a mycelium

● Animal Kingdom

● Plant Kingdom

Animalia:
● Are made up of Eukaryotic cells
● Are multicellular
● Do not have cell walls, but a cell surface membrane
● Feed heterotrophically

Vertebrates
● All vertebrates have a backbone. There are 5 classes of vertebrates:
Invertebrates
One of the morphological characteristics used to classify invertebrates
is whether they have legs or not. All invertebrates with jointed legs are
part of the phylum Arthropods. They are classified further into the
following classes:

Chordata:
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chord

● All the organisms that once in their lifetime had a notochord

belong to the phylum chordata. It can stay forever or it may
disappear.
● The notochord is a flexible rod-like structure made up of cartilage
that is derived from the mesoderm and is considered as the
principal structural element which supports the body of the lower
chordates (In our embryonic stages)
● All vertebrates are cathartes but not all chordates are vertebrates.
Plantae:
● Are Eukaryotic
● Are Multicellular
● Have cell walls made up of cellulose
● Some contain chloroplast (ex, root cells doesn't have chloroplast)
● Feed by photosynthesis

Phylums plantae
The plant kingdom includes organisms such as ferns and flowering
plants

Pteridophyta (usually has liverworts and mosses)

● Have rizoides
● Don't have roots,norleaves,nor stem
● Don't have xylem nor phloem
● They reproduce by spores

Ferns (Phylum Bryophyta)

● Have leaves called fronds

● Do not produce flowers but instead reproduce by spores produced
on the underside of fronds
Flowering plants (phylum spermatophyta):

● Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds

● Seeds are produced inside the ovary found at the base of the
flower
● Can be divided into two groups – monocotyledons and
dicotyledons

How to distinguish between monocotyledons and dicotyledons:

1) FLOWERS

● Flowers from monocotyledons contain petals in multiples of 3

● Flowers from dicotyledons contain petals in multiples of 4 or 5

2) LEAVES

● monocotyledons have parallel veins and narrow leaves

● dicotyledons have netted veins (meaning that they are all
interconnected and form a web-like network throughout the leaf)
and broad leaves
Reproduction in vertebrates:

● Reproduction: Producing more of the same kind.

● Sexual reproduction: Two parents (Fertile) needed. Two ways:
Viviparous (Embryo) or Oviviparous (Lay Eggs)
● Fertilization: Fusion between both gametes. The male one is the
motile (It will be the one moving towards the female gamete)due
to the flagellum. That's why they are usually smaller. As it is the
one that moves, it needs a humid environment (As it "swims"). This
environment will be produced by the bodies.
● Parental Care: The higher the number of individuals, the more
difficult the parental care becomes. That's why in mammals, the
parental care is higher and easier, as the development occurs
internally. The ones that are oviparous are the ones that will have
the least of parental care.
● There is a tendency of over reproduction, as not all of the
offsprings will live

The Purpose of Hair:

● Hair is a natural insulator (A material that does not allow heat to

escape too quickly

● Hairs are flat, parallel to the skin, with no air between them and
the skin

● Whenever the weather is cold, each of the muscle hairs make them
go "up", which makes air (an insulator) go in between of them.

The 7 Characteristics of Living Things (Ren Grim)

Respiration: Release of energy from food. It can be Aerobic (With O2) or

Anaerobic (Without O2).

Excretion: Release of waste/toxic substances coming from the

metabolism. It is different from Egestion (Getting rid of matter that has
not been digested) or Secretion (Production of something useful→
Secretory Products).

Nutrition: Feeding. According to the way that the organism feeds, they
can be Autotrophs (Produce their food) or Heterotrophs (Find their food
somewhere else). We also have Carnivores, Herbivores, Parasites (Feed
on a live organism), or Saprotrophs (Feed on dead matter)

Growth: An increase in the dry mass of protoplasm

Reproduction: Giving offspring/s. It can be asexual reproduction (1 org.

needed) ex.: cells. Sexual reproduction ( 2 orgs needed) ex.: every animal
asexual sexual
organism 1 2
offspring identical to parent with characteristics
of both parents
gamete no yes
N° of offsprings several few

Irritability: React to the changes in the surroundings (stimuli). The

reaction in animals is called Taxis (Ex. Hydrotaxes or Phototaxes) and
the reaction in plants is called Tropisms (Ex. Hydrotropism,
Phototropism, or Geotropism).

Movement: A change of place. In animals, the whole body changes place,

while in plants, just some parts of the body move.
The Root:
- + Hydrotropism
- - Phototropism
- + Geotropism/ Gravitrophism

The Stem:
- + Phototropism
- - Geotropism/Gravitrophism

● Auxins are powerful growth hormones produced naturally by

plants. If they are in the Shoot, they react negatively to Light,
while if they are in the root, they will respond negatively to light
and gravity (That´s why roots grow downwards). If I put a plant in
a pot, I will be able to put it however I want so that when it grows,
it looks the way I want. So, if I put the plant lying down, the
Auxins will go "down" thanks to gravity. On the other hand, if I use
the Clinostat, that will not happen. This tool continuously rotates
the Auxins so that they are not affected by gravity. For this reason,
the plant would grow "straight".

Use of DNA sequencing in classification(Libro)

Organisms contain Chromosomes made by strings of genes. The

chemical that forms genes is called DNA (or deoxyribonucleic acid), this
is made up of a sequence of bases coding for amino acids (proteins).
Every species has a different N° of chromosomes and a unique sequence
of data in it (helps in differentiating similar species). Humans and
primates are examples of how DNA has been used to make the process
of evolution clear.

Experimental Error

Even the results of an experienced operator will have experimental

errors or measurement uncertainties. They may be caused by:
- Imperfections in the measuring device
- Imperfections in the experimental procedure
- The judgment made by the operator
When repeating a series of measurements and obtaining similar results,
we say they are precise and accurate. Errors occur and are beyond our
control.

Noticing Differences:

A sample is made up of some of the members of the population. A good

(representative) sample is one in which the results we obtain could be
taken as true for the total population.
To obtain a good sample:
- Choosing at random (Every member of the population has an
equal chance of being chosen)
- Choosing a sample large enough to satisfy the size of the
population being investigated.
- Choosing a sample that wasn´t biased (Favored)

● An experiment that is biased means that the result didn´t occur

randomly, but you did all that you could have the result that you
wanted.
● Catalyst: a substance that enables a chemical reaction to proceed
at a usually faster rate or under different conditions (as at a lower
temperature) than otherwise possible. For example, Calcium
Chloride is a Catalyst that dehydrates the soil.
Classification:

Classify: Sort into sets, depending on determined characteristics.

There are certain ranks/Groupings for classifying Living Things:

● Kingdom
● Phylum
● Class
● Order
● Family
● Genus (Generic Name)
● Species (Specific Name)

- The last two ranks are part of the Binomial system of classification
(Naming System). The Genus must be written in Capital Letters,
and the Species, in small case letters. The Genus NEVER is to be
repeated, while the species can.
- There are many reasons for using this system. First, it lessens
confusion, as one organism, though it may be called by different
names, its ORIGINAL name is for all the same one. Secondly, it
provides universal naming, as Latin is used. Finally, newly
discovered species, even extinct ones, can be easily included in the
system.

Magnification: The number of times a specimen is seen/shown bigger

or smaller than the actual size of it.
 Animal and Plant Cell:

Stem cells: Can become ANY other cell.

Name Structure Function PL. AN.

RBC Formed in the bone YES
marrow. They lack a
nucleus (which allows
them to have more
Hemoglobin).

It breaks down and

releases oxygen in places
 where its combination is
low.

Are doughnut-shaped,
which makes them more
flexible.

The Hemoglobin they

have can combine with
Carbon Dioxide and
Oxygen.

They live for 120 days.

The liver breaks them
down, Hb into bilirubin,
making use of the Fe in
the substance.
Palisade Found in a fence-like YE
Cell distribution. S

Has a selectively
permeable cell wall made
up of cellulose.

Makes food for the plant

by photosynthesis using
carbon dioxide, water
and light energy
Guard Cell Found at the Underside of YE
the leaf and are part of S
the lower epidermis
(Mostly)

They contain chloroplast,

making them into the
only ones in the
epidermis that have.

By opening/closing the
stomata, they allow:
 In→ Co2 for
Photosynthesis and O2
for Respiration

Out→ Co2 (Respiration),

O2 (Photosynthesis) and
H2O Vapor for
transpiration.
Sperm Cell Delivers genetic material YES
to the egg cell.

The acrosome in the head

contains digestive
enzymes so that a sperm
can penetrate the egg.

Spongy They are round, loosely YE

Layer Cell fitted cells, so there is air S
in between of them.

Has less chloroplast than

the Palisade cells, making
them do less
photosynthesis.

Goblet Cell Produce Mucus in the YES

respiratory canal
(Trachea)
Egg Cell Contains half the YES
information than any
other cell in the body
(Just as the Sperm Cell).

Does not move on its

own→ They are moved
by the Ciliated Cells.

Bigger than Sperm Cells

Xylem and (Xylem) Transport water YE
Phloem and mineral ions- S
Vessel dissolved in it- from the
roots to the leaves.

Have rings made of

Ligning, capable of
transporting water
constantly.

No top nor bottom walls

between xylem vessels,
so there is a continuous
column of water running
through them.

(Phloem) transport food

materials-sucrose and
amino acids-made by the
plant from
photosynthesising leaves
to non-photosynthesising
regions in the roots and
stem.

Have Seave Plates

(`Coladres´)
Platelet Are RBC that become YES
fragmented.

Help to clot the blood at

wounds and to stop the
bleeding
Phagocyte (Phagocyte) Formed in YES
and the bone marrow, they
Lymphocyt engulf bacteria and
e digests them (Pus).

(Lymphocyte) Secretes
antibodies.

Are larger than the RBC.

Root Hair Absorbs water and YE
Cell mineral salts from the S
soil.

Ciliated Short hairs that beat to YES

Cells waft mucus and trapped
particles up the throat.

Motor Carry electric impulses YES

Neurone from the central nervous
system to muscles and
glands
Sensory Carry electric impulses YES
Neurone form the sense organs to
the central nervous
system

Muscle Cell Cell which has the YES

property of contraction
(M. in action, shorter) and
relaxation (M. not in
action, longer).

Are responsible for

movement.

Name Structure Function Pl. An.

Cell Wall Made up of cellulose YE
(Plant), Chitin (Fungi) and S
other substances
(Bacteria).

Allows water and

dissolved substances to
pass through

Its permeable.

Gives the cell extra

support and defines its
shape.
Nucleus Round structure enclosed YE YES
in a nuclear membrane S
and embedded in the
cytoplasm.

Control the type and

quantity of the enzymes
produced by the
cytoplasm.

Contains genetic material

in chromosomes or
strands, which control
how cells grow and work.
RER Network of flattened YE YES
cavities surrounded by a S
Membrane, which links
with the nuclear
membrane.

In charge of producing,
transporting and sorting
proteins

Contain ribosomes (The

difference with the SER)
Mitochondri Tiny organelle which may YE YES
a be slipper-shaped, circular S
or oval.

Has two membranes:

Outer and inner one
(Longer)

Responsible for producing

energy from food
substances from the
proces of aerobic
respiration.

Cells with highr rates of

 metabolism will have
more mitochondria, and
viceversa.
Cell 9 Layer of cytoplasm around YE YES
Membrane the outside of the cell. S

Stops the cell contents

from escaping.

Is selectively permeable.

SER System of membranes YE YES

related to transport S

Vacuole A fluid-filled space YE

surrounded by a S
membrane.

Contains salts and sugars.

Helps to keep the cell firm.

Ribosome Can be found in the RER YES

or free in the cytoplasm.

Build up the cell`s

proteins.

Harden up the RER`s

surface
Golgi Helps process and package YE YES
Apparatus proteins and lipid S
molecules, especially
proteins destined to be
exported from the cell.

(Provides membranes to
secretions)

Chloroplast Organelle containing YE

chlorophyll. S

Traps light energy from

photosynthesis.

Lysozome Round body that contains YE YES

digestive enzymes. S

Cytoplasm Jelly-like, with particles YE

and organelles in it. S

Supports cell structures.

Site for many chemical

reactions.
Levels of Organization:

Movement in and out of cells:

Solids:
- The atoms are displayed in rows
- They have energy, making them vibrate in their place
- Have a shape
- Don´t move on their own

Liquids:
- The atoms are not arranged in any particular way, so they wander
around
- They flow
- Can carry solid particles
- Take the shape of the container they are in
- The movement of these particles is called “Brownian Motion”

Gases:
- The atoms move freely, spreading around.
- They have the most electric energy.
- They flow as well (Are fluids)
- Take the shape of the container they are in
- Can be compressed, turning into liquids

(You use 4 and not one sample so to give a universal value to the result.)
A solution is a Solvent + a Solute. The universal solvent is Drilled water.
A Dilluted (Weak, Hypotonic) solution is the one which, by comparison,
has very little solute. A Concentrated (Strong, Hypertonic) solution is
the opposite.

There are tow types of transport:

- Passive: There is no expenditure of energy. Can occur with or
without a Living Thing involved.
- Active: With expenditure of energy and with Living Things
involved.
Active transport is the movement of particles from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration using
energy from respiration.

Three examples of Active Transport:

- Absorption of mineral by roots
- Absortions of nutrients in the small intestine
- Selective reabsortion in the kidneys.

Water Potential: Movement of water.

Osmotic Preassure: Sucking force of a solution (More solute→Attrackts
water)

Diffusion:
Is the movement of molecules from where there were more to where
there were less. (Move Down the Gradient)

Diffusion helps living organisms to:

- obtain many of their requirements
- get rid of many of their waste products
- carry out gas exchange for respiration
does not require energy
substances move down a concentration gradient ;
Factors that influence Diffusion:

The bigger a cell or structure is, the smaller its surface area to volume
ratio is, slowing down the rate at which substances can move across its
surface. Many cells which are adapted for diffusion have increased
surface area in some way.

The smaller the distance molecules have to travel, the faster transport
will occur.

The higher the temperature, the faster molecules move as they have
more energy.

Osmosis:

Movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated

(by comparison) one through a semi permeable membrane. In doing
this, water is moving down its concentration gradient.

When water moves into a plant cell, the vacuole gets bigger, pushing the
cell membrane against the cell wall. Water entering the cell by osmosis
makes the cell rigid and firm. This is important for plants as the effect of
all the cells in a plant being firm is to provide support and strength for
the plant - making the plant stand upright with its leaves held out to
catch sunlight

The pressure created by the cell wall stops too much water entering and
prevents the cell from bursting. If plants do not receive enough water
the cells cannot remain rigid and firm (turgid) and the plant wilts.

As animal cells do not have a supporting cell wall, the results on the cell
are more severe. If an animal cell is placed into a strong sugar solution
(with a lower water potential than the cell), it will lose water by osmosis
and become crenated (shrivelled up).

If an animal cell is placed into distilled water (with a higher water

potential than the cell), it will gain water by osmosis and, as it has no cell
wall to create turgor pressure, will continue to do so until the cell
membrane is stretched too far and it bursts.