International Journal of Remote Sensing

ISSN: 0143-1161 (Print) 1366-5901 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tres20

Long-term observation on sea surface

temperature variability in the Taiwan Strait during
the northeast monsoon season

Yi-Chun Kuo, Jui-Wen Chan, Yi-Chen Wang, Yi-Lo Shen, Yi Chang & Ming-An
Lee

To cite this article: Yi-Chun Kuo, Jui-Wen Chan, Yi-Chen Wang, Yi-Lo Shen, Yi Chang & Ming-An
Lee (2018) Long-term observation on sea surface temperature variability in the Taiwan Strait during
the northeast monsoon season, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 39:13, 4330-4342, DOI:
10.1080/01431161.2017.1387311

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1387311

Published online: 05 Oct 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 304

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 3 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tres20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING
2018, VOL. 39, NO. 13, 4330–4342
https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2017.1387311

Long-term observation on sea surface temperature

variability in the Taiwan Strait during the northeast
monsoon season
Yi-Chun Kuoa, Jui-Wen Chanb, Yi-Chen Wangc, Yi-Lo Shend, Yi Change and Ming-An Leec,f
a
Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; bTaiwan Ocean Research Institute,
Kaohsiung City, Taiwan; cDepartment of Environmental Biology and Fishery Science, National Taiwan
Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan; dPenghu Marine Biology Research Center, Fisheries Research Institute,
Council of Agriculture, Penghu, Taiwan; eInstitute of Ocean Technology and Marine Affairs, National Cheng
Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan; fTaiwan Group on Earth Observation, Hsinchu, Taiwan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The sea surface temperature (SST) in the Taiwan Strait (TS) during Received 20 February 2017
autumn and winter (October–March) is strongly influenced by the Accepted 24 September 2017
northeast monsoon, which drives the cold China Coastal Current to
flow southward into the TS, where it encounters the warm Kuroshio
Branch Current coming from the south to form a quasi-steady front.
Using Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer data, this study
investigated long-term SST warming phenomena in the TS during
the northeast monsoon season in the years 1980–2012. The SST
trend demonstrated significant temporal and spatial variations; the
SST of the TS increased during the period 1980–2000 and warmed
faster in winter and early spring (January–March) than in autumn.
Warming of the spatial average SST of the TS in March during this
period reached 3°C. The highest warming trend was noted in the SST
frontal region, indicating a northwestward movement of the winter
fronts; however, the SST of the TS exhibited a decreasing trend after
2000. The interannual and decadal SST variations in the TS are partly in
response to a large-scale wind field anomaly during the northeast
monsoon season.

1. Introduction
The Taiwan Strait (TS) connects two major marginal seas: the East China Sea (ECS) and the
South China Sea (SCS). Moreover, the TS is a migration route for many fish species (Chang et al.,
2013; Lan et al. 2014) and also houses captive marine fishing grounds and mariculture (Chang
et al., 2013). The Kuroshio waters flow northward from the southeastern TS (i.e. Penghu
Channel) and are accountable for the pressure gradient associated with large-scale circulation
(Chuang 1985; Chuang 1986). During the northeast monsoon season (October–March), the
wind-driven China Coastal Current (CCC) flows southward along the Chinese coast; therefore,
the northeast monsoon may weaken the northward current in the TS (Jan et al. 2002).
Topography considerably affects circulation in the TS; a distinct topographical structure (the
Chang-Yun Rise; Figure 1) in the middle of the strait narrows northward and/or southward

CONTACT Ming-An Lee malee@ntou.edu.tw

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4331

Figure 1. Water depth (m) of the Taiwan Strait and the surrounding seas (CYR: Chang-Yun Rise; TWB:
Taiwan Banks).

water transports. The Chang-Yun Rise blocks a part of the CCC and creates a U-shaped
circulation pattern in the northern TS. The combined effect of the Chang-Yun Rise and the
northeast monsoon leads to the formation of a quasi-permanent front surrounding the
northern end of the Chang-Yun Rise (Jan, Chen, and Wang 1998; Chang et al. 2006). The
movement of isotherms and the location of the front are crucial to local fishing grounds and to
the distribution of fish species and copepods (Lan et al. 2004; Lan et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2016).
The sea surface temperature (SST) in the TS illustrates the advective redistribution of heat
between the ECS and SCS. Because of rough sea conditions influencing field work data
collection, satellite SST data can be used to facilitate understanding of the hydrography and
circulation of the TS.
In addition to climate variability, global ocean warming has been identified as a vital
research topic in the ECS and SCS areas. Belkin (2009) detected a rapid warming of 1.22°C
between 1982 and 2006 in the ECS Large Marine Ecosystem (LME), and a median warming of
0.44°C in the SCS LME over the same period. In addition, three epochs were observed using
the Hadley Centre climatological data set HadISST1 with 1° × 1° spatial resolution and
monthly temporal resolution during the period 1957–2011 (Belkin and Lee 2014). The first
epoch of cooling SST lasted to the end of 1976. The regime shift of 1976–1977 led to an
extremely rapid warming of 2.10°C in the following 22 years. Another regime shift occurred
in 1998–1999, resulting in cooling of 1.00°C from 1998 to 2011. Long-term warming was also
more pronounced in winter, with the maximum warming exceeding 3.50°C in February
(Belkin and Lee 2014). SST warming is likely related to the decadal increase in wind speed in
the TS (Oey et al. 2013). Kuo and Lee (2013) further discovered that this variation of SST
warming may relate to topography, while the cold water bulge occupies the upper layer of
the area north of the Chang-Yun Rise in wintertime (Jan et al. 2002). The most substantial
warming region is around the winter fronts extending from the northwest of the Chang-Yun
Rise to the southern Taiwan Banks. To observe SST variations, including those associated
4332 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

with frontal features, long-term high-resolution satellite data are required. This study
examined high-resolution (4 km) satellite SST data over a period of 33 years to investigate
the long-term variability of SST during the northeast monsoon season in the TS.

2. Data and methods

Daily satellite SST images from the period 1980–2013 were collected from a set of
images captured with Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensors
installed on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites
(http://www.class.ngdc.noaa.gov). Images were also collected from the regional AVHRR
data library at National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan. The navigation and
cloud-detection techniques developed by Sakaida and Kawamura (1992) were adopted,
and the multichannel sea surface temperature (MCSST) algorithm (McClain, Pichel, and
Walton 1985) was applied to produce SST images with spatial resolutions of 4 km (1980–
1995) and 1.10 km (1996–2013). The data for a 1 × 1 km grid were interpolated onto a
4 × 4 km grid. Lee et al. (2005) validated the SST algorithm by comparing MCSSTs based
on AVHRR results from 1998 to 2002 with in situ data. These MCSSTs exhibited a minor
bias of 0.01°C, with a root mean square deviation of 0.64°C. The current study analysed
only the data collected during the northeast monsoon season. Monthly SST data were
generated by averaging all the available scenes for each month on a per-pixel basis
(excluding missing data and clouds). Nine images collected in January 1980, February
1980, October 1980, February 1982, February 1984, November 1993, December 1994,
October 1995, and December 2011 were omitted to prevent the results from being
biased because the cloud-free pixel coverage of these images was <85%. Because the
northeast monsoon season runs from October to March each year, the average data
collected during the season were considered as data for the annual monsoon season.
Monthly SST data for 33 annual monsoon seasons, covering 115°–122° E and 22°–26° N,
and comprising 321,201 spatial data points, were available for examining the changes in
northeast monsoon SST patterns in the TS resulting from global warming trends and
other climatic variations.
Reanalysed data (Kalnay et al. 1996) of monthly average 1000 hPa-level wind fields
from the National Center for Environmental Prediction were obtained from the NOAA/
OAR/ESRL PSD website (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/gridded/data.ncep.reanaly
sis.html). The correlation coefficient between wind speed variance and the Niño 3.4
index was computed in the study. Niño 3.4 (retrieved from http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/
data/indices/) is the average SST anomaly in the region bounded by 5° N to 5° S, and
170° W to 120° W. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration pro-
posed an operational definition of ‘El Niño’ on the basis of a 3-month average of Niño
3.4 SST anomalies ≥0.50°C. An East Asia winter monsoon (EAWM) index, defined by Ji
et al. (1997), was used to identify long-term variations in the intensity of the EAWM. Ji
et al. used the mean meridional velocity in a 1000 hPa field and a region of 10°–30° N,
115°–130° E to observe the interannual variations of the EAWM. This EAWM index has
been reported to be correlated with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) index
(Niño 3.4), having a correlation coefficient of 0.67. Different EAWM indices exist; some
are based on land–sea pressure differences (Shi, Xu, and Zhu 1996), whereas others are
based on zonal wind speeds in the higher troposphere (Jhun and Lee 2004) or the East
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4333

Asia trough (Sun and Sun 1995).The timing of interdecadal changes and the occur-
rence of strong or weak years obtained using different indices might differ slightly, but
the general trend is similar (Ding et al. 2014).

3. Results
3.1. Climatological patterns
Figure 2 shows the average climatological SST pattern from October to March in the 33 annual
monsoon seasons. During the northeast monsoon season in each year, the climatological SST
in the TS ranges from 12.50°C to 27.50°C, and the mean SST decreases from October to
February, but subsequently increases again from February–March. The SST decreases spatially
from the southeast towards the northwest, and the SST gradient is low during October
compared with that during the other months. In November, the SST in the TS is generally
higher than 20.00°C, which was employed as an index for the winter thermal front boundary
between the CCC and the Kuroshio Branch Current in the TS (Chang et al., 2013). In most years,
the northeast monsoon reaches the TS in October (Jan et al. 2002). The SST gradient increases
gradually from November onwards as the CCC intrudes southward along the Chinese coast. In
December, the SST in the western TS is lower than 20.00°C; by contrast, that in the Penghu
Channel region remains higher than 25.00°C.
An SST front emerges in January (Chang et al. 2006) around the western area of the
Chang-Yun Rise, formed by the cold CCC and warm Kuroshio branch. Cold water (<16°C)
intrudes southward into the Taiwan Banks area, and another front forms southeast of
the Taiwan Banks. The SST front strengthens further in February. In March, the Kuroshio

Figure 2. The average climatological SST pattern (a–f) from October to March in the 33 annual
monsoon seasons.
4334 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

branch current shifts northward, and the CCC retreats to the northwestern part of the TS,
followed by an increase of the SST in the TS. The highest monthly variation occurs
during the period between November and December. The lowest SST variation occurs
between January and February. From February until March, SST warming is prominent
along the western area of the Chang-Yun Rise to the area southward of the Taiwan
Banks, indicating a movement of the SST front, in addition to overall SST warming in
the TS.

3.2. Spatial average SST variation

Figure 3 depicts spatial average long-term SST variation in the TS. The coefficients of linear
trends for the 6 months during the 1980–2012 annual monsoon seasons exhibited positive
monthly increases. The long-term warming trend intensified from October (0.05°C y−1) to the
following March (0.12°C y−1). Table 1 lists basic statistical data for the spatial average SST of
each month. The SST warming trend appeared to cease after peaking in 1999; subsequently,
in January and February of 2000, the SST dropped slightly. The greatest interannual variations
occurred in January and February, and significant interannual change seemed to coincide
with ENSO events. In 2007/2008, a strong La Niña winter, the mean SST in January was even
higher than that of the previous year, whereas the cold SST in February resulted in severe
damage to the ecosystem in the vicinity of the Penghu region (Chang et al., 2013; Lee et al.,
2014). A similar cold water event occurred in the winter of 2011, when the monthly mean SST

Figure 3. (a) The spatial average long-term SST variation in the TS with the coefficients of linear
trends, and (b) 9-year running trend for the 6 months during the 1980–2012 annual monsoon
seasons.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4335

Table 1. The long-term average, minimum, maximum, standard deviation, the linear trend of SST and its
average’s correlation with wind speed during 1980–2012 annual monsoon seasons for each month.
Correlation with wind
Month Average Minimum Maximum SD Trend (°C y−1) speed over the TS
October 26.0 23.7 27.9 0.89 0.05 −0.25＊
November 23.4 20.8 25.3 1.10 0.06 −0.55＊
December 20.4 18.7 22.6 1.02 0.07 −0.39＊
January 18.1 14.1 20.5 1.67 0.10 −0.50＊
February 18.0 15.1 20.9 1.68 0.10 −0.60＊
March 19.7 16.3 22.6 1.55 0.12 −0.37＊
*95% significant level.

in the TS decreased to 17.00°C in February; however, this phenomenon did not occur entirely
within the defined La Niña period. Table 1 shows the correlations between the monthly mean
SST and the speed of the northeast monsoon in the TS region (116°–120° E, 22°–26° N), where
symbol * indicates those that reached a statistical significance of 95%. The correlations
between wind speed and spatial average SST in the TS were all negative and significant for
each month, especially for January (−0.50) and February (−0.60), inferring the weakened
northeasterly wind resulting in reduced cold advection associated CCC is a possible explana-
tion for the rapid SST warming in the TS. Figure 4 illustrates the spatial variation of the long-
term (1980–2012 annual monsoon seasons) warming trend (°C y−1). The SST warming trend in
the TS was nearly uniform during October and November. In December, the SST warming area
was greater west of the Chang-Yun Rise. The warming trend in January was most significant in
the area extending from the middle of the northern TS to the west of the Chang-Yun Rise,
while in February, the warming intruded into the Taiwan Banks. In March, the SST warming
area was most significant in the frontal regions to the west of the Chang-Yun Rise and
southeast of the Taiwan Banks.

Figure 4. The spatial variation of the long-term warming trend (°C y−1) for (a–f) October–March
during the 1980–2012 annual monsoon seasons.
4336 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

3.3. Decadal variations of SST warming trend

The SST warming trend exhibited decadal variations during the present study period.
Note that the linear regression method does not reveal the inner structure of variation in
the time series; hence the result might be misleading or become physically meaningless
for climatic data analyses. To further clarify the decadal climate trend, 9-year running
trend (Chikamoto et al. 2016) is calculated (Figure 3(b)). The SST trends grew from an
average of 0.05°C y−1 before 1990 to 0.17°C y−1 during 1995–2000, and then the running
trends significantly decreased roughly after 20,000 (except for SST in November). The
average SST running trends of the 6 months became negative (SST cooling) after 2005.
We conclude that the warming phenomenon appeared to cease after 2000.
Because the characteristics of the SST warming phenomenon changed after 2000, the
spatial SST trend might demonstrate decadal variation. Figures 5(a, and b) present the
spatial variations of the linear SST trend during the periods 1980–2000 and 2001–2012.
Generally, the spatial patterns of the SST trend exhibited warming before 2000, and cooling

Figure 5. The same as in Figure 4 but for (a) 1980–2000 and (b) 2001–2012.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4337

after 2000, as indicated by the time series of the spatial average data (Figure 5); however, in
March of the 2001–2012 monsoon seasons, the SST cooling trend occurred in the Chinese
coastal region, while prominent warming occurred in the northeastern TS (Figure 5(b)).

3.4. Long-term low-level wind variation

Figure 6 illustrates a plot of the EAWM index, as defined by Ji et al. (1997). Larger
(smaller) value indicates weaker (stronger) EAWM. The present study employed the
index for January. From 1980 to 2000, the EAWM index demonstrated an increasing
trend, peaking in 1998, indicating the weakening of the northeasterly monsoon
Subsequently, the EAWM index decreased over the following 13 years, exhibiting the
strengthening trend of the northeasterly monsoon in the past decade.
According to the results shown in Figures 3 and 5, the SST warming trend in the TS
ceased after the 2000 monsoon season; hence, long-term wind variations were further
plotted during the 1980–2000 and 2001–2012 monsoon seasons, as shown in Figures 7
and 8, respectively. From 1980 to 2000, anomalous cyclonic circulation centred on the
ECS region grew during October of each year. From November to March, an anomalous
anticyclonic circulation grew around the Luzon Strait area, and a northeastward wind
anomaly occurred over the TS and around the Chinese coastal area, implying that the
EAWM diminished over this period. This phenomenon indicated that prominent SST
warming during the winter monsoon combined with northward movement of the SST
front in the TS could be attributed to a weaker northeasterly wind, which is responsible
for the southward intrusion of the CCC into the TS from autumn to winter. From 2001 to
2012, the northeast monsoon strengthened significantly in the TS during the period
from October to January. This phenomenon partially explains the occurrence of SST
cooling in the TS during this period. Compared with the rest of the year, the wind speed
trend during the last 13 annual monsoon seasons was somewhat different in February
and March, when a westward wind anomaly existed in the TS area. This anomalous wind
could lead to an anomalous northward Ekman drift, resulting in a warmer SST in the TS.
The westward wind anomaly could also explain SST warming in March between 2001
and 2012 (Figure 5(b)).

Figure 6. Long-term variation of the EAWM index during 1980–2012 annual monsoon seasons.
4338 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

Figure 7. Climatological monthly mean (grey vector) and the linear trend (red vector) of the low-
level (1000 hPa) wind speed for (a–f) October–March during 1980–2000. The shaded areas exceed
the 90% confidence level.

4. Discussion and concluding remarks

The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change showed the global SST warming rate during the past 34 years (i.e. 1979–2012) to be
approximately 0.01°C y−1. SST warming was more prominent in winter than in the other
seasons (Schneider and Held 2001; Thompson and Wallace 2001); however, a high degree of
spatial incoherence exists for the SST warming phenomenon, for example, in certain regions
(e.g. the California Current), SST cooling occurred. The rate of ocean warming in the ECS has
been noted to be among the highest worldwide (Belkin 2009; Wu, Li, and Lin 2017). By
contrast, ocean warming in the northern SCS and the Kuroshio branch current southeast of
Taiwan is relatively mild. Zhang, Sperber, and Boyle (1997) suggested that winter warming is
related to the decreasing frequency of cold surges, which bring extremely cold and dry air
from Central Asia, and dissipated heat from the oceans. In the present study, SST warming in
the TS during November reaches 0.06°C y−1 (Table 1), which is five times higher than the
global annual mean for the past 34 years reported in the IPCC AR5. Specifically, fast warming
occurs in the frontal region of the TS, implying a frontal movement towards the cold zone.
SST warming and cooling phenomena are attributable to the weakening and
strengthening of the EAWM before and after 2000, respectively. Oey et al. (2013)
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4339

Figure 8. Climatological monthly mean (grey vector) and the linear trend (red vector) of the low-
level (1000 hPa) wind speed for (a–f) October–March during 2001–2012. The shaded areas exceed
the 90% confidence level.

reported that decadal warming (January–March 1998–2009 minus January–March

1987–1997) of shelf seas off the eastern coast of China in recent decades was accom-
panied by a stronger northeasterly wind and an on-shelf wind convergence from the
open Pacific. They argued that stronger wind can enhance the transportation of heat
from the Kuroshio branch current towards the CCC; however, the enhanced EAWM over
the TS in the past 13 years was accompanied by SST cooling, which is attributable to the
greater CCC intrusion into the TS through the strengthened northeast monsoon. The
EAWM index indicated a clear increasing trend from 1980 to 1998 and a decreasing
trend after 2000 (Figure 6). Ding et al. (2014) revealed that the waning of the EAWM that
occurred in the mid-1980s ended in the early 2000s; the EAWM has been strengthening
since the mid-2000s. This trend of EAWM variation has been examined using different
winter monsoon indices (Zhang, Sperber, and Boyle 1997; He and Wang 2012; Wang and
Fan 2013). The waning of the EAWM beginning in the mid-1980s is attributable to a shift
in the dominant mode, the Arctic Oscillation, from the viewpoint of atmospheric
circulation (He and Wang 2012), and coincides with the most rapid warming of winter
temperatures in East Asia, as well as being highly consistent with trends in the global
mean temperature (Zhu 2008; He and Wang 2012; Wang and Fan 2013).
4340 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

In summary, the use of long-term, high-resolution satellite data clearly demonstrated

the long-term variability of SST in the TS. The TS warmed during 1980–2000 and cooled
during 2001–2012. The spatial average of winter SST warming in the TS exhibited monthly
variations. It was the highest March; relatively lower in January and February; and the
lowest in October (Table 1). The spatial SST warming pattern revealed the movement of
SST fronts shifting towards the cold zone. The trends of SST in the TS were linked to the
decadal variation of EAWM during the past three decades. The SST warming phenomenon
in the TS during the wintertime was largely associated with the varying wind-driven ocean
circulation. To observe the dynamic process of variations in the frontal structure, addi-
tional data such as sea surface height or in situ measurements are required to determine
whether Kuroshio branch current transport in the TS is exhibiting an increasing trend, and
to identify whether the current transport might also be related to changes in the pressure
gradient corresponding to large-scale circulation anomalies.

Acknowledgments
This study was part of the Taiwan Integrated Research Program on Climate Change Adaptation
Technology, sponsored by grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, MOST
104-2621-M-019-001 and 104-2811-M-019-001.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This study was part of the Taiwan Integrated Research Program on Climate Change Adaptation
Technology, sponsored by grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan, MOST
104-2621-M-019-001 and 104-2811-M-019-001.

References
Belkin, I. M. 2009. “Rapid Warming of Large Marine Ecosystems.” Progress in Oceanography 81 (1–4):
207–213. doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2009.04.011.
Belkin, I. M., and M. A. Lee. 2014. “Long-Term Variability of Sea Surface Temperature in Taiwan
Strait.” Climatic Change 124: 821–834. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1121-4.
Chang, Y., M. A. Lee, K. T. Lee, and K. T. Shao. 2013. “Adaptation of Fisheries and Mariculture
Management to Extreme Oceanic Environmental Changes and Climate Variability in Taiwan.”
Marine Policy 38: 476–482. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2012.08.002.
Chang, Y., T. Shimada, M. A. Lee, H. J. Lu, F. Sakaida, and H. Kawamura. 2006. “Wintertime Sea
Surface Temperature Fronts in the Taiwan Strait.” Geophysical Research Letters 33: L23603.
doi:10.1029/2006GL027415.
Chen, Y. K., W. Y. Chen, Y. C. Wang, and M. A. Lee. 2016. “Winter Assemblages of Ichthyoplankton
in the Waters of the East China Sea Shelf and Surrounding Taiwan.” Fisheries Science 82: 755–
769. doi:10.1007/s12562-016-1012-x.
Chikamoto, Y., T. Mochizuki, A. Timmermann, M. Kimoto, and M. Watanabe. 2016. “Potential
Tropical Atlantic Impacts on Pacific Decadal Climate Trends.” Geophysical Research Letters 43
(13): 7143–7151. doi:10.1002/2016GL069544.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 4341

Chuang, W. S. 1985. “Dynamics of Subtidal Flow in the Taiwan Strait.” Journal of the
Oceanographical Society of Japan 41: 65–72. doi:10.1007/BF02109175.
Chuang, W. S. 1986. “A Note on the Driving Mechanisms of Current in the Taiwan Strait.” Journal of
the Oceanographical Society of Japan 42: 355–361. doi:10.1007/BF02110430.
Ding, Y., Y. Liu, S. Liang, X. Ma, Y. Zhang, S. Dong, P. Liang, Y. Song, and J. Zhang. 2014. “Interdecadal
Variability of the East Asian Winter Monsoon and Its Possible Links to Global Climate Change.”
Journal of Meteorological Research 28: 693–713. doi:10.1007/s13351-014-4046-y.
He, S. P., and H. J. Wang. 2012. An Integrated East Asian Winter Monsoon Index and Its Interannual
Variability. Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 36:523–538. in Chinese.
Jan, S., C. S. Chen, and J. Wang. 1998. “A Numerical Study on Currents in the Taiwan Strait during
Winter. Terrestrial.” Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences 9 (4): 615–632. doi:10.3319/
TAO.1998.9.4.615(O).
Jan, S., J. Wang, C. S. Chern, and S. Y. Chao. 2002. “Seasonal Variation of the Circulation in the Taiwan
Strait.” Journal of Marine Systems 35 (3): 249–268. doi:10.1016/S0924-7963(02)00130-6.
Jhun, J. G., and E. J. Lee. 2004. “A New East Asian Winter Monsoon Index and Associated
Characteristics of the Winter Monsoon.” Journal of Climate 17: 711–726. doi:10.1175/1520-
0442(2004)017<0711:ANEAWM>2.0.CO;2.
Ji, L. R., S. Q. Sun, K. Arpe, and L. Bengtsson. 1997. “Model Study on the Interannual Variability of
Asian Winter Monsoon and Its Influence.” Advances in Atmospheric Sciences 14: 1–22.
doi:10.1007/s00376-997-0039-4.
Kalnay, E., M. Kanamitsu, R. Kistler, W. Collins, D. Deaven, L. Gandin, M. Iredell, et al. 1996. “The
NCEP/NCAR 40-Year Reanalysis Project.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 77: 437–
470. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0437:TNYRP>2.0.CO;2.
Kuo, Y. C., and M. A. Lee. 2013. “Decadal Variation of Wintertime Sea Surface Temperature in the
Taiwan Strait.” Journal of Marine Science and Technology 21(S), 117–123.
Lan, K. W., M. A. Lee, C. I. K. Zhang, P. Y. Wang, L. J. Wu, and K. T. Lee. 2014. “Effects of Climate
Variability and Climate Change on the Fishing Conditions for Grey Mullet (Mugil Cephalus L.) In
the Taiwan Strait.” Climatic Change 126: 189–202. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1208-y.
Lan, Y. C., C. T. Shih, M. A. Lee, and H. Z. Shieh. 2004. “Spring Distribution of Copepods in Relation
to Water Masses in the Northern Taiwan Strait.” Zoological Studies 43 (2): 332–343.
Lee, M. A., Y. Chang, S. Futoki, H. Kawamura, C. H. Cheng, J. W. Chan, and I. Huang. 2005. “Validation
of Satellite-Derived Sea Surface Temperatures for Waters around Taiwan.” Terrestrial, Atmospheric
and Oceanic Sciences 16: 1189–1204. doi:10.3319/TAO.2005.16.5.1189(O).
Lee, M. A., Y. C. Yang, Y. L. Shen, Y. Chang, W. S. Tsai, K. W. Lan, and Y. C. Kuo. 2014. “Effects of an
Unusual Cold-water Intrusion in 2008 on the Catch of Coastal Fishing Methods Around Penghu
Islands, Taiwan.” Terrestrial, Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences 25: 1.
McClain, E. P., W. G. Pichel, and C. C. Walton. 1985. “Comparative Performance of AVHRR Based
Multichannel Sea Surface Temperatures.” Journal of Geophysical Research 90: 11587–11601.
doi:10.1029/JC090iC06p11587.
Oey, L. Y., M. C. Chang, Y. L. Chang, Y. C. Lin, and F. H. Xu. 2013. “Decadal Warming of Coastal China
Seas and Coupling with Winter Monsoon and Currents.” Geophysical Research Letters 40: 6288–
6292. doi:10.1002/2013GL058202.
Sakaida, F., and H. Kawamura. 1992. “Estimation of Sea Surface Temperature around Japan Using
the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)/NOAA-11.” Journal of Oceanography
48: 179–192. doi:10.1007/BF02239004.
Schneider, T., and I. Held. 2001. “Discriminants of Twentieth-Century Changes in Earth Surface
Temperatures.” Journal of Climate 14 (3): 249–254. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<0249:
LDOTCC>2.0.CO;2.
Shi, N., J. J. Xu, and Q. G. Zhu. 1996. The Intensity Index of Winter and Summer Monsoon Ove East
Asia and Its Variations. Journal of Nanjing Institute of Meteorology 19:168–176. in Chinese.
Sun, S. Q., and B. M. Sun. 1995. The Relationship between the Anomalous Winter Monsoon
Circulation over East Asia and Summer Drought/Flooding in the Yangtze and Huaihe River
Valley. Acta Meteorologica Sinica 57:513–522. in Chinese.
4342 Y.-C. KUO ET AL.

Thompson, D. W. J., and J. M. Wallace. 2001. “Regional Climate Impacts of the Northern
Hemisphere Annular Mode.” Science 293 (5527): 85–89. doi:10.1126/science.1058958.
Wang, H. J., and K. Fan. 2013. “Recent Changes in the East Asian Monsoon.” Chinese Journal of
Atmospheric Sciences 37: 313–318.
Wu, R., C. Li, and J. Lin. 2017. “Enhanced Winter Warming in the Eastern China Coastal Waters and Its
Relationship with ENSO.” Atmospheric Science Letters 18 (1): 11–18. doi:10.1002/asl.2017.18.issue-1.
Zhang, I., K. R. Sperber, and J. S. Boyle. 1997. “Climatology and Interannual Variation of the East
Asian Winter Monsoon: Results from the 1979–95 NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis.” Monthly Weather
Review 125 (10): 2605–2619. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<2605:CAIVOT>2.0.CO;2.
Zhu, Y. F. 2008. “An Index of East Asian Winter Monsoon Applied to the Description of China’s
Mainland Winter Temperature Changes.” Journal of Meteorological Research 22 (4): 522–529.