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Ebook Diagnostic Imaging Interventional Radiology PDF Full Chapter PDF
Ebook Diagnostic Imaging Interventional Radiology PDF Full Chapter PDF
Ebook Diagnostic Imaging Interventional Radiology PDF Full Chapter PDF
Wible
Buckley | Walker | Quencer | Davis
ii
THIRD EDITION
Brandt C. Wible, MD
Associate Professor
Section Head, Vascular & Interventional Radiology
University of Missouri-Kansas City
Saint Luke’s Hospital
Kansas City, Missouri
iii
Elsevier
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any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
iv
Dedication
To Helen, Brighton, Brayden,
and family not-so-extended,
for your continued faith, support,
and encouragement.
BCW
v
Contributing Authors
Joseph A. Ronsivalle, DO, FSIR Clifford R. Weiss, MD, FSIR, FCIRSE
Chairman, Medical Imaging Professor of Radiology
The Guthrie Clinic Radiological Science and Biomedical Engineering
Sayre, Pennsylvania Medical Director of the Center for
Bioengineering, Innovation and Design
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Joshua Kuban, MD Baltimore, Maryland
Associate Professor
Department of Interventional Radiology
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Lee S. Cummings, MD
Houston, Texas Surgical Director of Kidney Transplantation
Liver Transplant Surgeon
Surgical Director of HPB Surgery
Anatoly Loskutov, MD Saint Luke’s Hospital
Assistant Professor Clinical Assistant Professor of Surgery
Vascular & Interventional Radiology University of Missouri-Kansas City
University of Missouri-Kansas City Kansas City, Missouri
Saint Luke’s Hospital
Kansas City, Missouri
Matthew B. Wilkinson, MD, PhD
Abdominal Transplant and
Christos Georgiades, Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery
MD, PhD, FSIR, FCIRSE Saint Luke’s Hospital
Professor of Radiology, Oncology & Surgery Assistant Professor of Surgery
Director, Interventional Oncology University of Missouri-Kansas City
Vascular & Interventional Radiology Kansas City, Missouri
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
Andrew Kolarich, MD
Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology Resident
Kenneth H. Cho, MD, MBA The Johns Hopkins Hospital
Chief, Interventional Radiology Baltimore, Maryland
Einstein Medical Center Montgomery
East Norriton, Pennsylvania
Clinical Assistant Professor Yvonne Tsitsiou, MBBS BSc (Hons)
Sidney Kimmel College of Medicine Medical Student
at Jefferson University The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Baltimore, Maryland
vi
Jessica L. Burris, BS
Medical Student
Touro University California
College of Osteopathic Medicine
Vallejo, California
Nicolas Cardenas, MD
Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology Resident
The University of Texas at Houston Medical School
Houston, Texas
Wylie T. Foss, MD
Interventional Radiology Resident
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
Houston, Texas
Additional Contributors
Christopher Bailey, MD Zubin Irani, MD A. Keith Rastogi, MD
Nikhil Bhagat, MD Ross Holwerda, MD Jessica Sanchez, MD
Scott M. Brannan, MD Donald V. La Barge, III, MD, MBA Nathan Saucier, MD
Julia R. Crim, MD Raymond W. Liu, MD Ashraf Thabet, MD
Mandeep S. Dagli, MD Coleman O. Martin, MD Scott R. Shuldiner, MD
Suvranu Ganguli, MD Lara Mrak, MD, PhD Derek S. Vien, MD
Jared Halpin, MD Franklin Nwoke, MD Stephan Wicky, MD
Brian Holly, MD Steven Wu, MD
vii
Preface
Welcome to Diagnostic Imaging: Interventional Radiology, third edition. Designed as a “how-
to” guide and searchable reference, this third edition is instrumental to both trainees
and seasoned proceduralists. The text encompasses the extensive scope of vascular and
nonvascular procedures expected of a busy interventional radiology practice, covering topics
in a comprehensive yet straightforward fashion. Succinct text, bullet points, and subdivided
chapters allow rapid search of pre- and postprocedural concepts. Formerly titled Diagnostic
Imaging: Interventional Procedures, this retitled text highlights the breadth of procedures
and comprehensive abilities of the specialists for which it was authored, while the format
remains true to the first edition, created by T. Greg Walker, MD, FSIR.
This edition contains valuable contributions from authors of diverse practice types, including
those in private practice and those practicing at academic institutions, such as The Johns
Hopkins Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, The University of Texas MD Anderson
Cancer Center, Dotter Department of Interventional Radiology, University of Iowa, University
of Wisconsin, and University of Missouri-Kansas City.
I am eternally grateful to our team of authors for their dedication, expertise, and hard work.
Additional credit and gratitude goes out to the team of editors and illustrators at Elsevier,
setting the Diagnostic Imaging series of textbooks apart from any others currently available.
Special acknowledgement and gratitude is due to my professional colleagues, including the
technologists, nurses, staff, partners, and other professionals who I have the privilege of
working alongside daily within the Saint Luke’s Health System.
The opportunity to author this textbook flush with case images and outstanding graphics
has been extremely satisfying. I hope that you will find Diagnostic Imaging: Interventional
Radiology, third edition, to be a valuable addition to your practice!
Brandt C. Wible, MD
Associate Professor
Section Head, Vascular & Interventional Radiology
University of Missouri-Kansas City
Saint Luke’s Hospital
Kansas City, Missouri
viii
ix
x
Acknowledgments
LEAD EDITOR
Rebecca L. Bluth, BA
LEAD ILLUSTRATOR
Laura C. Wissler, MA
TEXT EDITORS
Arthur G. Gelsinger, MA
Nina Themann, BA
Terry W. Ferrell, MS
Megg Morin, BA
Kathryn Watkins, BA
Shannon Kelly, MA
ILLUSTRATIONS
Lane R. Bennion, MS
Richard Coombs, MS
IMAGE EDITORS
Jeffrey J. Marmorstone, BS
Lisa A. M. Steadman, BS
PRODUCTION EDITORS
Emily C. Fassett, BA
John Pecorelli, BS
xi
xii
Sections
SECTION 1:
General Principles
SECTION 2:
Venous, Portal, and Lymphatic Procedures
SECTION 3:
Arterial Procedures
SECTION 4:
Nonvascular Procedures
SECTION 5:
Oncologic Procedures
SECTION 6:
Posttransplant Procedures
SECTION 7:
Pain Management
SECTION 8:
Musculoskeletal Procedures
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 3: ARTERIAL PROCEDURES EXTREMITIES
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 530 Upper Extremity: Vasculitis and Revascularization
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR, Brandt C. Wible, MD, and
316 Arterial Access Zubin Irani, MD
Chad Davis, MD and Brandt C. Wible, MD 540 Upper Extremity Arteries: Exclusion
326 Closure Devices T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR and Zubin Irani, MD
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Derek S. Vien, MD, and T. Gregory 546 Infrainguinal Arteries: Revascularization
Walker, MD, FSIR Keith B. Quencer, MD and T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR
332 Access Site Complications Management 556 Infrainguinal Arteries: Exclusion
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD Keith B. Quencer, MD and T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR
564 Chronic Total Occlusion Revascularization
AORTA T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR
338 Thoracic Aorta and Great Vessels
Brandt C. Wible, MD and Zubin Irani, MD CRANIAL REVASCULARIZATION
348 Abdominal Aorta 576 Stroke Therapy
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR Jared Halpin, MD and Coleman O. Martin, MD
358 Thoracic Aortic Endografts 584 Carotid and Vertebral Arteries
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR, Brandt C. Wible, MD, and Jared Halpin, MD, Coleman O. Martin, MD, and T. Gregory
Zubin Irani, MD Walker, MD, FSIR
368 Abdominal Aortic Endografts
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR SECTION 4: NONVASCULAR
380 Endoleak Repair PROCEDURES
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
PULMONARY VASCULATURE
594 Biopsy Procedures
392 Pulmonary Embolism Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD 608 Drainage Procedures
402 Pulmonary Arteriovenous Malformations Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA, Christopher Bailey, MD,
and Clifford R. Weiss, MD, FSIR, FCIRSE GASTROINTESTINAL INTERVENTIONS
412 Bronchial Arteries 628 Gastrostomy/Gastrojejunostomy
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Mandeep S. Dagli, MD, and T. Brandt C. Wible, MD
Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR 640 Gastrointestinal Balloon Dilatation and Stenting
Brandt C. Wible, MD and Ashraf Thabet, MD
ABDOMEN AND PELVIS
420 Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage BILIARY INTERVENTIONS
Andrew Kolarich, MD, Yvonne Tsitsiou, and Christos 646 Transhepatic Biliary Interventions
Georgiades, MD, PhD, FSIR, FCIRSE Amanda L. Scott, DO, Kenneth H. Cho, MD, MBA, and
434 Lower Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage Brian Holly, MD
Andrew Kolarich, MD, Yvonne Tsitsiou, and Christos 656 Cholecystostomy
Georgiades, MD, PhD, FSIR, FCIRSE Conrad Pun, MD and Lara Mrak, MD, PhD
448 Mesenteric Ischemia
Brandt C. Wible, MD and Raymond W. Liu, MD GENITOURINARY INTERVENTIONS
462 Visceral Arteries
662 Genitourinary Interventions
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR, Franklin Nwoke, MD, and
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA, Brandt C. Wible, MD, and
Raymond W. Liu, MD
Ashraf Thabet, MD
472 Renal Arteries: Revascularization and Exclusion
676 Fertility and Sterility Interventions
Keith B. Quencer, MD and T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD
496 Pelvic Arteries: Revascularization
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR SPINAL INTERVENTIONS
508 Pelvic Arteries: Exclusion
T. Gregory Walker, MD, FSIR 682 Lumbar Puncture, Myelogram, and CSF Leaks
520 Uterine Artery Embolization Brandt C. Wible, MD, Ross Holwerda, MD, and Coleman
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA and Brandt C. Wible, MD O. Martin, MD
686 Vertebral Augmentation and Sacroplasty
Brandt C. Wible, MD
xv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
834 Ankle Arthrography
SECTION 5: ONCOLOGIC PROCEDURES Brandt C. Wible, MD, A. Keith Rastogi, MD, and Julia R.
700 Percutaneous Tumor Ablation Crim, MD
Nicolas Cardenas, MD, Jessica L. Burris, BS, and Joshua 838 Foot Arthrography
Kuban, MD Brandt C. Wible, MD, Julia R. Crim, MD, and Jessica
716 Hepatic Chemoembolization Sanchez, MD
Chad Davis, MD and Mandeep S. Dagli, MD 842 Therapeutic Joint Injections
728 Hepatic Radioembolization Brandt C. Wible, MD, A. Keith Rastogi, MD, and Julia R.
Chad Davis, MD Crim, MD
740 Renal Ablation and Embolization
Joseph A. Ronsivalle, DO, FSIR and Ashraf Thabet, MD
750 Thoracic Ablation and Embolization
Jennifer R. Buckley, MD, MBA, Brandt C. Wible, MD, and
Ashraf Thabet, MD
758 Musculoskeletal Ablation and Embolization
Brandt C. Wible, MD and Ashraf Thabet, MD
SECTION 6: POSTTRANSPLANT
PROCEDURES
766 Transplant Kidney Procedures
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Lee S. Cummings, MD, and Matthew
B. Wilkinson, MD, PhD
778 Transplant Liver Procedures
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Matthew B. Wilkinson, MD, PhD,
and Lee S. Cummings, MD
SECTION 8: MUSCULOSKELETAL
PROCEDURES
810 Shoulder Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, A. Keith Rastogi, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
814 Elbow Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Jessica Sanchez, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
818 Wrist Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, A. Keith Rastogi, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
822 Sacroiliac Joint Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, A. Keith Rastogi, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
824 Hip Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Jessica Sanchez, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
830 Knee Arthrography
Brandt C. Wible, MD, Jessica Sanchez, MD, and Julia R.
Crim, MD
xvi
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THIRD EDITION
Wible
Buckley | Walker | Quencer | Davis
SECTION 1
General Principles
Procedural Considerations
Pharmacologics 4
Procedural Patient Management 10
Radiation Safety 18
Procedural Techniques
Angioplasty 22
Thrombolysis and Thrombectomy 30
Embolization 42
Stents: Vascular 54
Stents: Nonvascular 66
Embolic Protection 70
Atherectomy 78
Pharmacologics
KEY FACTS
General Principles
All medications on the sterile field are appropriately labeled. Color-coded syringes may also be used to decrease the chance of medication
confusion and error.
4
Pharmacologics
General Principles
• Moxifloxacin: Fluoroquinolone
PREPROCEDURE
○ Typical dose: 400 mg PO daily
Analgesia/Pain Management • Piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn): Broad-spectrum penicillin
• Opioids with β-lactamase inhibitor
○ Causes respiratory depression; secondary effects can ○ Typical dose: 3.375 g IV
produce sedation • Vancomycin (Vancocin): Glycopeptide
○ Opioid reversal agent: Naloxone (Narcan) ○ Typical dose: 1 g or 15 mg/kg IV
– Typical dose: 0.1-0.2 mg IV q 2-3 min ○ Alternative for patients allergic to penicillins
– Reversal agent may wear off before opioid; must
Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet
continue to monitor patient closely and may
require additional doses • Apixaban (Eliquis): Direct oral anticoagulant (factor Xa
○ Fentanyl (Sublimaze): Opioid inhibitor)
– Most common choice for interventional procedures ○ Deep vein thrombosis (DVT/pulmonary embolism (PE)
dosing: 10 mg PO 2x daily for first 7 days, then 5 mg PO
– Rapid onset (within min); lasts 30-60 min
2x daily
– Typical initial dose: 25-100 μg IV; redose as needed
○ May decrease to 2.5 mg 2x daily after 6 months
○ Hydrocodone: Opioid
○ Reversed with andexanet alfa
– Typical dose: 5-10 mg PO
• Clopidogrel (Plavix): Thienopyridine platelet inhibitor
○ Hydromorphone (Dilaudid): Powerful opioid
○ 300 mg PO loading dose on day of stent placement
– Typical dose: 0.5-2.0 mg IV or 2-4 mg PO
○ 75 mg PO daily following stent placement
○ Morphine: Opioid
• Enoxaparin (Lovenox): Low-molecular-weight heparin
– Typical dose: 2-10 mg IV
○ Typical dose: 40 mg subcutaneous daily for DVT
○ Oxycodone (Roxicodone): Opioid
prophylaxis
– Typical dose: 5 mg PO
○ 1 mg/kg subcutaneous 2x daily for DVT treatment
○ Tramadol (Ultram): Opioid for moderate pain
• Heparin: Indirect thrombin inhibitor; immediate onset, lasts
– Typical dose: 50-100 mg PO 60-90 min
○ Meperidine (Demerol): Opioid ○ Intraprocedural dose
– Used to treat rigors – Weight-based nomogram: 80 units/kg body weight
– Typical dose: 25-50 mg IV or 50-150 mg IM – Standard-care nomogram: 5,000 units IV
• Ketorolac (Toradol): Powerful NSAID – Decreased in cases of elevated prothrombin time,
○ Typical dose: 15-30 mg IV q 6 hr or 30-60 mg IM q 6 hr or warfarin, or low patient weight
10 mg PO q 4-6 hr ○ Continuous infusion: Titrate to partial thromboplastin
○ Caution in patients with renal dysfunction time level of 1.5-2.5x normal
○ Use of NSAIDs may help decrease opioid need – Weight-based nomogram: 80 units/kg body weight
Antibiotics bolus, 18 units/kg/hr IV infusion
• Ampicillin (Omnipen): Broad-spectrum aminopenicillin – Standard-care nomogram: 5,000 units IV bolus, 800-
1,600 units/hr IV infusion
○ Typical dose: 250-500 mg PO q 6 hr or 1-2 g IV q 4-6 hr
○ Monitor for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)
• Ampicillin/sulbactam (Unasyn): Adds β-lactamase inhibitor
○ Reversed with protamine sulfate
○ Typical dose: 1.5-3 g IV q 6 hr
– Typical dose: 10 mg/1,000 units heparin, decreased
• Bacitracin: Concentration of 5,000-10,000 units/mL may be
based on time since last heparin administration
flushed into port pocket/central venous catheter tunnel
• Rivaroxaban (Xarelto): Direct oral anticoagulant (factor Xa
• Cefazolin (Ancef): 1st-generation cephalosporin
inhibitor)
○ Typical dose: 1-2 g IV within 1 hr of procedure
○ DVT/PE treatment: 15 mg PO 2x daily for first 21 days,
• Cefotetan (Cefotan): 2nd-generation cephalosporin
then 20 mg PO 1x daily
○ Typical dose: 1-2 g IV
○ May decrease to 10 mg 1x daily after 6 months
• Ceftriaxone (Rocephin): 3rd-generation cephalosporin
○ Reversed with andexanet alfa
○ Typical dose: 1 g IV
• Tissue plasminogen activator (Alteplase): Thrombolytic;
• Ciprofloxacin (Cipro): Fluoroquinolone thoroughly evaluate patient for potential contraindications
○ Typical dose: 250-500 mg PO 2x daily x 5-7 days ○ Typical dose: 0.5-1.0 mg/hr, catheter-directed
• Clindamycin (Cleocin): Lincosamide thrombolysis
○ Typical dose: 600-900 mg PO or IV ○ Typical dose: Up to 10 mg laced into thrombus for
○ Alternative for patients allergic to penicillins pharmacomechanical thrombolysis
• Gentamicin (Garamycin): Aminoglycoside • Warfarin (Coumadin): Vitamin K antagonist; effect lasts ~ 5
○ Typical dose: 1.5 mg/kg IV days
○ Usually given in combination with ampicillin ○ Typical initial dose: 2-5 mg daily x 1-2 days
– May be given with vancomycin or clindamycin in ○ Titrate dose to international normalized ratio (INR) goal,
patients allergic to penicillins typically 2-3 for DVT/PE
• Metronidazole (Flagyl): Nitroimidazole
Anxiolysis/Sedation
○ Typical loading dose: 1 g or 15 mg/kg IV
○ Typical maintenance dose: 500 mg or 7.5 mg/kg IV or PO • Benzodiazepines
5
Pharmacologics
General Principles
○ Monitor for respiratory depression, ensure NPO status • Red blood cells: 1 unit increases hemoglobin by ~ 1 g/dL
○ Benzodiazepine reversal agent: Flumazenil
Contrast Reaction Management
(Romazicon)
– Typical dose: 0.2 mg IV repeated q minute as needed; • Albuterol inhaler: β agonist
maximum dose: 1 mg ○ Typical dose: 2 puffs (180 μg), repeat up to 3x
– Reversal agent may wear off before • Dextrose
benzodiazepine; must continue to monitor patient ○ PO: 2 sugar packets, 15-g tablets, or 4-oz juice
closely and may require additional doses ○ IV: 1-amp (25-g) D50W
○ Lorazepam (Ativan): Benzodiazepine • Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): Antihistamine
– Typical dose: 0.5-2.0 mg IV or PO ○ Typical dose: 50 mg PO or IV
– 2-4 mg IV for seizures/status epilepticus • Epinephrine: Multiple dose options
○ Midazolam (Versed): Benzodiazepine ○ 0.1 mg (1 mL) of 1:10,000 IV
– Most common medication used for sedation – Can repeat up to 1 mg total
– Onset 2-4 min, lasts 45-60 min ○ 0.3 mg (0.3 mL) of 1:1,000 IM
– Typically dosed in 0.5- to 1.0-mg IV boluses – Can repeat up to 1 mg total
• Furosemide (Lasix): Typical dose: 20-40 mg IV
Blood Glucose Management
• Glucagon: Typical dose: 1 mg IM
• Hyperglycemic management • Labetalol: Typical dose: 20 mg IV
○ Insulin (short acting): Typical dose: 5-10 units • Lorazepam (Ativan): Typical dose: 2-4 mg IV
subcutaneous • Nitroglycerin: Typical dose: 0.4 mg sublingual
• Hypoglycemia management ○ Can repeat q 5-10 min
○ Dextrose
– Typical dose: 25 g (50 mL) of 50% dextrose (D50W) IV Contrast Reaction Pretreatment
– Can also order 15-g tablets or 4-oz juice PO • Elective premedication
○ Glucagon: Typical dose of 1 mg IV, IM, or subcutaneous ○ Option 1
– Prednisone: 50 mg PO at 13, 7, and 1 hr before
Blood Pressure Management
contrast
• Acute antihypertensives – Optional: Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) 50 mg IV or PO
○ Hydralazine: Vasodilator, may increase heart rate 1 hr before contrast
– Typical dose: 20 mg IV; onset 10-20 min – If patient cannot take PO medication, can instead use
– Repeat as needed, may increase dose 200-mg hydrocortisone IV for each dose of
○ Labetalol (Trandate): Nonselective β-blocker, caution prednisone
with COPD/asthma ○ Option 2
– Typical dose: 20 mg IV; onset 5 (peak 10-15) min – Methylprednisolone (Medrol): 32 mg PO at 12 and 2
– Lowers heart rate hr before contrast
○ Metoprolol (Lopressor): β1-blocker – Optional: Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): 50 mg IV or
– Typical dose: 5 mg IV; may repeat 3x PO 1 hr before contrast
• Vasopressors • Emergency premedication
○ Epinephrine ○ Preferred regimen: Ideally, give 1st dose of steroid 4-5 hr
– Typical dose: 0.05-2.00 μg/kg/min; titrate to blood before contrast
pressure (BP) goal – Methylprednisolone sodium succinate (Solu-Medrol):
○ Norepinephrine (Levophed) 40 mg; or hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Solu-
– Initial infusion: 8-12 μg/min; titrate to BP goal Cortef): 200 mg IV immediately, then q 4 hr until
– Typical maintenance infusion: 2-4 μg/min contrast given
○ Phenylephrine – Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): 50 mg IV 1 hr before
– Initial infusion: 100-180 μg/min; titrate to BP goal contrast
– Typical maintenance infusion: 40-60 μg/min ○ 2nd-choice regimen: Ideally, give 1st dose of steroid 4-5
hr before contrast
Blood Products and Volume Resuscitation – Dexamethasone sodium sulfate (Decadron): 7.5 mg IV
• Albumin: Volume expander immediately, then q 4 hr until contrast
○ Available as 5% or 25% – Diphenhydramine (Benadryl): 50 mg IV 1 hr before
○ Commonly given after paracentesis > 5 L contrast
– Typical dose: 6-8 g/L of ascitic fluid removed ○ Least preferable regimen: Use in emergency situation
• Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) when there is not time for ≥ 4- to 5-hr premedication
○ Contains all coagulation factors regimen
○ Used to correct INR for patients taking warfarin who – Methylprednisolone sodium succinate (Solu-Medrol):
need emergent or urgent procedure 40 mg; or hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Solu-
– Also used on patients with multiple factor deficiencies Cortef): 200 mg IV 1 hr before contrast administration
• Normal saline: Typical bolus of 1 L, often reduced in CHF – Diphenhydramine 50 mg IV 1 hour before contrast
administration
• Platelets: Typical dose: 1 apheresis unit or 6 pooled units
○ Raises platelet count by ~ 30,000-60,000/μL
6
Pharmacologics
General Principles
○ IV steroids have not been proven to be effective when Reversal Agents
given < 4- to 5-hr prior to contrast administration; using • Benzodiazepine reversal
any regimen of shorter duration should be reserved for
○ Flumazenil (Romazicon): Benzodiazepine antagonist
emergency situation without other alternatives
– Typical dose: 0.2 mg IV q 1 min
Gastrointestinal □ Repeat dose q 1 min for max dose of 1 mg
• Antinausea/antiemetics – May be shorter acting than benzodiazepines
○ Ondansetron (Zofran): Serotonin receptor blocker □ Patient must be closely monitored and may need
– Typical dose: 4-8 mg IV, 4-16 mg PO multiple doses
○ Prochlorperazine (Compazine): Antipsychotic • Direct oral anticoagulant/factor Xa inhibitor reversal
– Typical dose: 5-10 mg IV or PO ○ Andexanet alfa (recombinant modified factor Xa protein)
○ Promethazine (Phenergan): Antihistamine with sedative ○ Low-dose protocol: Use if last apixaban dose was ≤ 5 mg,
effect last rivaroxaban dose was ≤ 10 mg, or last dose of either
– Typical dose: 12.5-25 mg IV or PO medication was > 8 hr prior
○ Metoclopramide (Reglan): Prokinetic – 400-mg IV bolus given at 30 mg/min followed by 4
– Typical dose: 10 mg IV, 10-15 mg PO mg/min infusion for up to 2 hr
• Halt/decrease GI peristalsis ○ High-dose protocol: Use if last apixaban dose was > 5 mg
and within 8 hr, or last rivaroxaban dose was > 10 mg and
○ Glucagon: Improves DSA imaging (e.g., GI bleed study),
within 8 hr
improves gastric insufflation (gastrostomy)
– 800-mg IV bolus given at 30 mg/min followed by 8
– Typical dose: 0.5-1 mg IV
mg/min infusion for up to 2 hr
– Increases blood glucose, caution in diabetic patients
• Heparin reversal
Heart Rate Management ○ Protamine sulfate
• Tachycardia due to atrial fibrillation – Typical dose: 10 mg/1,000 units heparin given
○ Diltiazem (Cardizem): Calcium channel blocker □ Dose may be decreased based on time since last
– Typical dose: 20 mg IV; can repeat dose with 25 mg q heparin administration
15 minutes • Opioid reversal
○ Propranolol (Inderal): β-blocker ○ Naloxone (Narcan): Opioid antagonist
– Typical dose: 1 mg IV; may repeat dose after 2 min; – Typical dose: 0.1-0.2 mg IV q 2-3 min
max dose: 2 mg q 4 hr – Often shorter acting than opioids
• Bradycardia management □ Patient must be closely monitored and may need
○ Atropine: Anticholinergic agent multiple doses
– Typical dose: 0.5-1 mg IV – May cause nausea, withdrawal
• Warfarin reversal
Hyperkalemia Management
○ Vitamin K (phytonadione)
• Calcium gluconate – Typical dose: 1.0-2.5 mg PO
○ Typical dose: 500 mg to 2 g IV ○ FFP for emergent reversal
• Short-acting insulin (NovoLog, Humalog)
○ Typical dose: 5-10 units IV; give with sugar to prevent Sclerosants
hypoglycemia • Sodium tetradecyl sulfate (STS) (Sotradecol): 3%
concentration
Local Anesthesia
○ Create foam mixture (3 air:2 STS:1 lipiodol)
• Lidocaine: Amide anesthetic ○ Maximum 0.5 mL/kg or 20 mL per session
○ Usually 1-2%, ± epinephrine ○ Can necrose skin and mucosa
○ Max subcutaneous dose: 4.5 mg/kg up to 300 mg • Bleomycin
without epinephrine, 7 mg/kg up to 500 mg with
○ Typical dose: 1-unit/cc foam (e.g., 6-units bleomycin in 1-
epinephrine
mL saline + 1-mL albumin + 4-mL air)
○ Up to 10 mg may also be given intraarterially prior to
○ Can cause potentially permanent discoloration of skin in
embolization (e.g., uterine artery embolization,
areas of minor skin trauma; avoid skin tape or any other
chemoembolization)
adhesive on skin during time of procedure
• Chloroprocaine: Ester anesthetic
• Ethanol: Strong sclerosant, use caution
○ May be used for patients with lidocaine allergies
○ Typical dose: 25-50% of estimated volume to sclerose
○ Max subcutaneous dose: 11 mg/kg up to 800 mg
○ Maximum < 0.5 mL/kg or 40 mL per session
without epinephrine, 14 mg/kg up to 1,000 mg with
○ Nerve damage, necrosis of skin/mucosa cardiovascular
epinephrine
collapse/death possible
Miscellaneous
Vasospasm Management
• Octreotide: Somatostatin analog given prior to adrenal
• Nitroglycerin: Vasodilator
biopsy or locoregional therapy of hormonally active
○ Typical dose: 100-200 μg IV or IA
neuroendocrine tumors
• Verapamil: Calcium channel blocker
○ Typical dose: 200 μg subcutaneous
○ Typical dose: 2.5 mg IV or IA
7
Pharmacologics
General Principles
PBD = percutaneous biliary drainage; PCN = percutaneous nephrostomy; PCNUS = percutaneous nephroureteral stent; PTC = percutaneous transhepatic
cholangiogram. Patients with penicillin allergies may be given vancomycin or combination of clindamycin + gentamycin in place of a penicillin antibiotic.
Adapted from: Venkatesan AM et al: Adult and pediatric antibiotic prophylaxis during vascular and IR procedures: a Society of Interventional
Radiology practice parameter update endorsed by the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe and the Canadian
Association for Interventional Radiology. J Vasc Interv Radiol; 29:1483-501, 2018.
8
Pharmacologics
General Principles
Treatment of Contrast Reactions in Adults
Symptoms Treatment
All reactions Maintain IV access; monitor vitals; provide supplemental O₂ as needed; call rapid
response, code, or 911 as needed
Anxiety/panic attack Diagnosis of exclusion; reassure patient, continue to monitor for signs/symptoms of
another type of reaction
Bronchospasm Mild: 2 puffs (180 μg total) albuterol inhaler
Moderate: Albuterol and consider 0.1-mg (1-mL) epinephrine 1:10,000 IV or 0.3-mg (0.3-
mL) epinephrine 1:1,000 IM
Severe: Albuterol and 0.1-mg (1-mL) epinephrine 1:10,000 IV or 0.3-mg (0.3-mL)
epinephrine 1:1,000 IM
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
DIffuse erythema 6-10 L/min O₂
Hives 25- to 50-mg diphenhydramine (Benadryl) (PO for mild, PO/IM/IV for moderate, IM/IV for
severe)
Hypoglycemia 6-10 L/min O₂
If patient can safely swallow, oral glucose (2 sugar packets or 15 g of tablets or 4 oz fruit
juice)
If patient unable to safely swallow, 1-amp (25-g) D50W IV
If patient unable to swallow and no IV access, 1-mg glucagon IM
Hypotension 1-L bolus of normal saline or lactated Ringer
Elevate legs
If unresponsive to fluids, 0.1-mg (1-mL) epinephrine 1:10,000 IV (preferred) or 0.3-mg (0.3-
mL) epinephrine 1:1,000 IM
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Hypotension with bradycardia (vasovagal) If unresponsive to fluids and supplemental oxygen, 0.6- to 1.0-mg atropine IV; can repeat
up to 3 mg
Hypotension with tachycardia (anaphylactoid reaction) 0.1-mg (1-mL) epinephrine 1:10,000 IV (preferred) or 0.3-mg (0.3-mL) epinephrine 1:1,000
IM; can repeat up to 1 mg
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Hypertensive crisis (systolic > 200 mm Hg, diastolic > 120 6-10 L/min O₂
mm Hg, symptoms of end-organ compromise) 20-mg labetalol IV (can double dose q 10 minutes) or 0.4-mg nitroglycerin sublingual and
20- to 40-mg furosemide (Lasix) IV; call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Laryngeal edema 6-10 L/min O₂
0.1-mg (1-mL) epinephrine 1:10,000 IV or 0.3-mg (0.3-mL) epinephrine 1:1,000 IM
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Pulmonary edema 6-10 L/min O₂
Elevate head of bed
20- to 40-mg furosemide (Lasix) IV
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Seizures Protect patient and turn on side
Suction airway as needed
6-10 L/min O₂
If not resolving spontaneously, 2- to 4-mg lorazepam (Ativan) IV
Call rapid response, code, or 911 as needed
Adapted from American College of Radiology Manual on Contrast Media, 2021. https://www.acr.org/-/media/ACR/files/clinical-
resources/contrast_media.pdf. Accessed Jan 30, 2022.
9
Procedural Patient Management
KEY FACTS
General Principles
10
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
• Review medications
PREPROCEDURE WORK-UP
○ Metformin: Watch for metformin-associated lactic
Provide High-Quality Care acidosis if contrast is being administered
• Interventional radiology (IR) must provide high-quality care – Utilize low/iso-osmolar contrast agents only
• Safe: Avoid injuries to patients from care that is intended to – If renal function is normal, stop metformin at time of
help them procedure; resume after 48 hours if renal function is
• Effective: Avoid underuse and overuse of care preserved
• Patient centered: Provide care that is respectful of and – If renal function impaired, stop metformin 48 hours
responsive to individual patient preferences, needs, and prior to procedure; resume after 48 hours if renal
values, ensuring that patient values guide all decisions function is preserved
• Timely: Reduce wait time and sometimes harmful delays – If procedure is emergent, stop metformin at time of
for both those who receive and those who give care procedure and initiate hydration protocol; resume
• Efficient: Avoid waste after 48 hours if renal function is preserved
• Equitable: Provide care that does not vary in quality • Preprocedural labs
because of personal characteristics, such as gender, ○ Dependent on whether procedure to be performed is
ethnicity, geographic location, and socioeconomic status considered low or high bleeding risk
○ Low bleeding risk: Prothrombin time (PT)/INR, (platelet
Prioritize Patient's Overall Health count/hemoglobin not routinely recommended)
• Main goal is to take charge of patient's condition and – INR: Correct to ≤ 2.0-3.0
prioritize patient's overall health – Platelets: Transfuse if < 20,000/μL
• With this goal in mind, it is necessary to ○ High bleeding risk: PT/INR, platelet count, hemoglobin
○ Overcome logistical and communication hurdles routinely recommended
○ Communicate thoroughly with referring physician to – INR: Correct to within range: ≤ 1.5-1.8
acquire holistic view of patient's condition – Platelets: Transfuse if < 50,000/μL
○ Develop culture of responsibility • Management recommendations for most common
Systematic Approach to Preprocedural Care anticoagulation and antiplatelet agents
○ Low-bleeding-risk procedures
• (1) Patient referral
– Do not withhold unfractionated heparin, low-
• (2) Review history and pertinent diagnostic studies
molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)/Lovenox,
○ Suggest alternatives/proceed/cancel procedure
apixaban, dabigatran, rivaroxaban, clopidogrel, aspirin
• (3) If plan to proceed, initiate patient contact
– Warfarin: Target INR ≤ 3.0; consider bridging for high-
○ Review history thrombosis-risk cases
○ Physical examination ○ High-bleeding-risk procedures
○ Informed consent – Heparin IV: Withhold for 4-6 hours before procedure;
○ Review medications (continue/adjust) check activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) or
○ Order tests anti-Xa level; for BID or TID dosing of subcutaneous
– Decide if acceptable for procedure heparin, procedure may be performed 6 hours after
– Correct abnormal values last dose
Patient Referral – LMWH/Lovenox: Withhold 1 dose if prophylactic dose;
withhold 2 doses or 24 hours before procedure if
• Requires effective communication with referring team therapeutic dose used; check anti-Xa level if renal
• Ensure appropriate procedure performed function is impaired
• Discuss potential risks and benefits – Warfarin: Withhold 5 days until target INR ≤ 1.8;
• Understand likely outcome consider bridging for high-thrombosis-risk cases; if
Key Questions in Advance Planning STAT or emergent, use reversal agent
– Apixaban: Withhold 4 doses (CrCl ≥ 50 mL/min) or 6
• What am I aiming to achieve? Do I have expertise?
doses (CrCl < 30-50 mL/min); if procedure is STAT or
• Do I need multidisciplinary approach? Do I need assistance emergent, use reversal agent (andexanet alfa);
from colleagues? consider checking anti-Xa or apixaban level if renal
• Am I equipped to manage complications? function is impaired
• Might I stop before my objective is reached? – Dabigatran: Withhold 4 doses (CrCl ≥ 50 mL/min) or 6
Patient Contact doses (CrCl < 30-50 mL/min); if procedure is STAT or
emergent, use reversal agent (idarucizumab); consider
• Review history of current problem
checking thrombin time or dabigatran level if renal
• Review pertinent medical/surgical history
function is impaired
• Review systems
– Rivaroxaban: Withhold 4 doses (CrCl ≥ 50 mL/min) or 6
• Review laboratory results; evaluate risk of contrast-induced doses (CrCl < 30-50 mL/min); if procedure is STAT or
acute kidney injury emergent, use reversal agent (andexanet alfa);
• Review imaging studies consider checking anti-Xa or rivaroxaban level if renal
• Directed physician examination function is impaired
○ Vascular procedures: Puncture site, extremity pulses – Clopidogrel: Withhold for 5 days before procedure
• Informed consent (later described under "Consent" section) – Aspirin: Withhold 3-5 days before procedure
11
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
12
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
– Incorporated in triage of treatment for patients with – What to expect from procedure
hepatocellular carcinoma in Barcelona Clinic Liver – Assess patient's understanding
Cancer (BCLC) staging – Solicit expression of willingness
CONSENT SEDATION
Informed Consent Level of Sedation
• Communication process between qualified doctor, usually • Base sedation plan on procedural complexity and patient
operator, who fully understands procedure and • Sedation levels (in order of decreasing sedation)
patient/patient's representative to authorize intervention ○ General endotracheal anesthesia
○ Done to respect patient's legal and ethical right to ○ Monitored anesthesia care
autonomy ○ Deep sedation
• Necessary elements ○ Moderate sedation
○ Nature of procedure ○ Minimal sedation/anxiolysis
– Purpose, risks, and benefits ○ Local anesthesia only
○ Alternatives
– Including no treatment Moderate Sedation
○ Patient understanding • Most often employed sedation plan/level for routine IR
– Often overestimated by physician procedures
□ Check by asking patient to explain procedure, risks, • 0.5% adverse cardiopulmonary events from moderate
benefits, and alternatives in their own words sedation
○ Voluntary acceptance ○ Proper patient selection and early recognition and
– No coercion, deceit, duress appropriate intervention avoids complications
• Signing consent form is culmination of dialogue, not proof • Definition: Sedation state allowing patient to retain ability
of informed patient consent to respond purposefully to verbal/tactile stimuli
• Obtain consent for additional procedures that may be ○ Cardiovascular function, respiratory function, and airway
required during procedure maintained
○ Example: Obtain consent for chest tube placement if • Typical agents: Benzodiazepine (e.g., midazolam) + opioid
performing lung biopsy (e.g., fentanyl)
○ Consent for sedation if being used ○ Act synergistically
• Performing procedure without proper informed consent → • Benzodiazepine
potential tort ○ Actions: Anxiolysis, antegrade amnesia, sedative, muscle
○ Battery relaxation
– Unwanted touching ○ Enhances effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
○ Negligence – Reduces neuronal excitability
– Not meeting professional standards ○ Midazolam (Versed) is preferred benzodiazepine
– Typical adult midazolam dose
Exceptions to Informed Consent □ 0.5-2 mg initial bolus
• Presumed consent/emergency consent □ 0.5-1 mg additional doses as needed
○ Patient incapacitated in life-/limb-threatening □ Use lower doses in debilitated patients, older adult
emergency, no surrogate patients, and patients with respiratory insufficiency,
○ Act in patient's best interest until surrogate found or hepatic impairment, and renal failure
until patient regains capacity □ Single dose: Metabolism unchanged with renal
○ Typically requires 2 attending signatures/notes in chart failure
per institution policy □ Multiple doses: Prolonged procedure increases
• Incapacity can be 2° to organic/psychiatric disorders duration of effect due to byproduct accumulation
○ Capacity: Determined by physician (clinical) □ Hepatic impairment results in decreased clearance
○ Competence: Determined by judge (legal) with stronger and prolonged effects
○ Patient can be competent and refuse treatment – Pharmacokinetics
– Explore reasons for refusal □ Metabolized by liver, excreted in urine
• Surrogate decision maker: Designated by patient for □ Onset of action: 2-5 minutes after IV injection (wait
periods of incapacity 5 minutes before redosing)
○ Order: Legal guardian (appointed by state), spouse, adult □ Elimination half-life: 1.5-2.5 hours (this is prolonged
son or daughter, parent, adult sibling, adult grandchild, in patients who are older adults, obese, chronically
close friend ill, or have CHF or liver/renal impairment)
• Minors – Paradoxical reaction = agitation, involuntary
○ Obtain informed permission from parent/guardian movements, hyperactivity, hostility, excitement (seen
○ Obtain assent, to extent possible, from child in children, older adults, patients with dementia)
○ Assent elements – Pregnancy class D: Excreted in breast milk with
– Help patient obtain developmentally appropriate positive evidence of human fetal risk
awareness of condition – Reverse with flumazenil
13
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
14
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
8. Patel IJ et al: Society of Interventional Radiology consensus guidelines for
MONITORING the periprocedural management of thrombotic and bleeding risk in patients
undergoing percutaneous image-guided interventions-part II:
Intraprocedural Monitoring recommendations: endorsed by the Canadian Association for Interventional
Radiology and the Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of
• Continuous oxygen saturation monitor Europe. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 30(8):1168-84.e1, 2019
○ Pulse oximetry: Measures O₂ saturation in blood 9. Rafiei P et al: Society of Interventional Radiology IR pre-procedure patient
– Slow to indicate change in ventilation safety checklist by the Safety and Health Committee. J Vasc Interv Radiol.
27(5):695-9, 2016
□ Takes 1-2 minutes to show change 10. Taslakian B et al: Patient evaluation and preparation in vascular and
• Continuous ECG interventional radiology: what every interventional radiologist should know
(part 1: patient assessment and laboratory tests). Cardiovasc Intervent
○ Arrhythmia could signify malpositioned Radiol. 39(3):325-33, 2016
guidewire/catheter 11. Taslakian B et al: Patient evaluation and preparation in vascular and
• Blood pressure (q 5 minutes) interventional radiology: what every interventional radiologist should know
(part 2: patient preparation and medications). Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol.
○ Hypotension and desaturation 39(4):489-99, 2016
– DDx: Oversedation, pneumothorax 12. Steele JR et al: Quality improvement in interventional radiology: an
○ Hypotension and tachycardia opportunity to demonstrate value and improve patient-centered care. J
Vasc Interv Radiol. 23(4):435-41; quiz 442, 2012
– DDx: Active bleeding, infection
13. Johnson S: Sedation and analgesia in the performance of interventional
• Capnography: CO₂ monitoring procedures. Semin Intervent Radiol. 27(4):368-73, 2010
○ Hypoventilation/hypercarbia precedes desaturation 14. Devereaux PJ et al: Perioperative cardiac events in patients undergoing
noncardiac surgery: a review of the magnitude of the problem, the
– Capnography: Noninvasive measurement of partial pathophysiology of the events and methods to estimate and communicate
pressure of CO₂ in exhaled breath risk. CMAJ. 173(6):627-34, 2005
□ Measure of ventilation 15. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Quality of Health Care in America:
Crossing the quality chasm: a new health system for the 21st century.
□ Provides rapid evaluation of patient condition National Academies Press, 2001
○ Normal EtCO₂ 35-45 mm Hg 16. Kamath PS et al: A model to predict survival in patients with end-stage liver
– > 45 = hypoventilation (oversedation) disease. Hepatology. 33(2):464-70, 2001
17. Lee TH et al: Derivation and prospective validation of a simple index for
– < 35 = hyperventilation (anxiety/pain) prediction of cardiac risk of major noncardiac surgery. Circulation.
100(10):1043-9, 1999
Postprocedure Monitoring/Discharge 18. Oken MM et al: Toxicity and response criteria of the Eastern Cooperative
• Recovery length and appropriateness of discharge depends Oncology Group. Am J Clin Oncol. 5(6):649-55, 1982
on patient, procedure, procedure length, complications, 19. Child CG et al: Surgery and portal hypertension. Major Probl Clin Surg. 1:1-85,
1964
dose of sedation, and institution
○ Typical criteria
– Modified Aldrete score of ≥ 9 or return to patient’s
baseline
– Patient not suffering from nausea, vomiting, or
significant pain
– Patient accompanied by responsible adult
○ If reversal agent given, watch for resedation for 1.5
hours after reversal agent given
• No driving, operating heavy machinery, important decisions
x 24 hours after sedation
• Amnesia can persist for hours after sedation; give written
postprocedure instructions
SELECTED REFERENCES
1. ACR Contrast Reaction Card: Adults. American College of Radiology.
Updated February 24, 2022. Accessed April 13, 2022. https://www.acr.org/-
/media/ACR/Files/Clinical-Resources/Contrast-Reaction-Card-Adult.pdf
2. ECOG Performance Status Scale. ECOG-ACRIN Cancer Research Group.
Accessed April 13, 2022. https://ecog-acrin.org/resources/ecog-
performance-status/
3. Gurbani S: The role of IR in the patient-centered care paradigm. Society of
Interventional Radiology. Accessed April 13, 2022.
http://rfs.sirweb.org/2016/02/29/the-role-of-ir-in-the-patient-centered-care-
paradigm/
4. MELD calculator. Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network: US
Dept. of Health and Human Services. Accessed April 13, 2022.
https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/data/allocation-calculators/meld-calculator/
5. ACR Manual On Contrast Media: ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast
Media. American College of Radiology, 2021 https://www.acr.org/-
/media/ACR/Files/Clinical-Resources/Contrast_Media.pdf
6. Asgharpour M et al: Intravenous contrast agents in diabetic patients taking
metformin; an updated review on current concepts. J Nephropathol. 9(1):
e05, 2020. https://nephropathol.com/Article/jnp-10894
7. Kodzwa R: ACR manual on contrast media: 2018 updates. Radiol Technol.
91(1):97-100, 2019
15
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
16
Procedural Patient Management
General Principles
American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Physical Status Classification System
Score Description
ASA I Normal, healthy patient
ASA II Mild systemic disease (e.g., obesity with BMI 30-40, current smoker, well-controlled DM or HTN)
ASA III Severe systemic disease (e.g., obesity with BMI > 40, ESRD on hemodialysis, alcohol dependence, poorly controlled DM or HTN)
ASA IV Severe illness that is constant threat to life (e.g., recent stroke or myocardial infarction, sepsis, severe reduction in ejection fraction)
ASA V Moribund patient; not expected to survive without operation (e.g., ruptured AAA, massive trauma)
ASA VI Brain-dead patient; organs being harvested
DM = diabetes mellitus; ESRD = end-stage renal disease. Addition of "E" denotes an emergency surgery; delay would cause increase in morbidity or
mortality.
Aldrete Score
Activity Respiration Consciousness Circulation Oxygenation Score
Moves all extremities Breaths deeply, Fully awake, alert Blood pressure at or SpO₂ > 92% on room 2
voluntarily or on normally and coughs within 20% of air
command freely preprocedure value
Moves 2 extremities Dyspnea or shallow Arousable to voice Blood pressure 20- SpO₂ > 90% on 1
voluntarily or on breathing 50% of preprocedure oxygen
command value
Does not move Apneic Not responsive to Blood pressure > 50% SpO₂ < 90% on 0
voice or touch different than oxygen
preprocedure value
Score for the measurement of recovery after anesthesia (post anesthesia), which includes activity, respiration, consciousness, blood circulation, and color.
Score ≥ 9 typically required prior to discharge.
Ead H: From Aldrete to PADSS: reviewing discharge criteria after ambulatory surgery. J Perianesth Nurs. 21(4):259-67, 2006.
17
Radiation Safety
KEY FACTS
General Principles
Interventional procedures (noncardiac) accounted for 6% of collective absorbed dose from medical imaging in 2016. Data adapted from:
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Medical Radiation Exposure of Patients in the United States, NCRP Report
184, Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, 2019.
18
Radiation Safety
General Principles
○ Image magnification and collimation
TERMINOLOGY
○ Beam angle: Perpendicular, oblique, lateral
Definitions
• As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA): Effort to PROCEDURE
maintain exposures to radiation as far below dose limits as Ways to Reduce Patient Dose in Fluoroscopy
is practical
• Optimize available resources
Radiation Basics ○ Utilize US guidance when possible/safe
• Absorbed dose: Amount of energy absorbed by matter ○ Review prior imaging before starting case (limits repeat
○ Measured in gray (Gy), which is standard international intraprocedural imaging)
(SI) unit ○ Understand patient's prior surgical and medical history
○ 1 Gy = 1 joule/kg prior to starting case (limits unnecessary imaging in
○ Radiation-absorbed dose (rad); outdated unit certain instances)
– 0.01 Gy = 1 rad • Utilize pulse fluoroscopy
• Equivalent dose: Radiation dose weighting based on ○ Lowest frame rate possible while maintaining procedure
harmful biologic effect of dose safety and efficacy
○ Measured in sieverts (Sv), which is SI unit ○ Lower frame rate = lower dose
○ Sv and Gy are not interchangeable; however, for IR • Last image hold rather than spot images
procedures, weighting factor is 1, so Sv and Gy are equal • Demagnify: Limit magnification
○ 1 Sv = 100 roentgen equivalent man (rem), which is non- ○ Magnification (geometric and electronic) generally
SI unit increases dose
– 1 rem increases chance of cancer by 0.055% over – Electronic magnification increases dose to lesser
lifetime degree than geometric
– Millirem (mrem): Often used to describe medical • Collimate beam: Limit visualization to area of interest
device dosage • Minimize fluoroscopy time
• Effective dose: Equivalent dose accounting for ○ Do not fluoro while moving patient or C-arm
tissue/organ sensitivity and specific damage from radiation • Minimize use of digital subtraction angiography
○ Measured in Sv (SI) or rem (non-SI) ○ Can use last image hold to document normal findings
• Effects of ionizing radiation (e.g., femoral access site, patent hemodialysis access)
○ Deterministic • Maximize source to patient difference (i.e., increase patient
– Effects exhibit threshold; below threshold, effect is table height)
not observed ○ Dose is exponentially inversely related to distance from
– Severity of effect increases with increasing dose source
above threshold (e.g., radiation-induced hair loss, skin • Minimize distance from patient to detector
injury, cataracts, sterility) ○ Moving detector 4 inches closer to patient = 17-29%
○ Stochastic dose reduction
– Probabilistic; nondeterministic health effects • Remove unnecessary tissue within image field
– Probability of event increases linearly with increasing ○ AP imaging usually lower dose than oblique/lateral
dose without threshold, but severity of effect is ○ Arms out of beam on lateral views
constant (e.g., cancer) ○ Collimate to get highly attenuating structures (shielding
○ Biologic effect of radiation doses to whole body material, spine, surgical hardware) out of beam if
– 10 Sv: High probability of death within days/weeks possible
– 1 Sv: 5.5% ↑ probability of cancer during lifetime • Periodically adjust beam angle during long cases
– 100 millisieverts (mSv): 0.5% probability of cancer ○ Reduces dose to specific area of skin; spreads dose over
during lifetime larger area of tissue
– Radiation risk is inversely related to patient age
Ways to Reduce Operator Dose in Fluoroscopy
– Sequela of radiation exposure is often delayed,
frequently weeks to months after exposure • Reduce patient dose: Reduces scatter to operator
○ Majority of dose to operator occurs via scatter from
PREPROCEDURE patient
• Wear radiation protection equipment (e.g., leaded glasses,
Preprocedure Imaging thyroid shield, vest, skirt)
• Evaluate imaging to determine if procedure requires ○ Quality materials should block > 90% of scattered dose
ionizing radiation ○ Routinely check equipment to ensure expected
• If ionizing radiation required, evaluate best strategies and performance
patient position to reduce dose • Maximize distance between operator and patient/source
Getting Started ○ Step out of room for power injections/DSA
○ Use extension tubing for hand injections
• Factors affecting fluoroscopy dose
○ Use longer catheter for vascular cases if appropriate
○ Patient size (more tissue = more dose)
○ Optimize location of source, patient, monitors, and
○ Peak kilovoltage (kVp), milliamps (mA), time
equipment to maintain maximum operator distance
○ Distance from source
19
Radiation Safety
General Principles
Note: Many reactions are not acute and may take weeks to months to develop.
– Some procedures (e.g., hemodialysis access declot, ○ May require increase in mA but overall dose decrease
vertebroplasty, left-sided biliary access) require • Increase pitch
operator to stand quite close; even minimally • Minimize number of scans
increased distance achieved can result in significant • Minimize field of view
operator dose reduction • Limit localizing/scout images
○ Scatter dose is 1/1,000th of patient dose at 1 meter
• Radiation shields Pregnant Patient Guidelines
○ Ceiling-mounted mobile shield • Discuss risks/benefits as part of consent process
– Position between yourself and patient (not detector) • Emergent: Use ionizing radiation if clinically appropriate
○ Rolling mobile shields • Nonemergent: Optimize US/MR before CT/fluoroscopy
– May also be used to shield other staff (nursing, • If planned dose > 10 mGy, consider advice of medical
anesthesia) physicist
○ Under-table shields • If delivered dose > 50 mGy, case will likely require review by
○ Shielding drapes (use on areas outside of beam) medical physicist
• Angle detector toward operator when doing oblique or
lateral imaging (i.e., radiation source further from operator) POST PROCEDURE
○ Reduces scatter to operator Expected Outcome
○ More patient scatter occurs back toward source • Risk of appropriate, limited medical imaging
• Wear radiation monitoring badges (whole body, ring) ○ Inconclusive epidemiological data
○ Review dose reports; anticipate results based on work ○ Linear no-threshold model currently used may be overly
performed, recognize unexpected results conservative
• Exclude hands from fluoroscopy beam ○ Medical imaging typically performed in older, selective
○ Angle fluoroscopy source and detector population
○ Intermittently visualize between maneuvers requiring • Relative risk of appropriate, limited medical imaging
hands within field ○ Hard to define since lifetime risk of cancer is relatively
○ Collimate tightly when hands near beam high (as high as 42%) even without medical imaging
○ Hold procedural equipment in place with hemostats or
towels when visualizing Things to Do
• Discuss with patient when exam performed required
Ways to Reduce Patient Dose in CT
significant radiation dose
• Biopsy or drain placement with large target may often be ○ Advise patient on possible side effects
done safely with image quality below that of diagnostic CT ○ Plan appropriate follow-up
• Reduce kVp
○ kVp of 100 is good initial level
20
Radiation Safety
General Principles
Dose Reduction: Patient and Operator Dose Reduction: Oblique and Lateral
(Left) The table is raised away
from the radiation source ,
as close to the detector as
possible. Ceiling-mounted ſt
and table-mounted st mobile
shields are positioned between
the operator and
source/patient. (Right) During
oblique or lateral imaging, the
radiation source should be
directed away from (and the
detector toward) the
operator if possible,
decreasing operator exposure
to scatter radiation. Mobile
shields ſt are in use, and the
operator has a protective vest,
skirt, thyroid shield, and lead
glasses.
21
Angioplasty
KEY FACTS
General Principles
22
Angioplasty
General Principles
□ Reduce risk of late thrombosis
TERMINOLOGY
□ Prevents restenosis without placing stent
Definitions – Current balloon devices differ by manufacturer in
• Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA): Inflation of regards to
catheter-mounted balloon within narrowed vascular □ Material used to create balloon
structure to enlarge luminal diameter & improve flow □ Antiproliferative agent employed
hemodynamics □ Coating agent adhering agent onto balloon
○ Arterial angioplasty: Primary mechanism is controlled □ Delivery profile
fracture of obstructing atherosclerotic plaque ○ Lesser used PTA designs
– Desquamation of endothelial cells – Cutting balloon angioplasty: 3-4 atherotomes
– Causes fissures in plaque/intima; stretches media (microsurgical blades) fixed longitudinally on surface
□ Virtually no compression of plaque itself of noncompliant balloon
○ Venous angioplasty: PTA of stenotic venous lumen □ Atherotomes expand radially, delivering
– Stretches entire vein wall, usually without fissures longitudinal incisions in plaque & vessel
– Often requires high-pressure balloon □ Theoretically reduces vessel stretch/injury by
○ Stent associated: PTA often performed in conjunction scoring plaque vs. uncontrolled disruption
with stenting – Scoring balloon angioplasty: Balloon surrounded by
– PTA can be used to predilate stenosis, allowing stent wire "cage" for focally concentrated dilatation
advancement into position □ Balloon inflation focuses radial force along edges of
– Post stent deployment PTA is used to distend & struts, scoring plaque circumferentially
secure stent at location □ Flexible wires score plaque in tortuous vessels
○ Post angioplasty: In weeks following PTA, □ Similar technology to cutting balloon angioplasty;
reendothelialization of intima occurs; vessel remodels wires rather than blades
– Post-PTA restenosis due to prolific neointimal – Cryoplasty: Combines angioplasty with cold energy to
hyperplasia &/or major vascular remodeling (e.g., treat obstructive atherosclerotic plaque
recoil); largely inflammatory response □ Liquid nitrous oxide used to inflate balloon while
• Equipment: Angioplasty balloon catheter designs lowering its surface temperature to -10°C
○ Over-the-wire (OTW): Central lumen for guidewire □ Some trials indicate cryoplasty does not offer
access/contrast injection, small parallel lumen within outcomes superior to balloon angioplasty, possibly
catheter for balloon inflation/deflation higher restenosis rates
– Traditional angioplasty balloon catheter design □ Unfavorable cost:benefit ratio
– Guidewire in central lumen improves catheter tracking
& pushability PREPROCEDURE
– Contrast can be injected through catheter Indications
○ Rapid exchange (monorail): Guidewire passes through
• Hemodynamically significant stenosis or obstruction
balloon, exits catheter proximal to balloon, runs outside
catheter shaft ○ May initially evaluate with noninvasive imaging
– Exchange length guidewires unnecessary – Noninvasive studies (duplex Doppler US, CT, MR)
– Balloon typically has lower profile ○ Reasonable likelihood PTA will improve symptoms
– Often requires additional guide catheter/sheath to ○ PTA is most appropriate treatment option
advance balloon to lesion Contraindications
– Disadvantages vs. OTW • Arterial angioplasty alone may be unsafe or ineffective if
□ Unable to inject contrast through catheter ○ Diffuse atherosclerotic disease
□ Poorer trackability/pushability vs. OTW – Long-segment stenosis/occlusion
• Technologies & techniques – Eccentric, heavily calcified plaque
○ Conventional, a.k.a. plain old balloon angioplasty □ Bulky, polypoid plaque; thrombus or embolus
(POBA): Balloon inflation within narrowed lumen associated with lesion
– Outward force (measured in atmospheres) exerted by □ Risk of distal embolization
balloon against obstructing lesion/stenosis
○ Stenosis adjacent to aneurysm (risk of rupture)
– Degree of force depends on
• Venous angioplasty may be ineffective if
□ Diameter, compliance (elasticity), inflation pressure,
○ Stenosis due to extrinsic compression (e.g., May-Thurner
& length of angioplasty balloon
stenosis)
□ Severity & morphology of stenosis
○ Chronic or postthrombotic occlusion
○ Drug-eluting balloon (DEB) angioplasty: Balloon
coated with antiproliferative medication (e.g., paclitaxel) Getting Started
– Early studies promising regarding vessel patency vs. • Medications
POBA ○ Heparin [typically 2,500- to 5,000-unit bolus (IV or IA)] for
– Targeted high-concentration of drug delivered to arterial treatment
vessel surface via balloon – Usually administered prior to crossing lesion
□ Inhibits proliferation of smooth muscle – May be continued post procedure (weight-based
cells/neointima protocol)
23
Angioplasty
General Principles
24
Angioplasty
General Principles
– Recrossing "fresh" angioplasty site with guidewire can □ Can cause tissue ischemia & necrosis
easily cause dissection □ May lead to amputation, bowel ischemia, stroke,
○ Inject contrast through guiding catheter/sheath permanent renal failure, death
– Document angioplasty result ○ Flow-limiting dissection or intimal flap
– Determine if further intervention indicated – Treat with stent placement
□ Consider repeat PTA with larger diameter balloon ○ Immediate or delayed thrombosis at PTA site (5%)
□ Consider stenting if poor PTA result – Minimize with antiplatelet/anticoagulation agents
– Document status of distal vessels/organs after PTA • Delayed complication(s)
○ If satisfactory result, carefully withdraw guidewire ○ Restenosis (rate may be up to 40%)
○ Remove guiding catheter/sheath (push reverse-curve – Highly dependent on lesion length, location, severity,
catheters out of vessel, pull other catheter shapes) morphology, choice of balloon
○ Close access site – Repeat POBA or DEB
– Manual compression: Remove access sheath, – Place stents (drug eluting, bare metal, covered)
compress puncture site (15 minutes of graded • Other complications
compression for arteries) ○ Access site complications (hematoma, iatrogenic
– Closure device: Per device instructions arteriovenous fistula, pseudoaneurysm)
Alternative Procedures/Therapies ○ Contrast-induced nephropathy
• Radiologic Expected Outcomes
○ Atherectomy • High initial technical success rate
– Used in conjunction with PTA/stent placement ○ Initial technical success depends on
○ Primary stent placement – Anatomic location of lesion (e.g., iliac, femoral)
– Risk stent fracture, difficult-to-treat in-stent restenosis – Length of occlusion/stenosis (TASC classification)
– Drug-eluting stents typically reduce restenosis rates – Lesion morphology (e.g., eccentric, calcified)
vs. bare metal stents • Long-term technical & clinical results depend on
• Surgical ○ Same factors as for initial success rates
○ Bypass surgery, endarterectomy ○ Quality of distal runoff
○ Relevant risk factors
POST PROCEDURE – Tobacco use, diabetes, hyperlipidemia
Things to Do ○ Neointimal hyperplasia
• Consider antiplatelet regimen after arterial procedure • DEB for treatment of peripheral artery disease
• Consider anticoagulant regimen after venous procedure ○ Femoropopliteal
• Clinically follow patient – DEB (paclitaxel): 65-90% primary patency at 1 year
○ Depending on lesion treated, may obtain □ Restenosis 40-60% for POBA, 25-40% for stents
– Noninvasive arterial studies (impedance – Initial success: Up to 95% (similar results for POBA &
plethysmography, pulse volume recording, segmental stents)
limb pressures; ankle-brachial index) – Data lacking regarding DEB vs. bare metal/drug-
– Duplex Doppler US evaluation eluting stents
– CTA/CTV, MRA/MRV ○ Infrapopliteal & chronic limb ischemia (CLI)
– 2 randomized controlled trials suggest no difference
OUTCOMES DEB vs. POBA at 12 months
– Nearly 1/2 of patients require major amputation
Complications within 1 year: Suggests short-term improvement
• Most feared complication(s) (tissue oxygenation, wound healing, limb salvage)
○ Rupture of target artery or vein priority over long-term patency
– Potentially fatal • DEB for treatment of hemodialysis arteriovenous fistula
□ Maintain guidewire access across lesion stenosis
□ Stop bleed with immediate balloon reinflation ○ 6 months: Inconsistent results, some studies show
proximal to or at site of injury improved DEB patency, others show no significant
□ Fluid resuscitate; call code team as needed difference in patency of DEB vs. POBA
□ Requires covered stent placement at site of injury ○ 12 months: Superior primary patency of DEB (67%) vs.
or surgical repair POBA (33%) in metaanalysis
• Immediate/periprocedural complication(s) ○ Additional trials ongoing
○ Distal embolization (2-8% incidence)
– Usually asymptomatic microscopic debris SELECTED REFERENCES
– Macroscopic embolization may occur 1. Rokoszak V et al: A systematic review and meta-analysis of plain versus drug-
eluting balloon angioplasty in the treatment of juxta-anastomotic
– Cholesterol embolization (incidence < 1%) hemodialysis arteriovenous fistula stenosis. J Vasc Surg. 71(3):1046-1054.e1,
□ Cholesterol crystals embolize after contact of 2020
catheter/guidewire with soft, lipid-rich plaque 2. Zhou Y et al: Comparative effectiveness of endovascular treatment
modalities for de novo femoropopliteal lesions: a network meta-analysis of
□ Lodge in arterioles; inflammation/occlusion randomized controlled trials. J Endovasc Ther. 27(1):42-59, 2020
25
Angioplasty
General Principles
26
Another random document with
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ont à subir quelque opération. En ce moment, des gauchos sont
occupés à dompter des chevaux sauvages ou, pour mieux dire, des
chevaux indomptés, car, malgré tout le respect dû aux récits des
voyageurs, mes confrères, il n’y a plus de chevaux sauvages dans la
pampa. Chaque troupeau appartient à un propriétaire, qui fait
marquer tous les poulains d’un an sur la cuisse gauche, et si l’animal
vient à être vendu, la marque du vendeur appliquée une seconde
fois, jointe à celle de l’acheteur, constitue un contrat tout aussi formel
que si deux notaires en lunettes y avaient apposé leurs illisibles
signatures.
L’habileté des gauchos dans le terrible exercice que nous avions
sous les yeux est absolument surprenante. C’est une lutte adroite et
brutale en même temps, qui, naturellement, se termine toujours à
l’avantage de l’homme. L’animal a été préparé par un séjour de
quelques nuits à l’entrave, il est déjà un peu fatigué ; on le chasse
alors dans le corral. Le gaucho fait tournoyer son lasso à distance et
le jette dans les jambes de la bête ; le nœud coulant se resserre ; le
cheval, écumant de colère, arrêté court dans ses bonds, fait deux ou
trois culbutes sur lui-même, entraînant parfois le dompteur, qui se
laisse choir comme une masse inerte, pour ne pas culbuter lui-
même et offrir plus de résistance. Le même animal subit plusieurs
fois le lasso, et il est bien rare qu’après une demi-douzaine
d’expériences, qui ne durent jamais plus de vingt minutes, il ne soit
possible alors de lui sangler une selle et de lui passer un licol. Le
plus fort est fait. Le dompteur peut alors le monter. Cette première
course est furibonde ; mais la pauvre bête est devenue incapable de
prolonger longtemps des mouvements aussi désordonnés, que le
gaucho supporte d’ailleurs sans jamais vider les arçons. Il ne faut
plus qu’une course d’une quinzaine de lieues dans la pampa pour
que le cheval soit tout à fait docile.
En résumé, cet exercice est une affaire d’habitude, à laquelle il
faut joindre des qualités d’adresse et de sang-froid que l’homme de
la pampa possède au plus haut degré.
J’ai examiné ce type du gaucho comme un des plus étranges
parmi ceux que présente la famille humaine. Il est entier, complet,
original, et tout ce qu’on m’en a dit me l’a rendu plus intéressant
encore.
Fils d’Espagnol et d’Indien, il est aussi rusé que celui-ci et joue
volontiers de la navaja comme celui-là ; comme tous deux, il aime
par-dessus tout son indépendance ; il se complaît dans son
existence solitaire, saine et rude. C’est lui qui a fait de la pampa
autre chose qu’une plaine inutile. Il en est le véritable souverain, il
l’aime comme le targui aime le désert. Elle n’est rien que par lui.
C’est non seulement sa patrie, mais sa seule patrie possible.
Les défauts du gaucho sont d’être joueur et vaniteux. Cet homme
à demi sauvage, qui passe la plus grande partie de sa vie à lutter
contre les chevaux et les taureaux, aime l’élégance. Les jours de
fête, et surtout les jours de courses, son costume, et le
harnachement de son cheval, surchargé d’ornements en argent,
témoignent de ses goûts de luxe. Cependant, l’idée d’acquérir,
d’économiser ne lui vient pas. La monnaie n’a pour lui que la valeur
d’un désir immédiatement satisfait, l’avenir ne signifie rien. L’horizon
de sa pensée est aussi étroit qu’immense est celui qui s’offre chaque
jour à sa vue. Son cheval, son lasso, voilà ses seuls instruments de
travail, mais d’un travail au grand air, au grand soleil, qui l’enchante
et l’enivre. Il a une femme, des enfants ; quoique bien rarement le
mariage ait pu être enregistré, il reste fidèle à sa femme, qu’il voit
peu et dont il ne s’occupe point. Les garçons commencent à monter
à cheval à quatre ans ; vers dix ans, ils galopent sans crainte et sans
danger sur les chevaux les plus difficiles ; leur éducation est
terminée.
Parfois le gaucho laisse une partie de sa raison dans une
pulperia, sorte de bouge qui est à la fois une auberge, une boutique
et un cabaret ; mais à l’habitude il ne boit que de l’eau et se nourrit
exclusivement de viande sans pain.
Nous avons vu à notre passage à Azul plusieurs types de
femmes, qu’il semble difficile de rattacher, comme celui du gaucho, à
un type unique. Le préjugé de la couleur n’existant nullement ici, on
y trouve le croisement le plus varié entre le sang blanc, le sang
indien et même le sang nègre. En résumé, les hommes nous ont
paru se ressembler beaucoup plus entre eux que les femmes, dont
quelques-unes ont des traits parfaitement réguliers et sont vraiment
belles.
Je reviens à notre aimable Hollandais, qui est décidément un des
notables de la province ; il nous a fait connaître le nombre des têtes
dont il est propriétaire ; je le transcris ici textuellement : 35,000
moutons, 5,000 bœufs et 600 chevaux. Si l’on veut se faire une idée
de ce que représente une telle fortune, il n’y a qu’à compter les
moutons pour 10 francs, les bœufs pour 50 francs et les chevaux
pour 100 francs. C’est le prix que valent ces animaux à Azul. M.
Freers, très au courant de tout ce qui touche à l’industrie pastorale
du pays, nous donne le chiffre total du bétail de la république
Argentine ; il n’est pas moindre de 78 millions de têtes, se
décomposant comme suit : 4 millions de chevaux, 13 millions et
demi de bœufs et de taureaux, 57 millions de moutons, 3 millions de
chèvres, 250,000 mulets et 250,000 porcs. Ces animaux sont
répartis sur un espace de 136,000 lieues carrées de plaines, où le
manque de bois est presque complet. Des trèfles, des herbes
élevées et des chardons constituent la seule végétation que l’on
rencontre avant d’arriver au pied de la formidable barrière des
montagnes. Puisque j’ai cité le total des têtes de bétail de la
république Argentine, je rappellerai en même temps le chiffre relatif
à l’Uruguay qui comprend environ 19 millions de têtes, dont 12
millions de moutons, 6 millions de bœufs et 1 million de chevaux.
Beaucoup de personnes pensent que, de temps immémorial, ces
vastes territoires, jadis occupés par de sauvages tribus d’Indiens,
étaient aussi riches, sinon plus riches, en pâturages, en bestiaux, en
chevaux qu’ils le sont aujourd’hui. Il est assez dans nos coutumes
de langage de représenter l’homme civilisé comme étant venu
exploiter et même piller avidement les terres nouvellement
découvertes. En ce qui concerne la pampa, c’est là plus qu’une
grave erreur, c’est le contraire de la vérité.
Il n’y avait, avant la conquête, c’est-à-dire avant le milieu du XVIe
siècle, ni un cheval, ni un mouton, ni une bête à cornes là où
paissent aujourd’hui tant d’innombrables troupeaux ; bien plus, il n’y
avait même pas de pâturages ; on n’y trouvait qu’une herbe
sauvage, haute et dure, appelée « paja brava » ou « pampa »,
connue des naturalistes sous le nom de gynerium argenteum, et qui
sert en Europe, où elle est assez répandue, à l’ornementation des
jardins. Cette herbe est complètement impropre à la nourriture des
animaux ; aussi a-t-il fallu, dès le début de la colonisation, recourir
aux fourrages venus d’Europe.
Peu à peu, grâce à cette importation, le sol s’est transformé et
les races se sont multipliées. C’est donc un véritable triomphe de
l’homme sur la nature, triomphe apparent, sans doute, favorisé par
la nature elle-même, mais qui a coûté d’immenses efforts, qui a
nécessité de la part des premiers éleveurs une patience et une
persévérance extraordinaires ; triomphe si complet qu’il est peut-être
le plus surprenant et le plus considérable qui ait jamais été remporté.
Tout en écoutant les intéressants détails que nous donne notre
hôte sur cette contrée bizarre, si peu connue en France, nous
sommes rentrés à Azul, enchantés de notre chasse, et le soir, réunis
dans la grande salle de l’hôtel avec les notables du pays, nous
avons savouré le fameux maté, sorte de boisson nationale fort en
usage dans l’Amérique du Sud, infusion faite avec un thé spécial
connu sous le nom de yerba du Paraguay. On l’aspire avec un petit
tube en métal plongé dans une courge sauvage servant de récipient.
En mer, 29 septembre.
En mer, 2 octobre.
Il est midi. Un fort courant marche avec nous. Ce n’est plus une
vitesse de dix nœuds qu’a la Junon, mais bien de quatorze nœuds
et plus. Les falaises à pic qui bordent les rives ont bientôt disparu, et
nous entrons dans un second bassin de forme elliptique, semé de
quelques bancs laissant entre eux un large et facile passage. La
physionomie du pays est à peu près la même, cependant moins
aride. Les falaises, toujours assez basses, sont couronnées de
plaines à peine ondulées ; quelquefois nous passons devant de
simples plages sablonneuses, dont la pente presque insensible
semble se continuer sous les eaux. Par tribord, c’est l’extrémité
méridionale des vastes pampas, qui s’étendent ainsi depuis le pays
des palmiers jusqu’à celui des glaces éternelles ! Mais où ai-je vu
quelques-uns de ces aspects ? En traversant les steppes de la
Hongrie, sur les bords du Danube, entre Pesth et Belgrade.
Un promontoire, qu’on nomme le cap Gregory, marque l’entrée
du second goulet, un peu plus large que le premier. Nous le
franchissons en une demi-heure ; la violence du courant est devenue
très grande, et le commandant fait mettre deux hommes de plus à la
barre du gouvernail. A la sortie du second goulet (il est trois heures
et demie), un passage difficile se présente. Le détroit en ce point a
bien dix milles de large, mais il est barré par un groupe d’îles,
entourées de récifs, auprès desquels les courants portent dans des
directions variées. Plusieurs routes existent pour passer entre ces
dangers ; nous choisissons celle qui est connue sous le nom de
chenal de la Reine, et qui longe de très près l’île de Sainte-
Élisabeth. En ce moment, nous nous dirigeons vers le sud, ayant à
notre droite le massif de la grande presqu’île de Brunswick, qui
s’enfonce comme un coin dans la Terre-de-Feu et donne à la forme
générale du détroit de Magellan celle d’un gigantesque V majuscule.
A quatre heures et demie, les îles, les récifs sont derrière nous ; il
ne reste plus que dix milles à faire pour atteindre le mouillage ;
l’ordre est donné de ralentir, le commandant descend de la
passerelle, et nous allons tous dîner avec un appétit qu’excuse
suffisamment notre station de toute la journée sur le pont, et notre
satisfaction d’avoir si heureusement commencé cette traversée
délicate.
Le soleil était déjà caché derrière de hautes collines boisées,
lorsque nous arrivâmes à Punta-Arenas, capitale de la Patagonie
chilienne… ou argentine, puisque le différend n’a pas encore été
tranché, mais plutôt chilienne, puisque le Chili en a pris possession,
qu’une corvette chilienne y tient station, qu’un médecin chilien a bien
voulu déclarer officiellement que nous n’avions aucune maladie
contagieuse, ce qui nous a permis de faire une visite au gouverneur
de la localité, qui aurait pu être Chilien aussi, mais qui préférait être
Anglais, ce qui est un point sur lequel je ne disputerai pas.
La Junon doit appareiller le lendemain à l’aube ; aussi, malgré la
nuit noire et le froid vif, tout le monde se précipite dans les canots
pour fouler la terre patagonienne. On espère vaguement voir
quelques-uns de ces sauvages géants décrits dans les récits des
premiers explorateurs et contestés par notre siècle prosaïque. On a
aussi quelque curiosité à l’égard du dernier établissement civilisé au
sud du monde. L’officier de la santé a promis son canot pour le
retour des retardataires. En route !
Nous abordons dans l’obscurité au pied d’un petit môle, sur
lequel nous grimpons en nous aidant d’un escalier dépourvu de la
plupart de ses marches. Arrivés sur la plate-forme, nous trébuchons
à travers les rails d’un chemin de fer, qui doit conduire, je pense, à
un dépôt de charbon. Décidément, le progrès ne laisse ici rien à
désirer, qu’un peu d’éclairage des voies publiques. Pendant que nos
marins s’en vont par groupes se… réchauffer dans une petite
maison basse où nombre de flacons scintillent sous les feux d’une
lampe à pétrole, nous nous avançons à travers « la capitale. » Nous
arpentons deux rues, peut-être bien les seules, absolument
désertes, bordées çà et là de maisons en bois, composées d’un
simple rez-de-chaussée. Voici une église, toute petite, plus que
modeste et en bois comme les autres constructions ; voici enfin la
maison du gouverneur, auquel nous sommes autorisés à présenter
nos hommages.