16

3 | Translation

UNIT 3: Literary Translation

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
a. Define, and determine the origin and evolution, types, methods, and other
developments in the art and science of translation.
b. Acknowledge the value of translation in understanding other cultures and
appreciate the significance of translation and the important role of the
translator.
c. Apply principles and strategies in translating texts of various types in Filipino
language to English or English to Filipino language translation.
d. Appreciate and integrate the significance of language translation to students
in a language and literature classroom.

3.1 Introduction
Unit 3 of this module features the concepts translating literary works, such as prose,
poem, play, mass media, scientific and technical texts, figures of speech, children’s literature
and other modern translations. Lessons and tips in translating the aforementioned literary
pieces are incorporated in this learning material.
Most lessons are taken from the books of Batnag (2009) Teksbuk sa Pagsasalin and
Santiago (2003) Sining ng Pagsasaling Wika (Sa Filipino Mula sa Ingles). Other information are
taken from reputable sites and research studies with the updated concepts and ideas in the
modern translation which are applicable, and useful in the present time.

3.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

3.2.1 Literary Translation
3.2.1.1 Prose
In the translation of Prose, there are three main problems identified. These are:
a. problem with idioms
b. problem in borrowing
c. problem in the structure of sentences

PROBLEM WITH IDIOMS

It is impossible for a person to have a good translation if he does not
understand most of the idiomatic expressions of the language being translated. The
problem would also even become worse if the idiomatic expressions will be
translated literally for the reason that the language being translated is not in the
grasp of the translator’s hand.

PROBLEM IN BORROWING
In terms of borrowing, looking back in the past lessons, a translator of Filipino
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3 | Translation

from English is facing a difficult problem in choosing as to what translation he / she

thinks can be understood of the target receptor- will it be the loan words in English
or the loan words in Spanish.
Example: Liquid – English Language
Liquido – Latin Language
Likwid – Filipino Language
PROBLEM IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES
Another problem in translation is the variation of grammatical structure or the
sentence structure in English and Filipino. Most of the translators especially the beginners
are unconsciously drawn into the grammar of English language as part of a book.
Savory (AT:26) gave the three following guide questions that according to him are
always necessary when doing a translation:
1. What does it mean?
2. What does the author trying to say?
3. How did the author say it?

SEGMENTATION - A Task For Beginners

The truth is, this task is no longer new. This has been used by most translators, only that
it is done in an informal way. We will just simply use what has been practiced before but in
a formal manner.
The technique of segmentation is useful for teachers who are teaching primary course in
translation. Students will be able to acquire basic knowledge, techniques, and principles in
translation.
Let us use the following sentences as example taken by this author in one of the daily
newspaper while writing this section.
“Sa pagpapasya sa isang kaso, ang Sandiganbayan, sa pammamagitan ng Tagapangulong
Hukom Pamaran, Napansin ang anomalya ng isang kakatwang kagaananng parusang
pagkabilanggo, para sa krimeng panunnuhol.”

STEP 1- Dividing the sentences into segments or “translational units”

1. Sa pagpapasya sa isang kaso
2. ang Sandiganbayan
3. sa pammamagitan ng Tagapangulong Hukom Pamaran
4. Napansin ang anomalya ng isang kakatwang kagaananng parusang pagkabilanggo
5. para sa krimeng panunnuhol

STEP 2- Translating of the formed sentences

1. Deciding a case.
2. The Sandiganbayan
3. Through the Presiding Justice Pamaran.
4. Noted the anomaly of ridiculously light prison penalty
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3 | Translation

5. For the crime of bribery

STEP 3- Adjusting the translated segments.

The very first thing that should be looked into is whether the verb can be transferred
to another position in order to have a natural or idiomatic sentence. In other words, the
framework or structure of sentence in English is the subject plus the predicate.
Below is the result after the verb has been transferred and other necessary changes.
1. Sa pagpapasya sa isang kaso
2. Napansin ng Sandiganbayan
3. Sa pammamagitan ng Tagapangulong Hukom Pamaran
4. Ang anomalya ng isang kakatwang kagaananng parusang pagkabilanggo
5. Para sa krimeng panunnuhol

In segment #5, it would be better to replace with salang panunuhol instead of krimeng
pannuhol. Though it is true that bribery is a crime, people commonly use salang panunuhol
instead of krimeng panunuhol. Which is why this will be its translation:

“Deciding a case, the Sandiganbayan, through Presiding Justice Pamaran, noted the
anomaly of a ridiculously light prison penalty for the crime of bribery.”

STEP 4 - Joining together the formed sentences.

1. Evaluate the relevance and coherence of all sentences. In here, the translator must have
the knowledge in using cohesive devices.
2. If there are words repeatedly used, these should be removed or replaced.
3. Check if there are sentences which could be constructed as one.
4. Evaluate if there are sentences that can be splitted into two to make a clearer sense.

3.2.1.2 Poem
“Poetry is what gets lost in translation.” - Robert Frost
“All translation is a betrayal.” - James Mitchie, translator of Horace
“The translator is the traitor.” - Italians (“Traduttori, traditori.”)

It is true that there are things that cannot be translated to other languages, not only
the aesthetic quality of the original but possibly also the meaning, tone, rhythm and others.
But we must also accept that if not for the translations, many authors would not be able to
pass the boundary of original language. The number of translations are increasing and the
translation of poem is continuously attracting the interest of many translators, learned or
not. This is just a proof that translation is not an impossible task even of poems.
The important thing is to determine the ways to reduce the possibility of betrayal. To
start, the following questions shall be answered to give us a holistic understanding in the
translation of a poem.
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3 | Translation

A. What is Poem Translation ?

This is the process of creating a new poem based on the original poem, with all
efforts of transferring all the elements that can be transferred to the target language such
as a message, melody, tone, mental picture, figure of speech, and others. Therefore, the
translation of a poem should also be a poem, a new creative work, in another language.
B. How to translate a Poem?
Theodore Savory’s theory of translation numbers 11 and 12 in The Art of Translation
says that
A translation in verse should be in prose
A translation in verse should be in verse
It is enough to transfer the idea, the original message, and the though that it is trying
to convey.
Things that are impossible in Poem Translation:
In the book The Art of Translating Poetry (1988) Burton Raffel listed the things that are
impossible. There is no two languages with the same of the following:
1. Phonology- study of sounds
2. Structural Syntax - ways of fixing words to form a sentence
3. Vocabulary- words in a language
4. Literary History- here we can see the lives of the people in the past
5. Prosody- particular system of writing of verse or structure of verses, if how many
syllables are forming one verse and how many verses are forming a stanza.
Because of these, it is then impossible to transfer:
1. Tone
2. Syntax
3. Vocabulary
4. Formal Literature
5. Prosody

Characteristics of a Poem Translator

A great translation is possible only if the translator and the original poet has these
connection.
1. The translator “feels” the feeling of the original poet.
2. The original message “throbs” and stirs in the desire of the translator to transfer it to
another language to become part of translated literature.
3. The translator has the ability to “enter” the mind of the original poet to totally
understand the meaning of the original. ( Metempsychosis- the transfer of the soul of the
translator to the original author)
A poem that can be skillfully translated is the one that made the translator’s heart
beat, the one that seems to be asking “translate me”. Moreover, proficiency in the TL is also
necessary more than what is asked in the proficiency of SL.
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3 | Translation

C. Is it just the poet who has the right to translate the poem?
A poem translator need not to be famous nor recognized poet. It is enough that he
possesses the following:
1. Who has the natural interest in literature
2. Who is particular in poetry
3. Who has interest in literature because he/she has been into reading and evaluating for
many years if not in actual writing of poems.

In the process of translation, a creative translator becomes poetic as well. This agrees
with the statement of Paul Selver in his The Art of Translating Poetry (1996): “The truth is
that anyone who has translated a poem by virtue of having done so, even though he has
never written of his own.”

Steps in Translating a Poem

Any translation starts with reading analysis and interpretation of the SL text.
1. The translator determines the following, even before the translation of the first word in
SL text:
a. Metaphors
b. Words entangled in culture
c. Vague expressions or those having double meaning
*He also records possible equivalents of the few primary words.
*He forms initial decisions on appropriate methods to be used, what should be given
emphasis, based on his/ her interpretation of text.
*If there are parts that are not clear or have two meanings of the SL text, the translator shall
form a decision whether he/she will retain the two meanings or just limit the translation to
one interpretation only.

There are three (3) primary components of a poem to be evaluated prior to its translation
according to Selver.
1. Content or subject
2. Structure of Rhythm
3. Effect of the words used, including the musical characteristics and intricate style.

Selver added that the quality of translation should be judged based on how well the
components were transferred to other languages.

After performing the primary reading, the translator is then ready to decide on the
following:
1. Translation of words
2. Translation of verses and stanza
3. Transfer of metaphors, mental picture and cultural words.
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3 | Translation

The Two Meanings

One of the characteristics of literature in general, particularly a poem is the
possibility of having more interpretations based on the different views of the reader.
Having two or more meanings of a poem to be translated is one of the difficulties faced by a
translator. There are some evaluators who equate the word ambiguity with vague words,
that being “unclear” is due to the possibilities of having two meanings or other
interpretation. How do translators face this challenge? Will he give just one interpretation
on the two meanings of it or will he strive to retain the two meanings?
In translating a poem, it is necessary, if possible to transfer or retain ambiguity. We
should be remember that having two meanings might have been done by the original poet
on purpose. Further, this adds beauty to the poem.
In the translation of poems by Margaritis, from the Greek poet C.P. Cavafy, he
explained how ambiguity or the two meanings was lost in the translated poem “The Next
Table”. In Greek, persons and numbers are already included in verb forms, which is why
pronouns are no longer used. Hence, in the first two stanzas of translation, the translators
have avoided the usage of pronouns in the portion where the persona reminisces the
someone from the past.
In its initial reading, it seems like a woman is being reminisced by the persona, but in
the last stanza of English translation, though not stipulated in the original Greek, since it
could not be avoided to use pronoun: “he” was used to refer the person being described.
Naturally, with the idea that Cavafy is a homosexual have helped give its meaning.
According to Margaritis, even if the ambiguity was lost, it actually was replaced with an
element of surprise upon discovering the real meaning of poem.
Here is an example taken from the poem written by Panamanian- Sylvia Candaneo
de Zuniga translated by Angela McEwan:

y una marina estrella lleveste a mi mi selda

And you brought a star of the sea to my cell.

The marina estrella is maybe a sea starfish, guiding star , one stella maris, but
McEwan used the so called parallel ambiguity in her version star of the sea. This is one of the
choices of translation.

The Ideology in Translation

The translator could not avoid but express the ideology in choosing a piece to be
translated. The ideology determines the beliefs of a person, oftentimes the political opinion.
Let us look into the different translations of “Mi Ultimo Adios”.
Here is the original Spanish text. It is important to also mention that the original
poem has no title, and that the translator was the one who gave its own title.

Adios, Patria adorada, region del sol querida, Farewell my adored land, region of the sun caressed,
Perla del mar de Oriente, nuestro perdido Pearl of the Orient Sea, Our Eden lost,
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3 | Translation

Eden! With gladness I give you my Life, Sad and repressed;

A darte voy alegre la triste musta vida, And were it more brilliant, more fresh at its best,
Y fuera mas brillante, mas fresca, mas florida I would still give it to you for your welfare at most
Tambien por ti la diera, la diera por tu bien.

Translation of Alliteration
Alliteration is the term for a repeated sound at the beginning of the consecutive set
words, like zany zones. This is usually used in poems to add beauty, though not limited on
poem alone since it is also used by most writers of prose.Through alliteration other sounds
are recognized which gives rhythm to the text.
For example,in Piers Plowman, written in Middle English:
In a somer seson whan soft was the sonne,
I shope me in shrouds as I shepe were,
In habite as an heremite unholy of workes
Notice the repetition of the sounds of /s/ in first and second line, same as the
repetition of the sound of /h/ in the third line.

The Translation of Allusion

Allusion comes from alludre (Latin) and it means identifying or determining the
characters and events in mythology, legend, history of other text or literary pieces. The
characters and events that are usually determined are known to readers from a particular
place and time and it is being used to express effectively and have an impact on what is
being emphasized by the author.
One of the challenges for translators in translating allusion is when the original text
is known to the target readers and the possibility of not recognizing its translation. If the
translator decides that the TL is not effective then this might just be equated with other
allusions. Or could just be explained in the translation.

There are different kinds of allusion:

1. Allusion from the bible
Example: “Let spades be trumps!” she said, and the trumps they were.
This is from “The Rape of the Lock” of Alexander Pope. This allusion is the
beginning of Genesis.
This one is about Gracia Burham, an American missionary who was kidnapped in
Palawan by the Abu Sayyaf in 2002. After she was freed for more than a year, she was
called “Amzing Gracia”, which is a clear allusion from the religious song “Amazing Grace”.
2. Allusion in Literature
Their jealousy (if they are very jealous)
Is of fair complexion altogether
Not like that sooty devil of Othello’s
Which smothers women in a bed of feather
This is an excerpt from “Beppo” by an English poet Lord Byron, and the allusion is
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3 | Translation

from the play “Othello” by William Shakespeare. This character is a man with a very dark
skin complexion, a negro, who killed his wife Desdemona, a white woman.
The translator should decide whether the target readers know who Othello is, if not,
then the allusion of the original would be no impact.

3. Allusion in History
Example:
Tanang paniniil ay may pagtutuos All tyranny has its calculation
Habang may Bastilya’y may bayang gaganti. As long as there is bastille, there is retribution

This is from the last two lines of the 10th stanza of “Isang Dipang Langit” poem
written by Amado Hernandez, and the allusion Bastille is from France which was defeated
by the revolutionaries during the French War.
In the translation of allusion, the translator should consider if the allusion is not
understood by the readers.

Last Reminder in Translating a Poem

Rufino Alejandro, in his book Arts of Translation (1980), had these reminders for those
who plan to translate in a question form:
1. Do you have any skills in writing poem?
2. Do you have a broad understanding and knowledge of your own language that you
going to translate
3. Do you have quite knowledge on literature as source of the poem you are going to
translate, then it would be easier for you to show the allusions included.

3.2.1.3 Play/ Drama

Che (2005) stated that translators of the literary genre of drama, and drama
translation scholars have suggested various ways in which drama translation should or
could be effected and how the attendant problems should or could be tackled. The various
ways suggested can be broadly classified into two main categories: principles and strategies.
Principles could simply be defined here as guiding rules for the drama translator’s
translational behaviour or action. These principles will be examined from a historical
perspective for the period spanning the last four decades and only the most representative
scholars are examined.
Drama comes from Greek, which means “to do” or “to present”. In Filipino, drama is
also called “play”. A play, therefore , or drama is action.
According to Aristotle, language is not the center of drama, but the action. However,
language is important because it is the key substance in drama; actions are expressed in
play through a conversation or dialogue of the characters.
Language is the medium of translation. But, in translating drama, language
translation is not the only challenge faced by translators. Part of which is to stage a play.
This is the reason why drama or play translation is different from other literature.
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3 | Translation

1. Translation of Play/ Drama as Literature or Translation for Reading

A play, just like other forms of literature, like poem, short stories and novel, are read,
evaluated and studied in literature classes as printed text.
For academic purposes, translating a play/ drama is just like translating other forms
of literature; it is done in printed text to get the holistic message of the play/ drama, study
the motivation of characters, understand the culture of the source of the play, assess its
forms according to the theory of literature and identify other aesthetic qualities.
There are also additional considerations in terms of translating for a stage play. It is
important to have what its called “playability” in a drama, choosing the right words that
are easy to deliver by the actor and easy to be understood by the audience.
Dialogue is very important; as it is the medium of action in a play or drama. Through
the dialogue, the personality of a character can be identified, as well the kind of person that
the character is by the words he/ she said.

Scope of Translating Drama/ Play

According to Gostand, translating a drama/ play has a wide range. This may mean, the
translation from:
 Language to another language
 Culture to another culture
 Period to another period
 Dramatic style to another style
 Genre to another genre
 Medium to another medium
 Straight play to musical/ rock/ opera/ dance drama
 Printed play to stage play
 Emotion or concept about stage play
 Oral presentation to other oral presentation
 Other kind of audience to another kind of audience

Even the nonverbal signs have parts in translating a play. Zuber-Skerrit gave the
translation to Aleman (German) of a play A Streetcar Named Desire by the american
playwright Tennesse Williams as an example. In this play, there are non verbal signs that
are important on the meaning of the message of the play, which were not given equivalent
translation in Aleman (German). As a result, it started to have two different dramas of the
translated and the original which is in English.
Hence, Zuber-Skerrit added that the translation of play should undergo two
processes: (1) process of translating a play in TL; and (2) process of presenting a translated
play on stage.
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3 | Translation

Translated Drama as Intercultural Theater

According to Aalthonen (2000), translation can be considered as a window, yet he
added “we only see what we are prepared to see and what falls in line with the narrative we have
chosen”. With this, he stated “Foreign drama may not be introduced into domestic
repertoire so as to throw foreign texts in the light of contemporary domestic issues, but
rather domestic issues are presented in the light of foreign texts.”

Translators usually localizes translation of drama, which makes it nonforeign for

characters: they speak in native language known to the audience, they express feelings in
idioms familiar to them, they can love, get angry, and be happy, using expressions of the
language translated.
Let us try to look into the following expressions in the dialogue from Kaaway,
translated by Bienvenido Lumbrera from Vragi of Maxim Gorky (translated Enemies by
Margaret Wettkin):
Heneral: Damontres. Ano ba ang gusto mongpalabasin?
Nadya: (Kay Grekov) Maupo ka naman muna. Tiyang, paupuin ninyo mna siya. Ba’t ba
mukhang biyernes santo kayong lahat?
In the translation of drama, Zuber-Skerrit explained the difference between
Verfremdung and Entfremdung. Verfremdung is the mimicry of the SL; “distancing,
strangement or alienation of one’s own language by understanding, following, and
adapting the original”. Entfremdung, on the other hand is translating like it is originally
written in TL; “dealienation of the foreign language by translating it into the language
which the author of the target language would have used if he/ she lived in the time and
place of the target language.
Aaltonen calls it intercultural theater (or pagpapalitang kultural) of the classic drama
in different languages with undergoing changes presented as translated by different
countries.

Problems in Translating Drama

A play is not a stage play unless it has been staged. As what has been said, there are
two stages in the translating drama: (1) the process of translating the play; and (2) the
process of presenting the translated play. The real challenge of translation then is the
presentation.Was it loved and understood by the audience? Was the message conveyed?
Here are challenges in translating for presentation, which are not encountered in
other form of literature.
1. Various original texts. Usually, a text does not have authorized edition, especially
if it has been written for the long before. It is possible that the text that still exists up
until now had undergone a lot of changes based on the demands of production. This
had happen in Nick Joaquin’s stage play “Portrait of the Artist as Filipino”. According
to Lumbera (2007) This was first staged by the Barangay Theater Guild in 1955. In
the year 1969, PETA presented the translated Filipino language by Alfred Yuson was
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3 | Translation

offered and Franklin Osorio. In 1992, Lumbera was offered by the “Tanghalang
Filipino” to make new translation of the “Portrait of the Artist as Filipino”. When
Lumbera started the translation (which was entitled Retrato ng Artista Bilang Filipino),
he first used the shortened version to fit for a presentation in Aurora Gardens of
Intramuros, “which was trimmed by Nonon for a presentation in Tanghalang
Filipino”. When Anton Juan planned to present a translation, he placed back the
omitted portion. When Ateneo published the translation of Lumbera, the translator
used the whole written piece of Joaquin, not the one which was torn to fragments as
staged in fifty years in the history of “Portrait of the Artist as Filipino”. This was all
because of Lumbera’s belief that, “it is the right of readers of Filipino translation to
know the flow of an original play” by Joaquin.
2. Actual Translation. In actual translation, the questions written Allan McConnel-
Duff (1980) may be of help:
 Language - What kind of language is appropriate to use? Will the Filipino
translation describe the style and setting of the original play?
 Setting - Will the original place and time be retained as to when the play
happened or partly/ completely be changed to suit to its receivers?
 Characters - Will it be better if the characters be like foreigners speaking in the
TL, but the attitude, actions, feelings are still like in the original? Or will the
character just be matched with the character in the translated language?
 Additional Information - Is there a significant additional information to make
the play be more understandable, which was not directly mentioned or
conveyed in the original, but needed to be stated in the translation to make it
more understandable for the viewers of the play?
 Faithful or Free- Is the translation faithful or free? If it is free, will be called
translation, adaptation or new version? The authorities have changing
viewpoints on this question, because being faithful have different meanings
based on the context.
 For reading or for presentation - Is the translation for reading or for print
edition or for presentation on stage?

Before the translation, it should be clear for the translator what are the answers to
the questions aforementioned. These should be decided by the translator right from
the start, as to which will be chosen between two contradicting opinions about a
particular aspect of the translation. The answers to those questions will give the
shape of the translation.
3. Revision of Translation. If the translation is for presentation purposes, the work
of the translator never gets done unless presented. The presence of the translator
during rehearsals might be needed to be able to listen whether the choices of words
are appropriate for the utterances in the presentation. If it needs revision, the
translator can be consulted for some changes to be made.
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3 | Translation

TRANSLATION OF CLASSICAL PLAY

Classical literary works are so enticing especially if it is intended to be staged.
Although thousands of years have passed when it was first written and presented by
Aeschylus, a Greek playwright, his plays still challenges in the modern day presentations.
Aeschylus is not just a playwright according to Ewab (1989), he is also a poeites which
literally means, a creator- which at present is a combination of a playwright, director
composer, choreographer, and the lead actor. It was Aeschylus himself who made the
presentation called Oresteia as his entry to the competition during the feast of Dionysus in
Athens where he won.
Aeschylus created a play for a presentation in Greek, a huge open air theater with
estimated capacity of 17,000 persons.
For Ewans, the translation of classical play must meet the needs of the actors and the
translator must understand the combination and the shape of the theater when it was first
presented. This is because the first classical playwrights like Aeschylus have written the
script based on the size and shape of the theater popular to them. Part of writing the
original play is not just the dialogue but as well as blocking of the scenes and the ingress
(entrance) and egress (exit) of the actors. It is important for the translator to conduct a
research or understand the nature of the original theater of Greek plays. A knowledge on
this would be helpful in choosing the right equivalents of the words.
There are a lot of standards for a good translation, but for Ewans, there are
prevailing characteristics of good translations of Greek tragedy: (1) it must be valid, that
the translation must be near with the message of the original; and (2) the words must be
easily spoken by the actors and the song part must be easily sang on the chorus.

STEPS IN TRANSLATING A PLAY

Jerry Respeto (2006) called the seven steps of translating drama the “seven kisses of
Judas”. These are:
1. Research 5. Tone
2. Rough draft 6. Movement
3. Fill-in 7. Occurrence
4. Direction
According to Respeto, “translating drama is meticulously done and has a wide range
as it treads in three modes or ways- writing, speaking and acting/movement. In writing,
because the translation is written first . Speaking, because the dialogues are spoken by the
actors. Then, acting or movement, because there are aspects to consider in staging a play like
the rhythm on how actors exchange dialogues, the ingress and egress on the stage, etc.
1. The first step is research. This step is like what other translators do in other types of texts.
Research is needed as a primary task in whatever translation undertaking. In translating a
play, the translator must research on the biography of the author, other plays that he or she
has written, the life influences and his or her works. It is important so that the translator
will better understand the style of the playwright and easily obtain the message of the play
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3 | Translation

to be translated. It would also be helpful to research on previously translated works of the

author to ensure which needs to be clarified in the new translation.
2. The second step is writing the first rough draft. This is the initial translation. According to
Respeto, ”as an initial translation, a common sense is helpful as if you are just copying
every word, sentence, and dialogue through a quick English language translation. In this
step, you can skip first the words that are difficult to to translate; just let those words be on
its original then just go back to it once you are done translating the whole play.
3. The third step is the revising and refining of the translation. This is called the “filling up”,
where you go back to the words you left in the rough draft and have it translated. On this
part, the strategy in translation becomes certain. Respeto quoted Roger T. Bell’s suggestions:
(a) to reproduce either the forms or the original ideas of the original; (b) to retain the style
of the original or adopt a different style ; (c) To retain the historic stylistic original or to
render it in contemporary from; (d) to produce a text which reads like a translation; (e) or
add or omit words, phrases, clauses or to attempt to transfer everything from source text to
target text.”
4. The next step is the direction which is the collaboration of the director and the translator.
The director may have suggestions based on what he/ she wants to appear in the drama
presentation, then the translator may include it in the translation.
5. The tone refers to the language spoken by the author in the play. According to Respeto,
this serves as the brain of the translated drama, because of this the translation will have its
sense and value in the presentation. Through the language and dialogue made by the
translator, the characters are identified in the play. It is also through the tone that you can
be certain of the intention and impression of the author. Most of all, it determines the
overall tone and structure of the language.
In this part, the translator can make another revision once he/ she has listened to the
actors utter the words he has chosen in the translation. The translator also looks into the
exchange of dialogues.
6. The movement or the text movement refers to the specific purpose in translating the
drama. This text determines the movement of the actor as they deliver the dialogue. This
helps the translator choose the appropriate equivalent words which have the same
meaning. It has something to do where the actors are staging a play, how they enter, exit or
exit.
7. The occurrence is the last part and it refers to the presentation of the play. This is where
you will know if the translation has been successful. Based on the reaction of authorities in
translation, where there could be omitted or added in the translation of a play, especially if
there has been a model established in translation. But, according to Ewans, “we must
choose what we lose”.

3.2.1.4 Mass Media

Mass media refers to widespread delivery of content, meaning to the masses. It is any
means of communication, as television or newspapers, that reach very large numbers of
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people. Multimedia on the other hand refers to the various methods/media used to create
the content such as animation, videos, photography, etc.
Summa Liguae Technologies gives us the overview how language translation plays a
significant role in today’s modern society. This company helps global, content-rich
companies with every multilingual data challenge.They stated that at present, we live in a
world governed and dominated by multimedia. That inn order for us to reach the masses,
we need to use variety of media.
Today, from mainstream to digital, all communication channels use audio, visual,
and other mixed media, which not only increase the engagement appeal but are also far
more effective to reach the audience in an impactful way. With increasing multimedia use,
the need for translation of such media using a holistic language translation process has also
increased and made them easily consumable for the audience across the globe.
(SummaLiguae, n.d.)
Although the English language is widely and commonly used across international
businesses, according to them, there is and will always be a demand for native languages
among customers and hence, enterprises need to communicate in the languages of their
target market. Studies show that over 70% of global customers prefer information presented
to them in their local language. Hence, despite rapid globalization, businesses still need to
speak the language of their customers in destination markets. That is where multimedia
translation becomes imperative.
Multimedia translation also offers numerous benefits to enterprises trying to
establish a market across multiple global destinations. It helps save heavy investments on
the production of fresh audio-visual content for every target market, thus fulfilling the need
for localized content without much ado.That is the viewpoint in the business aspect.
In the academe, on the other hand, especially now that we are in the pandemic
situation, the means of communication between teachers and students is through various
forms of media (print and online). But, the use of English as medium of instruction or
second language has to be practiced at all times to increase the amount of exposure and the
opportunities among students other than just maintaining the ambiance of teacher-student
relationship in the classroom in the 21st century learning.
Hence, multimedia translation focuses on how the message gets across the masses
with the consideration on the type of medium to be used.

In Translating Multimedia, SummaLiguae had the following suggestions:

Multimedia translation involves multiple steps, which helps disseminate the

information in a crisp, clear, and direct manner.

1. Transcription. This is one of the preliminary steps involved in the language translation
process of audio, video, movie, or mixed media. Before the actual translation begins, all
source materials are compiled. The spoken text is then transcribed along with on-screen
text/captions and organized in a script form. It is important to have a transcription of all
original content, so it can be later translated, edited, and proofread into the target language.
This is typically done manually or with the help of advanced automation tools.

2. Localization. Localization of multimedia content refers to the translation of not only

textual content but also attributes thereof. The source content (audio and video) is adjusted
and adapted to fit into the cultural and linguistic nuances of the target destination.
Localization of multimedia involves a language translation process involving the
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conversion of measurement units, date-time formats, currencies, etc. thus, making the
content distinctive to the target market. The idea is to make the translation invisible or least
identifiable to the audience, so they consume the content as original. Localization goes
beyond mere translation and helps in transcreation of content in its own right.

3. Voice Translation. If there is audio content involved, then the translation needs to be
taken care of before the audio recording is done. Once all content is gathered, localized, and
translated into text, it is then transformed into a voice file. The translated content is then
reviewed by local resources to ensure the accuracy of language, grammar, and other local
conventions.

4. Voice over Recording. Advanced recording devices and digital systems have made it
much easier today to do voice-overs. But for better results and consistent quality of audio, it
is important to use professional setups and high-end equipment, supervised by qualified
and experienced technicians. Also, to make the recording sound locally appropriate and
acceptable, it is extremely essential to have a voiceover talent who can deliver the right local
dialect, accent, enunciation, diction, tone, and similar linguistic variables. Only then, the
language translation process can become successful. A recording manager oversees the
audio production process and trains voice talents to create the perfect voice assets for the
translated content.

5. Synchronized Translation
Once all audio and textual content is translated and recorded, they are then synchronized to
get the end output. Synchronization of text and audio/dubbing/voice cannot be done by
adding two files using regular editing software. There are always chances of mismatch
between spoken and written words and the timing needs to be spot on, to avoid any lapses
and get a flawless output instead. Hence, there are advanced professional software like
iSpring Suite, Adobe Captivate and Articulate Storyline, etc. which are used for audio-
visual publishing.

6. Synchronized Subtitles
This could be counted as an extra step, beyond the five steps mentioned above. Sometimes,
instead of a voiceover, subtitles are used to reduce costs and ensure localization. It also cuts
down the process of hiring voice talent and ensuring the language correctness of the same.
Also, with subtitles, synchronization is easier to achieve than with voice, since textual
content can be easily adjusted and edited according to the video timelines.

Summing up…

Such a comprehensive language translation process helps to avoid any mistakes and
create the best multimedia content, seamlessly and efficiently. Furthermore, with more
emphasis on regional/ethnic languages to integrate diversity in businesses, it has become
imperative for global enterprises to invest in the translation of mixed media for business
and customer outreach and connect better with their audience.

3.2.1.5 Scientific and Technical

Translation of scientific and technical texts are in demand nowadays due to
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globalization specifically in writing a manuscript for research.

For eTranslation Services, technical translation involves the translation of unique
texts, such as content regarding procedures and products from science and technology. This
may include manuals, pharmaceutical inserts, medical device instructions, or assembly
diagrams of different products that are for distribution to international markets.
The following information are taken from an article of the eTranslation Services
entitled What is Scientific and Technical Translation? which will help us understand how
scientific and technical translation is done.

Technical translations
Documents created by technical writers that need translation require specialists who
are well versed in technological subject matters. The service deals with the conversion of
scientific and technical materials that require the use of specific technical or scientific
terminology. The translator must have knowledge and experience in the field and
understands technical and scientific terminologies in the language pair.
Technical translation costs more than general translation. It might take longer to
accomplish, as well. The cost and time it takes to finish the document will vary according to
the level of technical or scientific knowledge the material requires and the availability of a
specialist translator in the target language.

Technical translation services

Services for technical translation covers different documents and translators
and translation agencies sometimes focus only on one subject, for example, patent
translation.
Patent translation needs a translator who is a subject matter expert. He or she should
also be sufficiently knowledgeable in patent writing. Practical and legal requirements cover
the patent translation. Likewise, translating patents has specific demands as well. For
example, in Iceland, the translation should either be in English, Icelandic, Norwegian,
Swedish or Danish. But patent filings in the United Arab Emirates should be both in Arabic
and English. Patent translation is demanding, and the client and translator should consider
the deadline for patent filings so they can give time for the rendering of the translation.
The translation of user manuals falls under technical translation as well. The main
requirement here is that technical translation should be very objective. Moreover, the
interpretation of manuals should use simplified language while including the special
terminology required. This task draws on the technical and creative writing skills of the
translator.
Thus, clients ordering technical translation services should be very specific about the
requirements and the purpose of the translation. It is also vital that the translator knows the
target users of the technical translation.
Technical translation also applies to the translation of software strings and the
localization of e-learning programs, apps, and software.

Scientific and technical translations

Scientific and technical translation, like medical, legal and literary translation
services, requires specialists. Translators for this kind of material should be experts in the
specific subject matter. Only they can provide an accurate translation that will make the
materials comprehensible to non-technical or non-scientific users.
In order to make particular information available to a wider audience, the technical
or scientific translator should balance the linguistic requirements of the texts, as well as the
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aesthetic sense of the information. Most technical and scientific texts are complex and
include specific terms that are unique to each type of content. It’s the translator’s job to
render the content into the target languages. At the same time, he or she sees to it that it is
in non-technical languages that are easy to understand.
Scientific translation, which is a sub-branch of technical translation, focuses more on
the translation of scientific texts, such as scientific journals, scientific research papers and
clinical trials. The branches of science that often require scientific translation are:
 Medicine
 Biology
 Pharmacology
 Chemistry
 Physics
 Psychology
 Astronomy
 Geology
 Zoology
 Neuroscience
Scientific translation requires precision, as the documents often contain terminology
specific to the subject matter.

Technical document translation

When you need technical document translation, it is vital to ensure that you are
working with a subject matter expert.
Technical document translation requires expertise and specialization, along with
fluency in the source and target languages. It is a niche market and one of the most difficult
jobs among translation requirements. You have to see to it that the translator who will
handle your project has the relevant qualifications, extensive knowledge in the specific
terminology of the given subject, experience in doing technical translation and consistently
high quality of rendered work.
Technical translators must see to it that the tone of the translation reflects the status
of the company. The tone of the information should be consistent, following the tone of the
original document.
When doing technical document translation, the translator may also do some
localization, to ensure that that images and other visual elements related to the information
are culturally acceptable. The technical translator must work closely with the client to
ensure that the translation follows the original intent of the document. Likewise, he or she
must consider the sensitivities and level of understanding of the intended users of the
translation.

3.2.1.6 Figures of Speech

The figure of speech is any intentional deviation from literal statement or common
usage that emphasizes, clarifies, or embellishes both written and spoken language. Forming
an integral part of language, figures of speech are found in oral literature as well as in
polished poetry and prose and in everyday speech.
The figure of speech is a deviation from the structure of language to give a fresh,
different and pleasant way of expressing and and giving of meaning with the help of
comparison between two different things, but are comparable.
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It is not a flowery way of using language, but an artistic expression. Therefore, if

poetry is rich with figure of speech, then there is a need for a novice translator or the one
who intends to translate to have a basic knowledge in this particular aspect of language.
Others call the figure of speech as figurative expression maybe because the figurative
language being used. In a simple definition, the figure of speech is a form of description
different to the usual way of talking, it may be figurative but does not have literal meaning
of the word.
The metaphor and simile are figures of speech of a thing, person or animal which is
compared or replaced with other thing, person or animal, the use of figure of speech gives a
colorful and effective meaning to the thought or message that it wishes to convey.
According to Newmark (AT 1988:84) “the purpose of metaphors (and similes) is to
liven up other types of texts, to make them more colorful, dramatic and witty, notoriously
in journalism.” Both metaphor and simile compares. They only differ for a reason that
simile uses the words or phrases “like the, as of, seemingly, as, like,” etc. Whereas metaphor
does not.
Similes are more precise, more restricted and usually less radical, less committed
than metaphors, since they limit the resemblance of the ‘object’ and its ‘image’. Thus, they
are generally easier to translate than metaphors (A simile is ‘weaker’ method of translating
a metaphor).
Example:
Simile - Nelia is like a bright star.
Metaphor - Nelia is a bright star.
On a sudden thought, metaphor and simile seem easy to understand. But, there are
times that a statement are mistaken as metaphor or simile by some, though when analyzed
it is not. In other words, it has to be clear to us that not all comparable are identified as
metaphor and simile.
Example A:
1. The world is as heavy as Rico’s problem.
2. Rico’s problem is as heavy as Ben’s.
Example B:
1. John is a tiger in their place.
2. John is a bully in their place.
In example A-1, the heaviness of Rico’s problem is compared to the heaviness of the world,
the comparison is exaggerated, a clear simile; that the message wanted to convey that Rico’s
problem is really heavy.
On the other hand, if we are going to analyze example A-2, we will notice that
though there is a comparison between Ben’s problem and the problem of Rico, this could not be
considered a simile because it not “figurative”. In other words, the comparison between
“Ben’s problem” and “Rico’s problem” are nonfigurative because it is a comparison between
two actual problem unlike the comparison of Rico’s problem to the heaviness of the world.
Larson (MBT:249) mentioned about live and dead metaphors and similes. According
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to him, the “dead” metaphor are those expressions that are considered already part of
idiomatic ways of expressing a language. On the other hand, “live” metaphors are those
expressions that are formed in a moment of communicating to a person.
On the other hand, “live” metaphor can be understood only after a simile is
devotedly thought of, unlike a “dead” metaphor which can be understood even without
thinking of its comparison. He gave as an example the “run into debt, foot of the stairs,
head of the state, etc.
Larson stated that not all simile and metaphor are easy to understand. And if these
are translated word-for-word, this will create danger because this might change or have a
weird meaning. This can be true because most statements are adapted from cultures of the
group of people who uses it.
Another reason why idioms and dead metaphors should not be translated word-for-
word because at times the topic is not clear or the point of comparison. In the sentence
which says “he is a pig”, according to Larson, the “point of similarity was not mentioned. In
a culture, the comparison to a pig may mean “gobbler,” and for some it may mean “a rude
person.”
The third reason according to Larson why idioms and dead metaphors should not be
literally translated because there might be a possibility that the words used for comparison
or similarity have different meanings. He used as an example the “there was a storm in the
parliament yesterday.” He said that the word “storm’ may not be used in translation for
“heated debate.” How will this be translated literally? Where in some languages the
“storm” has the word equivalent “typhoon”. If translated literally to Filipino it would be
“May bagyo sa batasan kahapon.”
The Filipino literal translation may be acceptable. It is more appropriate to
translation this not in a metaphorical way, but in an outright or direct interpretation of the
said figure of speech like “Nagkaroon ng balitaktakan (o mainit na debate) sa batasan kahapon” or
“Naging lubhang mainit ang pagtatalo sa batasan kahapon”.

Four Parts of Metaphor or Simile

1. Topic - the subject of the first preposition (nonfigurative) in other words, it is what is
being talked about.
2. Image - the topic or subject of the second preposition (figurative); in other words, it is
what is being compared.
3. Point of Similarity- shows as to where aspect in particular the subject/ topic and the
image are the same.
4. Nonfigurative Equivalent- when the proposition that contains an “event proposition” or
has a movement or happenings, the “comment” is the nonfigurative equivalent.
Examples and Analysis:
1. The moon is like blood.
2. The righteous judge will give you the crown of life.
Propositions:
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1. The moon is (red).

2. Blood is (red)
Analysis:
1. Topic - “moon”
2. Image - “blood”
3. Point of similarity - “red”

Ways of translating metaphors, according to Newmark (AT 1988:32):

1. Transferring the image.
2. Finding an equivalent image.
3. Converting the metaphor to simile
4. Converting the metaphor to simile plus sense.
5. Converting the image to sense.

Ways of translating metaphors, according to Larson:

1. Metaphors can be retained the translation will be natural or idiomatic at can be
understood by the readers.
2. A metaphor can be translated like a simile.
3. The metaphor in the translated language which could have the same meaning with the
metaphor being translated could be used as its equivalent.
4. A metaphor can be translated literally or without changes for as long as it has
explanation and elaboration that follows.
5. A metaphor can be translated as non metaphorical; in other words, the though of the
metaphor will be translated outright or in a direct statement.
Examples:
1. No man is an island.
2. No man is like an island
3. No man i a mountain peak.
4. No man is an island. An island is by itself, but no person is isolated from all other
people.

Ways of translating metaphors, according to Nida (TST 1964:220):

1. Metaphor to another metaphor.
2. Metaphor to a simile.
3. Metaphor to a nonmetaphor

3.2.1.7 Children’s Literature

At present, a number of children’s book are written both in Filipino and English. A
literary piece may be written in Filipino and translated to English or vice versa. There are
two types of target readers in this kind of strategy: a child who reads and uses Filipino
language and a child who is used to read English. Books that have English translation are
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3 | Translation

sold in other countries or in international market, that is why there are plenty of children’s
books in two languages.
According to Zohar Shavit in his Poetics of Children’s Literature, the translation of of
children’s literature is not like the usual translation because it is part of the transfer
mechanism- the process by which textual models are produced within the target system.
Consequently, it is not just the transfer of message of the literary piece from one language
to another. On the contrary, the translation of children’s literature is the transfer of text
from one system for adults to another system for children.
Therefore, the literature for adults are rewritten to fit for young readers based on the
society’s point of view which is suitable to their experience and capacity. This viewpoint
gives the translator the freedom in translating children’s literature because he/ she could
shorten the translated text, slightly change the structure of expression of the original, to add
or omit, and make the outline simple. This can be done by the translator according to Zohar
Shavit provided that the text meets these two principles: (1) the text can be changed to suit
to the needs of a child, in the light of the society’s present view on what is good for a child;
and (2) the outline can be changed, the characters and language in accordance with the
society’s belief on the level of capacity and understanding of the child.
These viewpoints have an influence in the translation of
children’s literature. The translator may remove the parts which
he/she thinks not suitable o not intelligible to them.
One of the examples is the Gulliver’s Travels. This is about
Gulliver’s journey to different lands. But, the very first
shortened translation for children on this, only have “Lilliput”
and “ Brobdingnag”. Later on, Gulliver became popular as
related to his travel to the land of little people, the Lilliputan.
Another example is Robinson Crusoe, which also had the
shortened version for children. The Prince and the Pauper,
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and other lengthy novels, which
were not written for children, for readers at the right age. This
types of translation can be called an adaptation, which were
made short with simple outline and characters suitable for
children.
With this kind of viewpoint in translation, though themes of novels for adults can be
sensitive, like the Crime and Punishment and Les Misarables can be translated to become part
of children’s literature. But, these should be in accordance with the two principles in
translation as previously mentioned .
At this point, it can be asked why is there a need to translate the text if it would be
changed and made simple, and not give the whole text written by the author? Simplified
translations of the classic authors is one way for a canonized text be introduced as part in
the child’s learning process. But, these are made simple in the majority’s claim that the
young minds are not capable yet of processing capable things.
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Alice in Wonderland which was considered as a classic

literary piece could be said as not intentionally written for children,
even if the main character Alice is a child. It was about Alice
dream in one hot afternoon where it described weird happenings
with characters like Queen, and March and Hare , Mock Turtle etc.
Reading in a shallow level, it can be said that the outline of events
is just simple. Alice have reached to a world full of mysteries
because of the unusual events and characters she encountered.
Those weird events are all but a dream. But, critics said Alice in
Wnderland is Lewis Caroll’s comment of the society during his time
and the characters are symbolism of the kind of his society. For
over a hundred years, readers from different ages have enjoyed the amusing happenings in
a day in the life of Alice.
Literature is conventionally like this- it can be read in the different levels of the
different chapters of life of a reader. This can be read by a child and cherish in his/ her
childhood days. This can be read by one who is in the right age and will also cherish based
on the level he/ she has experienced. The reader will look back the literary piece he/ she
once cherished in his/ her childhood and by the time he/she reread it, he/she will also find
new meaning in it.

3.2.1.8 Modern Translation

Modern day translation introduced machine translation of MT. This refers to a
branch of computational linguistics which searches the use of computer software to
translate from one language to another with or without human manipulation. MT is also
know mechanical or automatic translation , though these terms are rarely used nowadays.
As part of the scope with clarification of the meaning of MT , John Hutchins and Harold L.
Somers explaine.
“The term MT does not include computer-based translation tools to which support
translators by providing access to dictionaries and remote terminology databases,
facilitating the transmission and reception of machine-readable texts, or interacting with
word processing, text editing or print equipment. It does, however, include systems in
which translators or other users assist computers in production of translations, including
various combination s of text preparation, online interactions and subsequent revisions
output. The boundaries between Machine-Aided Human Translation (MAHT) and Human-
Aided Machine Translation (HAMT) are often uncertain and the term Computer-Aided
(Computer-Assisted) Translation (both CAT) can sometimes cover both. But, the central
core of MT itself is the automation of the full translation process.
With the evolution of technology, the question on “what do translators do?” has
become controversial, especially if it is answered with “most typically, texts” (Imre, 2014)-
because text covers a wide range. Here, a recent study on modern text translation presents
different text translations and how it works nowadays.
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In a classical approach, the semantic and pragmatic coherence of a stretch of

language usually results in a text, which may range from one word to a longer sequence of
utterances or sentences both in speech and in writing (Carter and McCarthy 2006).
Coherence means that sentences are joined with anaphoric and cataphoric elements. This
may be completed with the communicative intention, as Gläser (1986, 45) mentions:
“A text may be defined as a relatively independent and hierarchically structured linguistic
unit (macrostructure) which reflects a complex state of affairs and has a specific communicative
intention. The state of affairs may refer to the real world or to the world of imagination and fiction.”
The Oxford Online Dictionary3 defines the text as the “the main body of a book or
other piece of writing”, “a book or other written or printed work, regarded in terms of its
content rather than its physical form”, differentiating texts from illustrations, notes,
appendices or text messages sent via mobile phones. Furthermore, the Biblical text or
musical texts (script or libretto) are also differentiated from the central sense.
These approaches may be valid in the case of translations as well, thus we can say
that a text is an articulated string of characters (letters), forming meaningful words and
sentences, which (due to various reasons, such as content, form, subjective appreciation) are
worth translating. (Imre, 2014).
Today, when we talk about translation it usually involves technology. Issues in
translating modern texts have surfaced when compared to the classical texts principles and
concepts. Imre’s study on translating modern texts shared the different kinds of text
translation.
Texts in the classical sense
Classical texts should be viewed as “finite products”, that is complete ones,
compared to those which are either much shorter, or look like “dissected chunks” serving a
new type of browsing (e.g. the sections of a web page). Nevertheless, we agree with
Newmark’s statement: “[a] valid text must be elegantly written”, which offers a general
approach to translating texts.
Furthermore, a text must be void of misprints, gaps, grammatical and lexical errors,
being the “evidence of a deep knowledge of a language” (Newmark 2003, 59). Coleridge’s
definition of poetry: “the best words in the best order,” (cf. Weissbort and Eysteinsson 2006,
362), which may be extended to literary texts as well. Nowadays we cannot approach texts
this way, as “modern” tendencies leave little room for “best order”. Yet, Albert (2011, 76–77)
correctly observes that it is expedient to divide texts into literary and non-literary. There are
two principal categories of translators – literary and non-literary. Although these
categorizations are not entirely accurate, they are generally accepted, with a general remark
for both types: in the last few years there is the issue of the “deterioration in the quality of
the source text provided for translation” (Samuelsson-Brown 2010).
From a historical point of view, we cannot overlook the importance of religious text
translation (cf. the translations of the Bible or Qur’an), and of administrative or literary
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translations, which is valid even today. Until the systematic study of translation, the
translation of literary works (novels, short stories, poems and plays) has often been
considered a form of art, whereas the translation of non-literary works has been typically
regarded as a skill. Poetry translation is such an advanced form of art (where both the
translation of form and content is viewed), that Jakobson formulated a desperate conclusion
in 1959: “poetry by definition is untranslatable” (Harvey 2000, 118). However, since the
appearance of free verse, Jakobson’s conclusion may have been revised, not to mention that
in Marshak’s (1962) view (quoted by Efim Etkind at a seminar on translation in 1998, cf.
Weissbort and Eysteinsson 2006, 603) every poetry translation is an “exception” to
Jakobson’s rule. And we should also mention “singing translation”, which is close to poetry
translation, referring to the translation of lyrics, the text of songs, where both the number of
syllables and the rhyming form may challenge the translator.
The intelligibility of a text, especially after translation, is also very important. As S. J.
Petőfi (2007) mentions, a text does not make sense by itself, but rather by the interaction of
text-presented knowledge with people’s stored knowledge of the world (in Károly 2007, 48).

Translating “modern” texts

Even if we open a Pandora’s box of translation, we have to ask a legitimate question:
Does the translator translate words, sentences or “texts”? The possible answer(s) have
troubled theoreticians for centuries. Initially the word was considered to be the basic unit of
translation, although today we might have shifted towards text, searching meaning that
expands over entire sentences. Albert (2011, 67) brightly elucidates the problem: as
language is linear, the translator never translates the whole text, only words or sentences,
expressions, idiomatic phrases, interjections, exclamations, etc., even if s/he knows the
entire text in advance.
However, the problem seems to be solved in the age of computer-assisted translation
(CAT), as these tools also deal with sentence-level (called segments). The importance of
segments is supported by Albert (2011, 188), as the meaning of a sentence is qualitatively
more than the sum of the individual meaning of words forming the sentence, even if the
sense of a sentence or text is rather disputed by linguists or philosophers. By analogy, the
meaning of a text must be qualitatively more than sum of the meanings of the separate
sentences building up the entire text.
Gouadec (2007, 29) heralds the end of “free” literary translations, as we have to
approach them from the point of view of business, controlled by the publisher, the manager
of the collection, the proof-reader, and the commercial staff. They have strong opinions
about what the “translation should look like in terms of length (!), contents, and style”
(except for classic authors), reaching the conclusion that nowadays, “literary works are first
and foremost commercial products.” Yet we believe that good quality literature is above
commercial interests, due to its inherent aesthetic values.
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Nevertheless, the market for literary translations is declining. Although McKay (2006,
22) analyses the US segment alone, the statistics are discouraging: “Americans don’t tend to
read literature in translation, so there is a small market for the work of literary translators;
in 2004, only 891 of the 195,000 new books printed in English were adult literature in
translation.” This is no more than 0.004% of all published books in the USA, whereas this
may be around 1% in Romania, as Rodica Dimitriu estimated during a conference in 2013.
Thus it seems logical to investigate types of “modern” texts. At present, there are so many
types of “modern” texts that we may often wonder how to categorize them. Luckily, we
have the advantage of focusing only on those which may fall “victim to translation”.
First and foremost, the environment of texts should be mentioned. In this respect, we
can distinguish texts, which have remained in the printed media (books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, etc.), print-ready texts (which have not been printed due to economic
reasons, such as documents in .pdf format), and texts belonging to “modern” times: web
pages or audiovisual texts. This type of classification seems necessary, as even printed texts
may be further sub-divided into having classical form and content (novel), or more modern,
shorter forms (free verse, puns). In modern times one may have difficulty in finding
coherence and cohesion in the dissected texts of otherwise “articulated string of characters”
or “meaningful words, sentences.”
Source texts used to be translated with the aid of dictionaries for centuries, which
have grown into “translation projects” today (thus recognizing the importance of contexts
and clients), involving a lot of background information about specific communicative
situations, including specialized glossaries and detailed instructions, as Biau Gil and Pym
(2006, 12) correctly observe. Gouadec (2007, 366) firmly believes that “today, a translation is
definitely seen as a product (even when it is a literary work or art form) [...] and the product
is the result of a manufacturing process”. Marketing and provision are also added to the
“translation service packages”, which are not “mere” translations: time, cost, quality,
added-value, return on investment, quality assurance, quality control, sampling techniques,
product adjustment, after-sales servicing and updating are “normal” parts of this
translation “production process”. This means that every present day translation is
“specialized”, even if literary. Thus a content-based classification of translation seems to be
necessary, as detailed below.

Specialized translation
Translators should fulfil two, seemingly abhorrent expectations connected to
specialised translations: on the one hand, the translation should be carried out within a very
short deadline, on the other, they should offer the best possible quality, which includes term
use, consistency and proper wording (Kis and Lengyel 2005, 53). As a result, the use of
CAT-tools in translation is supported by a demand dictated by market conditions and not
by scientific research. Any type of written text can be a candidate for translation; however,
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the translation industry is often categorized by a number of areas of specialization. Each

specialization has its own challenges and difficulties. Next to literary translations we can
distinguish more sub-types of nonliterary types, called “specialized”.
Based on Gouadec (2007, 33, slightly modified), we would differentiate content-
based types of translation, such as general (literary, Internet, online translation), religious,
technical (IT, computer, video-games), legal (judiciary, court, sworn translation), medical
(biomedical and pharmaceutical), scientific, financial, commercial (advertising and
marketing), pedagogic, audiovisual (localisation, internationalization, globalisation) and
other (not mentioned above, e.g. aviation or woodcarving). Due to space constraints, we
cannot detail all types, but we will make a few comments upon them. General translation is
a rather convenient term for clients who do not wish to pay more than the “standard” rates.

Audiovisual translation
The emerging importance of audiovisual translation is vividly expressed by Díaz
Cintaz (2003, 192): “As part of this (r)evolution, few can deny that one of the branches that
has received the greatest impetus is audiovisual translation”. He is convinced that
“audiovisual translation is in vogue and, thanks to its inherent links with technology and
the omnipresence of audiovisual products in our societies, it appears to have a promising
future” (2003, 203), speculating that audiovisual or multimediatranslation “will be the
translation sub-discipline of this brand new millennium.” A decade has hardly passed since
this prophecy, but there are already signs of his clairvoyance. Although Gouadec (2007, 37)
places audiovisual translation among the types of specialised translation (translation of
material embedded in particular media), in essence he expresses a similar idea.
Entertainment has also become the desire of many, coinciding with the increase in
film production throughout the world, thus “translation carried out in the audiovisual field
currently accounts for an increasingly large proportion of translation activity”, as Díaz
Cintaz (2003, 193) correctly observes, also mentioning cultural translations, which resulted
in countless documentaries, interviews, films, news, discussion programmes, shows, series,
or cartoons, especially in non-English speaking countries or where English is not the official
language.

Screen translation (cf. Gottlieb 2004) may be used as an alternative to audiovisual

translation, although the term is less exact; even if it includes television, cinema, or computer
screen (computer games, web pages), it excludes the only “audio” aspect (songs, lyrics
radio dramas, etc.).
The sudden increase in audiovisual translation may be explained by the content of
DVDs, often having multiple versions with even tens of subtitles. These subtitles and
versions are precious data when the original is compared to the renditions (subtitles,
dubbings, voice-overs, surtitlings), even returning to the long-forgotten “word-for-word” or
literal translations, “even at the risk of the final translation being devoid of meaning in the
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target language” (Díaz Cintaz 2003, 198). But let us take the subcategories of audiovisual
translation one by one.
1. Subtitling. Subtitling is among the most favoured types of translation, having expanded
so much due to economic reasons as well. It has many advantages (easy to create, relatively
inexpensive, no sophisticated software needed), but first and foremost there is an increasing
demand for it in such a way that it can be further subdivided: intralingual (dialects or for
people hard of hearing) and interlingual (from one language to another).
Intralingual subtitling is the most extensively used form for the deaf and hard of
hearing. However, Díaz Cintaz (2003, 203) mentions that captions usually appear on screen
when the accent of the speakers is difficult to understand for an audience, “which, in
principle, shares the same language”. Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996), a famous British
film, has intralingual translation, as the actors speak English with a strong Scottish accent.
Sometimes even news programmes may use intralingual subtitling, for instance when
people speak various dialects, or not the standard language (e.g. Romania or Hungary).
The formal requirements regarding subtitles are easy to summarize: typically (but
not necessarily) displayed as a written text at the bottom of the screen, sometimes
completed with the account of other sounds (e.g. sirens hooting, dogs barking), or the rough
visualisation of soundtracks. Subtitles should be on screen for five or six seconds, no more
than two lines simultaneously and no more than 35 characters per line. This means that a
verbatim rendition is rarely possible, and it is the translator’s competence and freedom to
choose what to skip in subtitling without obscuring the meaning. The method was
introduced with the appearance of talking movies in 1929–1930.
2. Dubbing. Dubbing (or synchronisation) is the replacement of the source soundtrack with
the target soundtrack, which at a professional level entails that the original message is
reproduced in a way that the target language sounds and the lip movements of the actors
are also synchronised.
Unlike subtitles, dubbing does not enable foreign language learning, so there is an
assumption that people living in countries which favour subtitles “have a better knowledge
of English than those living in countries with a preference for dubbing” (Díaz Cintaz 2003,
202). He mentions thatin this respect the case of western Europe is interesting, where large
countries prefer dubbing (France, Germany, Italy and Spain), and smaller countries are for
subtitles (Greece, The Netherlands, Portugal and the Scandinavian countries). Central and
eastern European countries are divided in this respect, some of them preferring subtitling
(Romania,Slovenia), whereas the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Bulgaria are
inclined towards dubbing. Other countries (e.g. Poland or the three Baltic States) still prefer
voice-over, which in Romania invokes the Communist regime, when films were shown in
“videoteques”.
3. Voice-over. Voice-over is created in specialised studios as, during the process, the
original voice of the speaker (radio, television, theatre, interview, etc.) is either completely
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removed (silenced) or significantly reduced in order to add the target language voice. This
voice is often provided by a specialist voice actor (see, for instance the beginning of the film
Mrs. Doubtfire).
Although voice-over seemed to belong to the past, there are very strong financial
reasons for it to continue to be used. First of all, it is less expensive than dubbing, capturing
the interest of translation agencies and companies. There are opinions that “it is also a more
immediate and seductive form of transmitting information than the written word”
(Anderman and Rogers 2003, 199), and it is extensively used in advertisements,
teleshopping, closed circuit TV presentations, corporate videos, or narrations (even on the
radio). A further step towards synchronisation is observed when instead of the standard
single voice there are two voices: a male voice for male roles and a female voice for female
roles (Dollerup 2005).
Technically speaking, voice-over needs the reduction of the original soundtrack to
the minimum while adding the target soundtrack at a greater volume. A further
requirement is that the voice-over starts delayed compared to the original and finishes a
few seconds before it. This way the audience is assured that the voice-over follows the
original and can also listen to bits of the original sound at a normal volume, making the
viewers aware that the voice-over is a translation (which is not so obvious in the case of
dubbing).
4. Surtitling. People loving arts in general, and classical music in particular must have been
often disturbed by the fact that they do not understand the “soundtrack”. The ingenious
idea, which was born in Canada, has conquered many places by now, namely the
introduction of surtitles. Surtitling may be considered a subcategory of subtitling (Dollerup
2005, 35–36), but the translation is projected either above or on the side of the stage during
the performance. It may convey partially or entirely the original text. Newmark (2003, 65)
also describes surtitles as “translations of opera texts projected above or alongside the
stage”, which has been extended to foreign plays as well, and is certain to also extend to
other artistic genres as well. As a matter of fact, this is already applied in Romania and
Hungary too, although the projected material may be either the translation or the libretto
itself. Surtitling is most welcome worldwide; The New York Times reads, “The Canadians
have created something that makes opera understandable and accessible to many who love
the music but can’t understand the words. It’s called surtitles.” 6 The appreciation of
spectators is adequately rendered by The Wall Street Journal too: “It’s the greatest thing to hit
opera since the long-playing record.”
5.Scanlation. This term covers the scanning, translation and editing of foreign language
comics, originating from the Japanese manga comics. Scanlation is predominantly amateur
work, carried out with the lack of written permission from copyright holders, similarly to
amateur subtitles accompanying illegally downloaded films, and they are distributed by
fans as image files downloadable from the Internet. However, there is an alternative
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method, namely to offer only the translation of this sequential art, driving the potential
clients to purchase a copy of the original work. Although we do not present further
“modern” types of translation, this does not mean that there are no more types. As Dollerup

(2005) warns us, “the very modes of translation are under constant change. They overlap,
228 Translating Modern Texts they disappear, and new ones emerge.” For instance,
similarly to scanlation, it is possible to develop a combined form of translation, and there
are special types of software that fish out embedded texts, words or characters from images

(e.g. In Design).

Translation does not only involve “autonomous texts”, so text fragments should
alsobe mentioned here. This way we recognise that in contemporary business and media
life there is a large number of texts, which are not labelled as translations (e.g. weather
reports taken from neighbouring countries), although we produce them day by day. No
wonder that Lambert (2006, 142) formulates the tautological definition: “translation is a
phenomenon that cultures consider to be translation”. In this respect, localisation,
internationalisation or globalisation are further types of translation.

6. Fan translation. The new term coins all unofficial translations of different media forms
carried out by fans; this may result from the lack of official translations combined with the
milliards of illegal downloads from torrents. Fansub(bing) refers to subtitling films, concerts,
television shows, and the predominant language pair is English to any other. The second
largest type is anime (Japanese hand-drawn or computer animation) and tokusatsu (En:
special photography) fansub of science fiction, horror or fantasy films, typically involving
an East Asian language and English. Rarely short stories or other literary works may be
translated by fans, which shows a rising tendency since the advent of social networking and
bookmarking, including blogs, posts and forums.

Video game translation largely belongs to this category, as the original game is
usually in English or other international languages, later on shared by players through
unofficial patches with modified binary files.
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In an essay form, answer the following questions in the box concisely. Check on the
rubrics on how your answers will be rated.Write your answers on a piece of bond paper/
yellow paper, take a picture of your output and submit via online platform ( SSU Online,
google classroom or direct message me through my FB account: Joan Jaboli Baclay ).

Activity - Learning Packet #3

QUESTIONS / Performance Task

1. Briefly describe and differentiate classical and modern translations.

2. Which part of the lesson have an impact on you a student?
3. As an English major student, what benefits you can get in learning the different
text translation?

Term Requirement (Project #3/ Group Project):

DRRM Radio Infomercial (English information to Waray-Waray)

There will be seven (7) groups to do this task. Each group shall come up with a script
for a radio infomercial on disaster assigned w be posted in our FB group messenger. The
radio infomercial shall be in in waray-waray language. It shall be in a radio drama format
with 5 to 7-minute duration intended for general public target audience. Script format shall
be sent and details on the mechanics will follow.
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RUBRICS ON PERFORMANCE TASK QUESTIONS

Unit 3 Assessment
A link to access a 35-item quiz via google form will be announced a week after
all LP3 are received.

3.3 References

Alice in Wonderland book illustration. Retrieved from:

https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/198659/alice-in-
wonderland-by-lewis-carroll-adapted-by-mallory-loehr-illustrated-by-
john-tenniel/
Almario, V. et al. (2003). Patnubay sa Pagsasalin; Anvil Publishing, Inc.
Batnag, A. et al. (2009) Teksbuk sa Pagsasalin. C and E Publishing Inc.
Che, S.J. (2005). Drama Translation: Principles and Strategies. Translation Today Vol. 2
No. 2 Oct. 2005
Gulliver’s Travel book illustration. Retrieved from:
https://www.amazon.in/Gullivers-Travels-Deluxe-Illustrated-Annotated-
ebook/dp/B00P7C717Q
Imre, A. (2014). Translating Modern Texts. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Larson, M. (1998). Meaning-Based Translation. University Press of America. Inc.
Santiago, A. (2003). Sining ng Pagsasalin. Rex Bookstore, Inc.
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3 | Translation

Shiyas, S. (2017). Translation: Concept and Critical Issues. Garant Publishers.

SummaLingua (n.d.) Retrieved from https://summalinguae.com/localization/5-
step-language-translation-process-for-multimedia-translation/

3.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above