E-learning Module

Planning and scheduling operations theoretical

knowledge

Στα πλαίσια του έργου:

«Ανάπτυξη Εκπαιδευτικών Ενοτήτων (e-Learning Modules) για Στελέχη Εμπορικού

Ναυτικού»

Για το Έργο:

«Ανάπτυξη Πλατφόρμας E-Learning για την Ανταλλαγή Γνώσης και Τεχνογνωσίας στον
Χώρο της Ναυτικής και Ναυτιλιακής Εκπαίδευσης»
με Κωδική Ονομασία «e-Shipping»
του Διασυνοριακού Προγράμματος «Ελλάδα - Κύπρος 2007 – 2013»

ΦΟΡΕΑΣ ΥΛΟΠΟΙΗΣΗΣ:
GMC MARITIME TRAINING CENTER

ΠΕΡΙΟΔΟΣ ΥΛΟΠΟΙΗΣΗΣ:
ΟΚΤΩΒΡΙΟΣ 2014 – ΙΑΝΟΥΑΡΙΟΣ 2015

Αναθέτουσα Αρχή:
ΤΜΗΜΑ ΕΜΠΟΡΙΚΗΣ ΝΑΥΤΙΛΙΑΣ ΚΥΠΡΟΥ
ΔΙΕΥΘΥΝΣΗ ΝΑΥΤΙΚΗΣ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΣΗΣ
Οδός Κυλλήνης, Μέσα Γειτονιά CY-4007, Λεμεσός

1
Contents

Course Outline………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………3

A. Thermodynamics and heat transmission

1. Classification of thermodynamics cycles……………………………………………………………………………….…….5
2. Constant volume cycle - Otto cycle …………………………………………………………………………………………….6
3. Constant volume - Diesel cycle………………………………………………………………………………………….………12
4. Internal combustion engine……………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
5. Brake power and mechanical efficiency ……………………………………………………………………………………21
6. Closed-cycle gas turbine……………………………………………………………………………….……………………………24
7. Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Ideal Cycles……………………………..………………………….29
8. Brayton Cycle with Regeneration………………………………………………………………………………………………32
9. Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating and Regeneration………………………..…………………………34
10. Properties of Vapours …………………………………………………………………………………….………………………38
11. Steam Cycles ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………45
12. Refrigeration …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………56
13. Heat Transfer ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......69
14. Types of heat exchangers…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……73
15. Air Conditioning………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………80
16. Psychrometric Chart and Air Characteristics…………………………………………………………….………………81
17. Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………82
B. Mechanics and Hydromechanics
1. Balancing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….91
2. Simple harmonic motion…………………………………………………………………………………………………….….101.
3. Torsional vibrations with multiple modes………………………………………………………………………………109
4. Stress & Strain……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….111
5. Torsion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..125
6. Fluid Mechanics …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….153
7. Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe…………………………………………………………………………….168
C. Propulsive characteristics of diesel engines, steam and gas turbines, including speed, output and
fuel consumption
1. Engine Layout and Load Diagrams……………………………………………………………………………………………210
2.Propeller and load diagrams………………………………………………………………………………………….…………222
3.Flow conditions around the propeller………………………………………………………………………………………224
4. Heavy running of a propeller……………………………………………………………………………………………..……233
5. Propulsion characteristics diesel ……………………………………………………………………………………………238
6. Limits to continuous operation……………………………………………………………………………………………….241
7. Limits for overload operation………………………………………………………………………………………………….242
8. Specific fuel oil consumption………………………………………………………………………………………………..…243
9. Propulsion characteristics steam plant ………………………………………………………………………………….246
10. Propulsion characteristics gas turbines ……………………………………………………………………………….260
D. Heat cycle, thermal efficiency and heat balance of the following
1. Diesel cycle……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….269
2. Dual cycle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….274
3. Marine steam boiler and steam turbine …………………………………………………………………………………348
E. Refrigerators and refrigeration cycle
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………362

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2. Thermostats…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….363
3. Humidistats…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….364
4. Pressure switches…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….364
5. Oil pressure switches……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….367
6. Pressure gauges ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..367
7. Solenoid & evaporator pressure regulation valves………………………………………………………………….368
8. Hot-gas by-pas valves ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..370
9. Shut-off valves ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…371
10. Filter-driers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………372
11. Sight glasses………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….373
12. Suction accumulators…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….374
13. Suction-to-liquid heat exchangers…………………………………………………………………………………………375
14. Condenser pressure regulators………………………………………………………………………………………….…376
15. Relief valves……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…377
16. Strainers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….378
17. Check valves …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………378
18. Liquid refrigerant pumps……………………………………………………………………………………………………….379
F. Lubricants
1.Marine Lube Oil Properties……………………………………………………………………………………………….…….381
2.Lubricant testing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………384
3. Interpretation of test result…………………………………………………………………………………………………….385
4. Microbial contamination of fuels and lubricants ……………………………………………………………………389
5. Lube oil contamination……………………………………………………………………………………………………………392
6. Lubricating-oil analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………397
7. Storage problems……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………398
8. Bunkering procedures…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….398
9. Lubricating-oil can be cleaned in various ways……………………………………………………………………….401
G. Technology of material
1. Destructive and non-destructive testing of material……………………………………………………………….408
2. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)………………………………………………………………………………………….409
3. Radiography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….410
4. Ultrasonic Inspection……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….411
5. Eddy-Current Inspection………………………………………………………………………………………………………….412
6. Hardness tests…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………412
7. Engineering processes used in construction and repair…………………………………………………………..422
8. Casting…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….423
9. Forming…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..426
10. Forging……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…427
11. Welding…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………427
12.Common repair techniques…………………………………………………………………………………………………….432

Bibliography ………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………440

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Course Outline

Course title: Planning and scheduling operations

theoretical knowledge
Course reference code:
Course type:
Course level:
Year of study:
Semester:
Number of ECTS Units:
Lecturer name: instructors@gmcmaritimecenter.com
Learning Content: This module analyses how to plan and
schedule operations.

Teaching mode: Remote Lecturing – Individual study

Prerequisites: Entrants should have successfully completed a
course covering the minimum standards
required for certification as officer in charge of
an engineering watch in a manned engine
room
or designate duty engineer in a periodically
unmanned engine-room (see IMO model
course 7.04, Officer in charge of an
engineering watch).
Course special characteristics: None
Course content: Plan and schedule operations theoretical
knowledge

 Thermodynamics and heat

transmission
 Mechanics and hydromechanics
 Propulsive characteristics of diesel
engines, steam and gas turbines,
including speed, output and fuel
consumption
 Heat cycle, thermal efficiency and heat
balance of the following
 Refrigerators and refrigeration cycle
 Physical and chemical properties of
fuels and lubricants
 Technology of material

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A. Thermodynamics and heat transmission

Gas Cycles/Engine Analysis

1.Classification of thermodynamics cycles

Thermodynamics cycles can be classified into different categories depending on fluid used
or the different processes:

Gas and vapor cycles

1- Gas cycle: the working fluid remains in gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle.
2- Vapor cycle: the working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle
and in the liquid phase during another part.

Open and closed cycles

1- Open cycle: the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle
and is recirculated.
2- Closed cycle: the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of
recirculated.

Internal and external combustion engines

1- External combustion engine: an external supplied of the heat to the fluid (ex: from
the furnace to the steam within the boiler).
2- Internal combustion engine: an internal supplied of the heat to the fluid (internal
combustion).

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Isentropic relations

k 1
 T2  v 
   1 
 T1  s cte  v2 
k 1
 T2  P  k
   2 
 T1  s cte  P1 
k
 P2  v 
   1 
 P1  s cte  v2 
Cp
k
Cv

2. Constant volume cycle - Otto cycle

It is known as Otto cycle.

Designating in sequence, the four state points are:
Process 1-2 is isentropic compression.
Process 2-3 is reversible constant volume process.
Process 3-4 is isentropic expansion.
Process 4-1 is reversible constant volume process.

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Figure (P-v) and (T-s) diagrams for the ideal Otto cycle.

Computation of the Otto cycle efficiency:

Wnet QH  QL Q
th    1 L
QH QH QH

But, QL  m Cv T4  T1  and QH  m Cv T3  T2 

Therefore;

T 
T1  4  1
m Cv T4  T1 
 1  1 
T
th  1 
m Cv T3  T2  T 
T2  3  1
 T2 

Using isentropic relations:

k 1 k 1
T3  v4  T v 
  and 2   1 
T4  v3  T1  v 2 

But v1  v4 and v2  v3

Then

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T3 T2 T T
  3  4
T4 T1 T2 T1

Replacing in eq.8.1, gives

1 k
T v 
 th  1  1  1   1   1  r 1k
T2  v2 

r is the compression ratio.

Finally,

1
th  1 
r k 1

Note that the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle depends only upon the compression
ratio and the specific heat ratio k (CP/ Cv) [for air k=1.4]

Example

A four stroke SI engine has the compression ratio of 6 and swept volume of 0.15m.
Pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 98 kPa and 60oC.
Determine the pressure, volume and temperatures at all salient points if heat supplied to it
is 150kJ/kg. Also find out entropy change, work done, efficiency and mean effective
pressure of cycle assuming cp=1kJ/kg.K.cv=0.71 kJ/kg.K. Also plot the cycle on T-S diagram.

8
 Figure:

Solution:

SI engines operate on Otto

cycle. Consider working fluid to be perfect gas.

cp
Here   1.4
c

cp  c  R  0.29kJ / kg.K.

Given: P1  98 kPa

T1  60  273.15  333.15K
Q23  150 kJ / kg

V1 0.15  V2
Compression ratio, r  6
V2 V2

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Therefore V2 = 0.03 m3

Total cylinder volume = 0.18 m3 = V1

From perfect gas law, PV = mRT

P1V1
m  0.183kg.
RT1

From state 1 to 2 by PV   cons tan t


  V 
p1V1  p2 V2 orp2  p1   1   1204.03 kPa.
 V2 

P1V2 P2 V2
Also  yields, T2  682.18K
T1 T2

From heat addition process 2 – 3,

Q2 3  mc T3  T2 
150  0.183  0.71 T3  682.18 
T3  1836.65K

Also from

P3V3 P2 V2
 , P3  3241.64 kPa
T3 T2

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For adiabatic expansion 3  4, P3V3  P4V4

And V4 = V1

P3 .V3
Hence P4   263.85 kPa
V1

P3V3 P4 V4
And from  ; T4  896.95K
T3 T4

Entropy change from 2-3 and 4-1 are same, and can be given as,

 0.183  0.71 ln 
T4 896.95 
S3  S2  S4  S1  mc ln 
T1  333.15 

Entropy change S32  S41  0.1287 kJ / K.

Heat rejected, Q41  mc  T4  T1 

 0.183  0.71 896.95  333.15 

Q41  73.25kJ

Net Work  Q23   Q41   150  73.25

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 Net Work = 76.75 kJ

Net work
Efficiency 
Heat added

76.75
  0.5117 or   51.17%
150

Work 76.75
Mean effective pressure    511.67 kPa
Volume change 0.15

Ans. m.e.p  511.67 kPa

3. Constant volume - Diesel cycle

-Diesel cycle thermal efficiency

12
we define:

v1 v4 v4
the compression ratio: r  
v2 v2 v3
v3
the cutoff ratio: rc 
v2

Wnet QH  QL Q
th    1 L
QH QH QH

but; QL  m Cv T4  T1  and QH  m C p T3  T2 

Therefore;

T 
T1  4  1
m Cv T4  T1  1 T4  T1  1  T1 
th  1   1  1
m C p T3  T2  k T3  T2  k  T3  (eq.8.2)
T2   1 
 T2 

k 1
T2  v1  T1 1
   r k 1   k 1
T1  v2  T2 r

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 P3v3
T3 R Pv v
  3 3  3  rc (eq.8.3)
T2 P2 v2 P2v2 v2 P3  P2
R
For a Diesel engine

T4
and finally for the term :
T1

k 1 k 1
T3  v4  T v 
  ; 2  1 
T4  v3  T1  v2 

k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
T3T1  v4   v2  vv  v 
therefore;      4 2   2   rc1k
T4T2  v3   v1   v3 v1   v3 

T3
but from (eq.8.3):  rc
T2

T1 T T
hence, rc  rc1k  1  rc k  4  rck
T4 T4 T1

Finally replacing in eq.8.2, gives

1  rck  1 
th  1  k 1  
r  k  rc  1 

Example

14
 1
In a Diesel engine during the compression process, pressure is seen to be 138 kPa at the
8
7 1
of stroke and 1.38 MPa at the of stroke. The cut-off occurs at th of stroke. Calculate
8 5
thermal efficiency to be half of ideal efficiency, mechanical efficiency as 0.8, calorific value
of fuel = 41800 kJ/kg and =1.4. Also find fuel consumption bhp/hr.

Solution:

As given

7
VA  V2   V1  V2 
8

Figure:

And also pAVA  pB .VB

1/ 
 V A   pB 
Or   
 VB   p A 

1/ 1.4

 
1380 

 138 

15
 VA
 5.18
VB

Also substituting for VA & VB

7
V2   V1  V2 
2  5.18
1
V2   V1  V2 
8

It gives r = 19.37

V1
 19.37 Compression ratio = 19.37
V2

  V  V2  
As given: Cut off occurs at  1  volume
 15 

V  V2 
Or V3   1   V2
 15 

V3
Cut off ratio,   2.22
V2

   1
1
Air standard efficiency for Diesel cycle  1   1 
r .    1 

= 0.6325

air s tan dard  63.25%

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 Overall efficiency = air standard efficiency x 0.5 x 0.8

= 0.6325 x 0.5 x 0.8

=0.253 or 25.3%

75  60  60
Fuel consumption bhp / hr 
0.253  41800  102

= 0.255 kg

Compression ratio  19.32%

Ans. Air s tan dard efficiency  63.25%
Fuel consumption, bhp / hr  0.255 kg

4. Internal combustion engine

Internal combustion engines are named because combustion if the fuel takes place inside
the engine. When the fuel burns inside the engine cylinder, it gives out heat which is
absorbed by the air previously taken into the cylinder, the temperature of the air is
therefore increased with a consequent increase in pressure and/or volume, thus energy is
imparted to the piston. the reciprocating motion of the piston in converted into a rotary
motion at the crack shaft by connecting rod and crank.

Four-strokes

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A schematic of each stroke as well as a P-v diagram for an actual four-stroke spark-ignition
engine is given in Fig.

Initially, both the intake and the exhaust valves are closed, and the piston is at its lowest
position (BDC). During the compression stroke, the piston moves upward, compressing the
air–fuel mixture. Shortly before the piston reaches its highest position (TDC), the spark
plug fires and the mixture ignites, increasing the pressure and temperature of the system.
The high-pressure gases force the piston down, which in turn forces the crankshaft to
rotate, producing a useful work output during the expansion or power stroke. At the end
of this stroke, the piston is at its lowest position (the completion of the first mechanical
cycle), and the cylinder is filled with combustion products. Now the piston moves upward
one more time, purging the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve (the exhaust stroke),
and down a second time, drawing in fresh air–fuel mixture through the intake valve (the
intake stroke). Notice that the pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric
value during the exhaust stroke and slightly below during the intake stroke.

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Two stroke

In two-stroke engines, all four functions described above are executed in just two strokes:
the power stroke and the compression stroke. In these engines, the crankcase is sealed,
and the outward motion of the piston is used to slightly pressurize the air–fuel mixture in
the crankcase. Also, the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings in the lower
portion of the cylinder wall. During the latter part of the power stroke, the piston uncovers
first the exhaust port, allowing the exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the
intake port, allowing the fresh air–fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of the remaining
exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture is then compressed as the piston moves
upward during the compression stroke and is subsequently ignited by a spark plug.

19
Mean effective pressure and power

The mean effective pressure is a quantity relating to the operation of a reciprocating

engine and is a valuable measure of an engine's capacity to do work that is independent
of engine displacement. When quoted as an indicated mean effective pressure , it may be
thought of as the average pressure over a cycle in the combustion chamber of the engine.

The average force on a piston =

The work done in one power stroke =

The work per seconds =

is the mean effective pressure, A is the area of piston, L is the length of stroke, n is the
number of power strokes per second.

This is the power indicated in one cylinder. The total power of a multi-cylinder engine is
that multiplied by the number of cylinders, if the mean effective pressure is the same for
alla cylinders.

20
Example

The area of an indicator diagram taken off one cylinder of a four-cylinder, four-stroke,
single-acting internal combustion is 378 , the length is 70 mm and the indicator spring
scale is 1 mm = 2bar. The diameter of the cylinders is 250 mm, stroke 300 mm, and
rotational speed 5 rev/sec. Calculate the indicated power of the engine assuming all
cylinders develop equal power.

Mean height of diagram = area / length = 378 /70 =5.4

Indicated mean height x spring scale = 5.4 x 2 = 10.8 bar = 10.8 x

Indicated power = = 1080 x 0.7854 x x 0.3 x 2.5 = 39.74 kWatt

Total power for four cylinders = 4 x 39.74 = 158.96 kWatt.

Example

The diameter of the cylinders of a six-cylinder, single acting, two stroke diesel engine is 635
mm and the stroke is 1010 mm. Indicator diagrams taken off the engine when running at
2.2 rev/sec give an average area 563 , the length of the diagram being 80mm and the
scale of the indicator spring 1 mm =160 kN/ . Calculate the indicated power.

Indicated mean effective pressure = mean height of diagram x spring scale

 For a single-acting two stroke

n=rev/sec = 2.2

 For a six-cylinder engine

Indicated power =

5. Brake power and mechanical efficiency

21
Power is absoded in overcoming frictional resistances at the various rubbing surfaces of
the engine,such as at the piston rings, crosshead, crank and shaft bearings, therefore only
part of the indicated power developed in the cylinders is transmitted as useful power at
the engine shaft. The power absorbed in overcoming friction is termed the friction power.
The power available at the shaft is termed shaft power or as this is measured by means of
a brake it is also called brake power.

Brake power = indicated power - friction power

The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the brake power to the indicated power :

Example

In a single-cylinder four stroke single-acting gas engine, the cylinder diameter is 180 mm
and the stroke 350 mm. When running at 250 rev/min the mean area of the indicator
diagrams taken off the engine is 355 , length of diagram 75 mm , scale of the
indicator spring 90 kN/ per mm, and the number of explosions was counted to be 114
per minute. Calculate

i) The indicated power. if the effective radius of the rope brake on the flywheel is 600 mm,
load on free end of rope 425 N, and reading of spring balance 72 N.

ii) The brake power

iii) the mechanical efficiency

Indicated mean effective pressure = mean height of diagram x spring scale =

Indicated power = = 426 x 0.7854 x x 0.35 x 2.5 x = 7.21kWatt

Braking torque = (W-S) x R = (425-72) X 0.6 = 211.8 N m

22
 π
Braking torque =T ω = 211.8 x = 5546 Watt= 5.546 kWatt

Mechanical efficiency = =0.7693 or 76.93 %

Thermal efficiency

In engine trials it is usually most convinient to base calculations on a running time of one
hour. Also, to enable comparisons to be made on the quantity of fuel oil to run the engine
under different conditions, or comparisons of one engine with another, the fuel
consumption is expressed per unit power development. the fuel consumed in unit time per
unit power developed is termed the specific fuel consumption and commonly stated in the
units kilogrammes of fuel per kilowatt-hour [kg/ kW h].

The thermal efficiency of an engine is the relationship between the quantity of heat energy
converted into work and the quantity of heat energy supplied:

Thermal efficiency =

Heat balance

Of the total heat energy supplied to an engine, only a small proportion is converted into useful
work. The heaviest losses are those due to the heat energy transferred to and carried away by
cooling water, and the heat energy remaining in the gases which are released from the cylinders
and exhausted up the fuel.

23
6. Closed-cycle gas turbine
Brayton Cycle

Used for gas turbines which usually operate on an open cycle.

The cycle above can be modeled as a closed cycle, by utilizing the air-standard
assumptions. The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat addition
process from an external source. The exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure
heat rejection process to ambient air. This ideal closed-loop cycle is known as the Brayton
cycle; made up of 4 internally reversible processes:

1–2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2–3 Constant-pressure heat addition

3–4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)

4–1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

24
 Closed-cycle gas-turbine engine operating on Brayton Cycle

All four processes of an ideal Brayton cycle are steady-flow processes. Neglecting changes
in kinetic and potential energies, we can write the following steady flow energy equations:

qin  h3  h2  c p T3  T2 

qout  h4  h1  c p T4  T1 

Under cold-air-standard assumptions (ie constant cp at 25o), the thermal efficiency

becomes

25
 T1  4  1
T
wnet qin c p T4  T1   T1 
th, Brayton  = 1 1 = 1
qin q out c p T3  T2  T2  3  1
T
 T2 

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic (P2 = P3 and P4 = P1). Thus

k 1 k 1
T2  P2  k P  k T3
   3 
T1  P1   P4  T4

When substituted into the equation for thermal efficiency gives,

1
th, Brayton  1  ( k 1) / k
rp

where rp is the pressure ratio, P2 / P1 and k is the specific heat ratio (i.e cp/cv).

The thermal efficiency increases with both rp and k, which also occurs with real gas
turbines.

For fixed values of Tmin = T1 and Tmax = T3, the net work output of Brayton cycle first
k
 T  2k 1
increases with pressure ratio, then reaches a maximum at rp =  max  and finally
 Tmin 
decreases. A low work output per cycle means a larger mass flow rate is needed to
maintain the same power output (ie bigger plant) which is not economical. In common gas
turbines, pressure ratio ranges from 11 to 16, where a compromise is made between high
rp and reasonable net work output.

Two major application of gas-turbine engines are : aircraft propulsion and electric power
generation. The ratio of compressor work input to turbine work output is known as back
work ratio, which is high for gas-turbine power plants (usually more than 50%), whereas
for steam power plant, the ratio (pump work input divided by turbine work output) is only
a few percent. Therefore, for similar net power output, turbines in gas-turbine plants are
larger than those used in steam power plants.

26
The gas-turbine cycle thermal efficiency improvement covers three areas:
(1) Increasing the turbine inlet (firing) temperatures.
Today the inlet temperature can reach 1425oC made possible by new materials and
innovative cooling techniques such as ceramic coating of turbine blades and blade cooling
by discharged air from the compressor.
(2) Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components.
Made possible by computer-aided design which results in minimal energy losses in
compressors and turbines.
(3) Adding modifications to the basic cycle.
By incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating. These
come with added initial and operation costs which can be justified when decrease in fuel
costs offsets the increase in other costs.

Example 1
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8.
The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet.
Utilizing air-standard assumptions, determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the
compressor and turbine, (b) the back work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency.

(a)

27
 Process 1–2 is isentropic compression of ideal gas,

T1 = 300 K Table A-17 h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.386

P2 Pr 2 P 
 =8 Pr 2  Pr1  2  = 1.386 (8) = 11.09 Table A-17 T2 = 540 K, h2 =
P1 Pr1  P1 

544.35

 Process 3– 4 is isentropic expansion of ideal gas,

T3 = 1300 K Table A-17 h3 = 1395.97 kJ/kg, Pr3 = 330.9

P4 Pr 4 P 
 Pr 4  Pr 3  4  = 330.9 / 8 = 41.36 Table A-17 T4 = 770 K, h4 =
P3 Pr 3  P3 

789.37

(b) wcomp,in = h2 – h1 = 544.35 – 300.19 = 244.26 kJ/kg

wturb,out = h3 – h4 = 1395.97 – 789.37 = 606.6 kJ/kg

wcomp,in 244.16
rbw   = 0.403 (ie 40.3 % of turbine work is used to drive
wturb,out 606.6

compressor)
(c) qin = h3 – h2 = 1395.97 – 544.35 = 851.62
wnet = wout – win = 606.6 – 244.16 = 362.4

wnet 362.4
 th  = 0.426 or 42.6%
qin 851.62

Note: Under cold-air-standard assumptions, the thermal efficiency is,

1 1
 th, Brayton  1  ( k 1) / k
= 1 1.4 1
= 0.448 or 44.8%.
rp
8 1.4

which is comparable to the more accurate value of 42.6%.

28
7. Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Ideal Cycles

The actual cycles differ from the ideal ones on accounts of:

 Actual heat-addition and heat-rejection processes involve some pressure drops,

whereas in ideal cycles there are none
 Actual compressor work is more, and actual turbine work is less compared to ideal
Brayton cycle due to irreversibilities. It is convenient to define isentropic
efficiencies for compressor and turbine as follows:

ws h2 s  h1
C   .
wa h2 a  h1

wa h3  h4 a
T  
ws h3  h4 s

. 2a, 4a are actual states

.
2s, 4s are states for isentropic process

Example
Assuming a compressor efficiency of 80% and a turbine efficiency of 85%, determine (a)
the back work ratio, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the turbine exit temperature of the
cycle in Example 1.

29
 rp = P2/P1 = P3/P4 = 8

ws ws 244.16
For compressor,  C  wa  wcomp,in   = 305.20
wa C 0.80
w
For turbine, T  a wa  wturb,out  T ws = 0.85(606.6) = 515.61
ws

wcomp,in 305.20
Therefore, rbw   = 0.592 or 59.2%
wturb,out 515.61

The compressor consumes 59.2% of the turbine work output (c.f 40.3% in Ex.1). The
increase is caused by irreversibilities within the compressor and turbine.

(b) wcomp,in = h2a – h1 h2a = h1 + wcomp,in = 300.19 + 305.20 = 605.39 kJ/kg

From Table A-17, T2a = 598 K.

qin = h3 – h2a = 1395.97 – 605.39 = 790.58

wnet = wout – win = 515.61 – 305.20 = 210.41

wnet 210.41
 th  = = 0.266 or 26.6%
qin 790.58

30
Compare this with 42.6% in Ex. 1. The drop in thermal efficiency is caused by
irreversibilites within the turbine and compressor.

(c) Energy balance for actual turbine gives

wturb,out = h3 – h4a h4a = h3 – wturb,out = 1395.97 – 515.61 = 880.36 kJ/kg

Table A-17 gives, T4a = 853 K

NOTE: Turbine exit temperature is much higher than that at compressor exit (T2a = 598K),
which suggests using regeneration to reduce fuel consumption (and cost).

8. Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

When the exhaust gas temperature leaving the turbine is much higher than the
temperature of air leaving the compressor, the exhaust gas can be used to heat the air
leaving the compressor. The process takes place in a counter-flow heat exchanger known
as a regenerator or a recuperator. This exercise reduces the heat input (and fuel) for the
same net work output, for which the thermal efficiency increases.

31
Assuming the regenerator to be adiabatic, and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
energies, the actual and maximum heat transfer from the exhaust gases to the air are

qregen,act = h5 – h2

qregen,max = h5’ – h2 = h4 – h2

q regen,act h5  h2
The regenerator effectiveness is defined as,  
q regen,max h4  h2

T5  T2
Using the cold-air-standard assumptions, it reduces to:  
T4  T2

32
A higher effectiveness saves a greater amount of fuel (due to higher pre-combustion
temperature), but it requires a larger regenerator which is costly. In practice, the
effectiveness is below 0.85.

Under cold-air-standard assumptions, the thermal efficiency of ideal Brayton cycle with
regeneration is

 T1  k 1
 th,regen  1    rp k
 T3 

Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low T1/T3 ratios.

Example
The gas-turbine in Example 2 has a regenerator with an effectiveness of 80 percent.
Determine its thermal efficiency.

h5  h2 a
 h5  h2a   h4a  h2a  = 605.39 + 0.80(880.36 – 605.39 = 825.37
h4 a  h2 a

Thus, qin = h3 – h5 = 1395.97 = 825.37 = 570.60

wnet 210.41
 th  = = 0.360 or 36.9 %
qin 570.60

Note that net work output is not affected. The regenerator only reduces qin. Therefore

thermal efficiency increases.

33
9. Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating and Regeneration

Steady-flow compression or expansion work is proportional to the specific volume of the

fluid. Recall that steady-flow work is given by


w  vdP

To lower compressor power (input), the specific volume of the working fluid should be as
low as possible. To increase turbine work (output), the specific volume of the working fluid
should be as high as possible. These are accomplished as follows:

 By intercooling between compressor stages, the compressor work is reduced.

 By reheating between turbine stages, turbine work is increased

34
Example
An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion has
an overall pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of the compressor at 300 K and each
stage of the turbine at 1300 K. Determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency,
assuming (a) no regenerators and (b) and ideal regenerator with 100 percent
effectiveness. Compare the results with those in Example 3.

For best performance, it can be shown that equal pressure ratios are maintained across
each compressor and turbine stage, to minimise total compressor work required and
maximise total turbine work output. Thus

35
 P2 P4 P6 P8
  8 = 2.83 and   8 = 2.83
P1 P3 P7 P9

Assuming each compressor stage has the same isentropic efficiency (100% in this case),
the temperature and enthalpy of the air at each compressor exit will be the same. A similar
argument is used for the turbines.

At inlets: T1 = T3, h1 = h3 and T6 = T8, h6 = h8

At exits: T2 = T4, h2 = h4 and T7 = T9, h7 = h9

Thus, wcomp-I = wcomp-II and wturbine-I = wturbine-II

(a T1 = 300 K Table A17 h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg, Pr1 = 1.386

Process 1–2 is isentropic, so we can write

P2 Pr 2 P2
 Pr 2  Pr1  (1.386) 8 = 3.92 TableA17 T2 = 403.3 K, h2 = 404.31
P1 Pr1 P1
kJ/kg

T6 = 1300 K TableA17 h6 = 1395.97 kJ/kg, Pr6 = 330.9

Process 6–7 is isentropic, so we can write

P7 Pr 7 P7 1
 Pr 7  Pr 6  (330.9) = 117.0 T A17 T7 = 1006.4 K, h7 = 1053.33
P6 Pr 6 P6 8
kJ/kg

36
 wcomp,in = 2 wcomp,in,I = 2 (h2 – h1) = 2 (404.31 – 300.19) = 208.24 kJ/kg

wturb,out = 2 wturb,out,I = 2 (h6 – h7 ) = 2 (1395.97 – 1053.33) = 685.28 kJ/kg

wnet = wturb,out – wcomp,in = 685.28 – 208.24 = 477.04 kJ/kg

qin = qprimary + qreheat = (h6 – h4) + (h8 – h7)

= (1395.97 – 404.31) + (1395.97 – 1053.33) = 1334.30 kJ/kg

wcomp,in 208.24
Thus, rbw   = 0.304 @ 30.4 %
wturb,out 685.28

wnet 477.04
 th   = 0.358 @ 35.8 %
qin 1334.30

Discussion: Compared with Ex. 3 (single-stage compression and expansion), shows that
multistage compression with intercooling and multistage expansion with reheating
improves the backwork ratio (drops from 40.3 to 30.4%) but hurt thermal efficiency (drops
from 42.6 to 35.8%). Conclusion: Intercooling and reheating must be accompanied by
regeneration (to improve thermal efficiency, as part (b) will show).

(b) The addition of an ideal regenerator (no pressure drops, and 100% effectiveness) does
not affect compressor work and turbine work. Therefore, the back work ratio and net work
output of an ideal gas-turbine cycle are identical whether there’s a regenerator or not. A
regenerator only reduces the heat input by preheating the air leaving the compressor,
using hot exhaust gases.

In an ideal regenerator, the compressed air is heated to the turbine exit temperature T9,
before it enters the combustion chamber. Under air-standard assumptions, h5 = h7 = h9.

qin = qprimary + qreheat = (h6 – h5) + (h8 – h7)

= (1395.97 – 1053.33) + (1395.7 – 1053.33) = 685.28
wnet 477.04
 th   = 0.696 or 69.6 %
qin 685.28

37
Discussion: The thermal efficiency almost doubles by adding a regenerator. As the number
of compression and expansion stages is increased, the cycle approaches the Ericsson cyle
which has the thermal efficiency of

TL 300
th, Ericsson  th,Carnot  1  1 = 0.769 or 76.9%
TH 1300

In practice, it is not economical to increase the number of stages beyond two, because
thermal efficiency improvement will be greatly offset by increased costs of additional
stages.

10. Properties of Vapours

Phase Transformation

Consider a unit mass of ice heated steadily at a constant pressure of 1 atm. Let the

initial temperature be -30oC. Due to heating, temperature increases up to 0oC. At 0oC ice

starts melting. Until entire mass of ice becomes water, temperature is remaining constant.
Heat added during this phase change is known as latent heat of fusion.

38
 Further heating increases the temperature of water. This continues until 100oC. At

100oC Evaporation of water into steam is taking place. Temperature once again remains

constant at 100oC until complete conversion of water into steam occurs. Heat added

during this phase change is known as latent heat of evaporation. Temperature of steam
continues to increase afterwards.

T-v Diagram of a Pure Substance

Let a system of unit mass of water be heated at constant pressure. 1-2-3-4 in Figure
Shows the T-v Variations at constant pressure.

From 1 to 2, heat addition increases the temperature with a very small increase in
volume. State of water between 1 to 2 is known as sub cooled liquid or compressed liquid
because for a given pressure it is at a temperature lower than the saturation temperature
(or) for a given temperature it is at a pressure higher than saturation pressure. The state of
water at 2 is known saturated liquid. Temperature at this state is equal to the saturation
temperature. Any further addition of heat causes evaporation of water.

From 2-3 evaporation is taking place. During this phase change, temperature remains
constant and increase in volume is high. At state 3, entire mass is in the form of vapour
known dry saturated vapour.

39
 From 3 to 4, heating causes increase in both temperature and volume. State of
steam in this region is called super heated state.

As mentioned earlier, at higher pressure evaporation occurs at higher temperature

and at lower pressure evaporation occurs at lower temperature. Latent heat of
evaporation decreases with increase in pressure. For a particular pressure it becomes zero
so that the change from liquid to vapour phase occurs suddenly without a distinct
intermediate state. This pressure is known as critical pressure. This state on a property
diagram is known as critical point. By connecting the saturated liquid state at different
pressures a line called saturated liquid line is obtained. In the same way, by connecting the
saturated vapour states, saturated vapour line is obtained. It can be observed that the
saturated liquid and vapour line meet at critical point. Figure shows all these lines and
various regions on a T-v diagram.

The region between saturated liquid line and saturated vapour line is known as wet
region, consisting of both liquid and vapour. The percentage of composition or quality of
this wet steam is expressed in terms of dryness fraction which is defined as the ratio of
mass of vapour to the mass of the mixture. Specific volume of wet steam is expressed as

v = xvg + (1 - x) vf = vf + x (vg - vf) = vf + x vfg

Where vf - specific volume of the saturate liquid at the given Pressure or

Temperature

vg - specific volume of sat. vapour at the given Pressure or Temperature

x - dryness fraction.

Since vf<<vg

v = vf + xvg

40
In the compressed liquid region, specific volume may be regarded as a function of
temperature alone since the liquid is incompressible.

v = vf at the given temperature.

In the superheated region, v is function of both temperature and pressure.

T-s Diagram

Similar to T-v diagram, T-s diagram can also be drawn for a pure substance. Figure
shows various regions on a T-s diagram. The salient features of this diagram are:

 Temperature is taken on Y-axis and entropy is taken on X-axis

 There are three distinct regions : to the left of the saturated liquid line is the liquid
region, between saturated liquid and saturated vapour line is wet region, and
to the right of saturated vapour line is superheated region
 Constant pressure lines coincide with the constant temperature lines in the wet
region. These lines becomes curved in the superheated region
 Slope of the saturated liquid line is less compared to that in T-v diagram.

41
Entropy of a fluid at saturated liquid state s = sf at the given p or T

For saturated vapour state

s = sg at the given p, T

For Wet state

s = sf + x sfg

Where sf and sfg are functions of p or T.

For superheated state

s = s(p, t)

For sub cooled liquid

s = sf - cpl

Where sf sat. Liquid entropy at the given pressure

cpl Liquid specific heat at the given temperature

42
 Ts Sat. temp. Corresponding to the given pressure

T Given Temperature.

H-s Diagram

Within the wet region both isobars and isotherms are the same, but beyond
saturated vapour line they deviate. Also it can be noted that the constant pressure lines
diverge from each other towards the super heated vapour region. In the super heated
vapour
region,
slope of

isotherms become almost zero. The slope of constant pressure curves at any point is a
measure of temperature, by noting that.

P-v Diagram

Figure shows the pv diagram of a pure substance. The saturated liquid and
saturated-vapour curves meet at the critical point. The region to the left of the saturated-
liquid line is compressed liquid, and the region to the right of the saturated-vapour line is
superheated vapour. In between the two lines is the two-phase liquid-vapour region.
Several isotherms are shown in the figure. The critical isotherm has an inflection point and
a zero slope at the critical point. Isotherms below the critical point experience two
discontinuities in slope as they cross the saturated-liquid and saturated-vapour lines. In
between these two lines, the slope of the isotherms is zero, and a state in this region can
be entirely saturated liquid, entirely saturated vapour, or a combination of the two.

43
Example

Find the enthalpy and volume of 1 kg of wet saturated steam at a pressure of 0.2
bar and dryness fraction 0.85 and find also the additional heat energy required to
completely dry the steam.
For 0.2 bar (Table A-5)

is the volume occupied by 1 kg of dry saturated steam, therefore the

volume occupied by x kg of dry saturated steam is . The value of is 7.648 for

pressure of 0.2 bar.

is the volume occupied by 1 kg of saturated steam, therefore the volume

occupied by (1-x) kg of saturated water (1- . The value of for pressure 0.1992 is
0.1017 . Hence, volume of 1 kg of wet stream is

44
 we see that the volume of the water is comparatively very small and
therefore,for most practical cases can be neglected. Hence, the specific volume of wet
stream is usually taken as,

and for this example it is:

=6.5008

To dry the steam, (1-0.85) kg of water is to be evaporated.

Increase of enthalpy = 0.15 x =0.15 x 2358=353.7 kJ

Alternatively, it is the difference between the enthalpy of dry saturated steam

and wet steam:

11. Steam Cycles

Ideal Rankine cycle

Conversion of heat into work is described by the rankine cycle. Power source for the cycle
is an external heat, what is supplied to a closed loop with some carrier medium (mostly
clean water). Combustion of fossil fuels and nuclear fission are the two most common
heating processes used as power source for this cycle.

Rankin cycle is actually a practical example of Carnot cycle. There are two main differences
to Carnot cycle. The heat addition in the boiler or reactor is isobaric and also rejection in
the condenser is isobaric. Both processes in the theoretical Carnot cycle are isothermal.

45
Fig. : Rankine cycle

As presented on the TS diagram shown on Figure ., there are four main stages in the
Rankine cycle.

Stage 1-2: the working medium in liquid state is pumped from lower to higher pressure.
The pump stage requires some input of energy.

Stage 2-3: the preassurised liquid medium enters boiler in the point 2. Here it is heated at
constant pressure to dry saturated steam. The heating stage requires energy from an
external heat source.

Stage 3-4: the dry saturated steam expands in a turbine and transfers its energy. This
process decreases the temperature and pressure of the steam and some condensation
may occur. Output work is generated.

Process 4-1: the wet steam enters condenser in the point 4. Here it is condensed at a
constant temperature and changes state to saturated liquid.

Work of the pump is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 2 and point 1 from the
diagram.

w pump  i2  i1 [J/kg]

Input heat entering the cycle in the boiler is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point
3 and point 2 from the diagram.

46
 qin  i3  i2 [J/kg]

Work of the turbine is defined as difference of enthalpies in the point 3 and point 4 from
the diagram.

wturbine  i3  i4 [J/kg]

Waste heat leaving the cycle in the condenser is defined as difference of enthalpies in the
point 4 and point 1 from the diagram.

qwaste  i4  i1 [J/kg]

Each value of enthalpy h1 - h4 for water steam cycle can be calculated from IS chart or from
steam tables.

There are two most important factors affecting efficiency of the Rankine cycle – the
working medium and used materials. Maximum pressure of the working medium in liquid
state cannot reach super critical levels (22 MPa for water). Maximum temperatures are
limited by the creep limit of turbine blades (typically 400 – 650 °C for stainless steel) and
condenser temperatures (typically around 30 °C). These temperatures give a theoretical
Carnot efficiency about 63% while modern coal-fired power stations reach real efficiency
about 42%.

The pump used in stage 1-2 pressurizes the working medium from the condenser in liquid
state instead of gaseous state, because pumping of the liquid medium throught the cycle
requires much less energy then compression of the gas. All the energy used for pumping
the working medium through the complete cycle is lost. Using the condensation of the
medium, the work required by the pump consumes only 1% or 3% of the turbine power.
The condenser significantly contributes to higher efficiency of the real cycle.

Work of the turbine and pump and input heat defines the thermodynamic efficiency of the
cycle.

Wturbine  W pump
 therm 
Qin

47
Also most of the energy used for vaporization of the working medium in the boiler in stage
2-3 is lost to the cycle. Condensation that can run up in the turbine is limited to about 10%
in order to minimize the erosion of turbine blades and the rest of vaporization energy is
rejected from the cycle through the condenser.

The working medium in the Rankine cycle is constantly reused in a closed loop. Clean
water is usually used in the Rankine cycle, while different substances could be also used,
because of its favorable thermodynamic properties, availability, low costs and nontoxic
and nonreactive chemistry. Some organic fluids such as acetone or toluene allow usage of
Rankine cycle with low temperature heat sources (70 – 120 °C) such as solar thermal
collectors. The cycle is then called Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). The name means only
marketing strategy but no special physical principle. Efficiency of the cycle in this case is
much lower as a result of the smaller temperature range, but this is balanced with low
costs of earning heat at these low temperatures.

Relatively low temperatures on the turbine entry (compared with a gas turbine) are also
the reason for common usage of the Rankine cycle as the final cycle in combined-cycle gas
turbine power stations.

Real Rankine cycle

The pumping and expanding stage in the ideal Rankine cycle would be isoentropic. It
means that pump and turbine are ideal and generate no entropy. Processes 1-2 and 3-4
are represented by vertical lines on the T-S diagram, so that the cycle more closely
resembles the Carnot cycle. But the compression by real pump and the expansion in real
turbine in a real steam cycle are not isoentropic. The entropy is increased during these
processes so that the processes are non-reversible. The power required by the pump is a
bit higher and the power generated by the turbine is a bit lower then in ideal cyclus.

48
Real Rankine cycle

49
Enhancing the Rankine cycle

The efficiency and service life of the steam turbine would be decreased by water droplets
after partial condensation of the steam. The drops would hit the turbine blades at very
high speeds, what could cause progressive degradation of the blades.

Steam superheating

The easiest way to avoid this issue is the steam superheating. Original finishing point of
the heating process (stage 2-3) is located just on the curve of saturated steam. Additional
heating (superheating) process 3-3’ shifts the diagram more to the right and evokes
production of drier steam during expansion 3’-4’.

Fig.: Real Rankine cycle with superheating

This process is commonly utilized in steam power stations as the final stage of the heating
process in the upper most part of the boiler.

50
Steam reheating

Different way to prevent the vapor from condensation during long expansion is steam
reheating. In this case, two turbines work in series. Steam from the boiler enteres the first
turbine, expandes during stage 3’-4’, is reheated in the boiler during stage 4’-5 and
expandes in the second (low pressure) turbine during stage 5-6. More of the heat flowin
the Rankine cycle with reheating occurs at higher temperature, what again increases the
efficiency of the cyclus.

Fig. : Real Rankine cycle with reheating

Regenerative features

Some other features to increase cycle efficiency and economy are commonly used in real
thermal power stations. These features, called regenerative features, effectively increase
the nominal heat input temperature of the cycle.

Heating of the cold feed water is realized in regenerative feed water preheater, what
decreases the heat addition at relatively low temperatures in the boiler. Direct contact
heating means that working medium emerging from the condenser is preheated by mixing
with the steam bleeded from the hot part of the cycle. Closed feed water heating means

51
that working medium emerging from the condenser is preheated by the steam bleeded
between turbine stages in an ordinary tubular heat exchanger

Example

Steam is the working fluid in an ideal Rankine cycle. Saturated vapor enters the turbine at
8.0MPa and saturated liquid exits the condenser at a pressure of 0.008MPa. The net power
of cycle is 100MW. Determine for the cycle:

 The thermal efficiency.

 The mass flow rate of steam.
 The rate of heat transfer, into the working fluid as it passes through the boiler.
 The rate of heat transfer, from the condensing steam as it passes through the
condenser.
 The mass flow rate of condenser cooling water, if cooling water enters the
condenser at 15°C and exits at 35°C.

Schematic of the Rankine cycle

Assumption:

Each component of the cycle is analyzed as a control volume at steady state.

All processes of the working fluid are internally reversible.

The turbine and pump operate adiabatically.

Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible.

52
Saturated vapor enters the turbine. Condensate exits the condenser as saturated liquid.

Analysis:

To begin the analysis, let us fix each of the principal states located on the accompanying
schematic and T-s diagram. Starting at the inlet to the turbine, the pressure is 8.0MPa and
the steam is a saturated vapor, so from Table A-5

h1  2758.0 kJ/kg and S1  5.7432 kJ/kg - K

Stage 2 is fixed by p2  0.008 MPa and the fact that specific entropy is constant for the

adiabatic, internally reversible expansion through the turbine. Using liquid and saturated
vapor data from Table A-5, we find that the quality at stage 2 is:

S2  S f 5.7432  0.5926
x2    0.6745
Sg  S f 7.6361

The enthalpy is then

h2  h f  x2 h fg  173.88  (0.6745)2403.1  1794.8 kJ/kg

Stage 3 is saturated liquid at 0.008MPa, so h3  173.88 kJ/kg . Stage 4 is fixed by the boiler

pressure p 4 and the specific entropy S 4  S 3 . The specific enthalpy h4 can be found by

interpolation in the compressed liquid tables. However, because liquid data are relatively

W p W p
sparse, it is more convenient to solve  h4  h3 for h4 , using   3 ( p 4  p3 ) to
m 
m

approximate the pump work. With this approach:

W p
h4  h3   h3  3 ( p4  p3 )

m

Substituting property values from Table A-5:

 10 6 N / m 2   1 kJ / kg 
h4  173.88 kJ / kg  (1.0084  10 3 m 3 / kg)  (8.0  0.008) MPa      3 
 1 MPa   10 N  m 
h4  181.94 kJ / kg

The net power developed by the cycle is:

53
Wnet  Wt  W p

Energy balance for a control volume around the turbine and pump gives, respectively

Wt W p
 h1  h2 and  h4  h3
m m

 is the mass flow rate of the steam. The rate of heat transfer to the working fluid
where m
as it passes through the boiler is determined using an energy rate balance as:

Q in
 h1  h4
m

the thermal efficiency is then:

Wt  W p h1  h2   h1  h4  2758.0  1794.8  181.94  173.88 kJ / kg

   
Q in h  h  1 4 2758.0  181.94 kJ / kg
 0.371 37.1%

The mass flow rate of steam can be obtained from the expression for the net power given
in part a). Thus:

m 
Wcycle 100MW 103 kW / Mw3600s / h  3.77  105 kg / h

h1  h2   h1  h4  963.2  8.06kj / kg

With the expression for Q in from part a) and previously determined specific enthalpy

values:

 h1  h4  
Q in  m
 
3.77  105 kg / h 2758.0  181.94kj / kg 
 269.77 MW
 
103 kW / Mw 3600s / h 

Mass and energy rate balances applied to a control volume enclosing the steam side side
of the condenser give:

Q out  m h2  h3  
 
3.77  105 kg / h 1794.8  173.88kj / kg 
 169.75MW
 
103 kW / Mw 3600s / h 

54
Alternatively, Q out can be determined from an energy rate balance on the overall vapor

power plant. At steady state, the net power developed equals the net rate of heat transfer
to the plant:

Wcycle  Qin  Q out

then,

Q out  Q in  Wcycle  269.77MW  100 MW  169.77MW

Taking a control volume around the condenser, the energy rate balance gives at steady
state:

0 0
   
0  Qcv  W cv  mcw hcw ,in  hcw ,out   mh2  h3 

 cw is the mass flow rate of the cooling water. Solving for m

where m  cw :

m h2  h3 
m cw 
hcw,in  hcw,out 
the numerator in this expression is evaluated in part d). For the cooling water, h  h f (T ) ,

so with saturated liquid enthalpy value from Table A-2 Moran and Shapiro at the entering
and exiting temperatures of the cooling water:

 cw 
m
169.75MW 10 3 kW / MW 3600 s / h  7.3  106 kg / h
148.68  62.99 kJ / kg

55
12. Refrigeration

Refrigeration Cycles

The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat from
a low temperature to a high temperature.

The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose of a
refrigerator is the removal of heat, called the cooling load, from a low temperature
medium. The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high temperature
medium, called the heating load. When we are interested in the heat energy removed
from a low temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator. When we are interested
in the heat energy supplied to the high temperature space, the device is called a heat

56
pump. In general, the term “heat pump” is used to describe the cycle as heat energy is
removed from the low temperature space and rejected to the high temperature space.

The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient of

performance (COP), defined as

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions, the COPs
are related by

Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or Seasonal
Adjusted Energy Efficiency Ratio. The SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat transferred per
Watt of work energy input. The Btu is the British Thermal Unit and is equivalent to 778 ft-
lbf of work (1 W = 3.4122 Btu/hr). An EER of 9 yields a COP of 2.6.

Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of TONS of refrigeration. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. How did the term “ton of
cooling” originate?

Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

57
Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two constant
temperature reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working fluid when the reversed
Carnot cycle is used. Recall that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at constant
temperature. If our interest is the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot refrigerator.
If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the Carnot heat pump.

The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A
refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs are

Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low
temperatures. While the work interactions for the cycle are not indicated on the figure,

58
the work produced by the turbine helps supply some of the work required by the
compressor from external sources.

The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator, compressor,
condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely used refrigeration cycle is
the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor and is cooled to the
saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then throttled to the evaporator pressure and
vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.

The ideal vapor compression cycle consists of four processes.

Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

59
The P-h diagram is another convenient diagram often used to illustrate the refrigeration
cycle.

The ordinary household refrigerator is a good example of the application of this cycle.

60
 Results of First and Second Law Analysis for Steady-Flow
Component Process First Law Result

Compressor s = Const. Win  m (h2  h1 )

Condenser P = Const. Q H  m (h2  h3 )

Throttle Valve s > 0 h4  h3

Wnet  0

Q net  0

Evaporator P = Const. Q L  m
 (h1  h4 )

Q L h h
COPR   1 4
Wnet ,in h2  h1
Q H h h
COPHP   2 3
Wnet ,in h2  h1

Example:

Refrigerant-134a is the working fluid in an ideal compression refrigeration cycle. The

refrigerant leaves the evaporator -20oC and has a condenser pressure of 0.9 MPa. The
mass flow rate is 3 kg/min. Find COPR , COPR, Carnot for same Tmax and Tmin , and the tons
of refrigeration.

Using the Refrigerant-134a Tables, we have

State 1

compressor inlet :

State 2

61
Compressor exit

State 3

Condenser exit

State 4

Throttle exit

Q L h h
COPR   1 4
Wnet ,in h2  h1
kJ
(235.31  99.56)
kg

kJ
(2751.  235.31)
kg
 3.41

The tons of refrigeration are

Q L  m (h1  h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (235.31  99.56)
min kg 211 kJ
min
 193
. Ton

TL
COPR , Carnot 
TH  TL
( 20  273) K

(44.74  ( 20)) K
 3.91

Another measure of the effectiveness of the refrigeration cycle is how much input power
to the compressor, in horsepower, is required for each Ton of cooling.

The unit conversion is 4.715 hp per Ton of cooling.

62
 Wnet , in
 4.715COPR
Q
L

hp
 4.715(3.41)
Ton
hp
 161
.
Ton

Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Heat Pump Systems

63
Other Refrigeration Cycles

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-compression

Systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration system also increases as a
result of cascading.

64
Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems

Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems

A refrigerator with a single compressor can provide refrigeration at several temperatures

65
by throttling the refrigerant in stages.

Liquefaction of Gases

Another way of improving the performance of a vapor-compression refrigeration system is

by using multistage compression with regenerative cooling. The vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle can also be used to liquefy gases after some modifications.

66
Gas Refrigeration Systems

The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of these,
the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle, is used to
cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is modified with
regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the work input
requirements to the compressor. Thus the COP of a gas refrigeration cycle is

qL qL
COPR  
wnet , in wcomp , in  wturb , out

Absorption Refrigeration Systems

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a source
of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to 200oC is absorption refrigeration,
where the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and compressed in liquid form.
The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is the ammonia-water system,
where ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as the transport medium. The work

67
input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP of absorption refrigeration systems is
defined as

Desired output Cooling effect QL Q

COPR     L
Required input Work input Qgen  Wpump ,in Qgen

Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems

A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving parts by simply
passing a small current through a closed circuit made up of two dissimilar materials. This
effect is called the Peltier effect, and a refrigerator that works on this principle is called a
thermoelectric refrigerator.

68
13. Heat Transfer

CONDUCTION

A temperature gradient within a homogeneous substance results in an energy transfer rate

within the medium which can be calculated by

where is the temperature gradient in the direction normal to the area A. The thermal

conductivity k is an experimental constant for the medium involved, and it may depend
upon other properties, such as temperature and pressure. The units of k are W/m.K or
Btu/h.ft."F. The minus sign in Fourier's law is required by the second law of
thermodynamics: thermal energy transfer resulting from a thermal gradient must be from
a warmer to a colder region. If the temperature profile within the medium is linear, it is
permissible to replace the temperature gradient (partial derivative) with

Such linearity always exists in a homogeneous medium of fixed k during steady state heat
transfer. Steady state transfer occurs whenever the temperature at every point within the

69
body, including the surfaces, is independent of time. If the temperature changes with time,
energy is either being stored in or removed from the body. This storage rate is

where the mass m is the product of volume V and density ρ.

CONVECTION
Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having a temperature different from
that of the body, energy is carried or convected from or to the body by the fluid. If the
upstream temperature of the fluid is , and the surface temperature of the solid is , the
heat transfer per unit time is given by
q = hA( - ,)
which is known as Newton's law of cooling. This equation defines the convective heat
transfer coefficient h as the constant of proportionality relating the heat transfer per unit
time and unit area to the overall temperature difference. The units of h are W/m2-K or
Btu/h.ft2. It is important to keep in mind that the fundamental energy exchange at a solid-
fluid boundary is by conduction, and that this energy is then convected away by the fluid
flow. For y = n, we obtain:
hA( - ,) = -
where the subscript on the temperature gradient indicates evaluation in the fluid at the
surface.
RADIATION
The third mode of heat transmission is due to electromagnetic wave propagation, which
can occur in a total vacuum as well as in a medium. Experimental evidence indicates that
radiant heat transfer is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature,
whereas conduction and convection are proportional to a linear temperature difference.
The fundamental Stefan-Boltzmann law is

where T is the absolute temperature. The constant o is independent of surface, medium,

and temperature; its value is 5.6697 X 10-' W/m2.K4 or 0.1714 X 10-8Btu/h.ft2-"R4. The
ideal emitter, or blackbody, is one which gives off radiant energy. All other surfaces emit
somewhat less than this amount, and the thermal emission from many surfaces (gray
bodies) can be well represented by

70
where E, the emissivity of the surface, ranges from zero to one.

Example

A cold storage consists of a cubical chamber of dimension 2m x 2m x 2m, maintained at

10°C inside temperature. The outside wall temperature is 35°C. The top and side walls are
covered by a low conducting insulation with thermal conductivity k = 0.06 W/mK. There is
no heat loss from the bottom. If heat loss through the top and side walls is to be restricted
to 500W, what is the minimum thickness of insulation required?

Schematic:

T2=350C

T1=100C L
2m=W

Styrofoam q=500W
k=0.003W/
insulation
m.K

Assumptions: (1) perfectly insulted bottom, (2) one-dimensional conduction through five
walls of areas A=4m2, (3) steady-state conditions

Analysis: Using Fourier’s law, the heat rate is given by

T
q  q '' . A  k Atotal
L

Solving for L and recognizing that A total =5*W2

5kTW 2
L
q
5 * 0.06W / m.K * 450 C * 4m 2
L
500W
L  0.108m  108 mm

71
14. Types of heat exchangers

Different heat transfer applications require different types of hardware and different
configurations of heat transfer equipment. The attempt to match the heat transfer
hardware to the heat transfer requirements within the specified constraints has resulted in
numerous types of innovative heat exchanger designs.

The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different
diameters called the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a double-pipe heat
exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular
space between the two pipes. Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-
pipe heat exchanger: in parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger
at the same end and move in the same direction. In counter flow, on the other hand, the
hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends and flow in opposite
directions. Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large
heat transfer surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. The ratio of the
heat transfer surface area of a heat exchanger to its volume is called the area density b. A
heat exchanger with b 700 m2/m3 (or 200 ft2/ft3) is classified as being compact.
Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators (b 1000 m2/m3), glass-ceramic gas
turbine heat exchangers (b 6000 m2/m3), the regenerator of a Stirling engine (b 15,000
m2/m3), and the human lung (b 20,000 m2/m3).

72
The heat exchangers usually operate for long periods of time with no change in their
operating conditions, and then they can be modeled as steady-flow devices. As such , the
mass flow rate of each fluid remains constant and the fluid properties such as temperature
and velocity at any inlet and outlet remain constant. The kinetic and potential energy
changes are negligible. The specific heat of a fluid can be treated as constant in a specified
temperature range. Axial heat conduction along the tube is negligible. Finally, the outer
surface of the heat exchanger is assumed to be perfectly insulated so that there is no heat
loss to the surrounding medium and any heat transfer thus occurs is between the two
fluids only.

That relation is valid under steady operating conditions, constant specific heats, and
negligible heat loss from the heat exchanger.The product of the mass flow rate and the
specific heat of a fluid is called the heat capacity rate and is expressed

73
 C = m c p
as .

When the heat capacity rates of the cold and hot fluids are equal, the temperature change
is the same for the two fluids in a heat exchanger. That is, the temperature rise of the cold
fluid is equal to the temperature drop of the hot fluid. A heat capacity of infinity for a fluid
in a heat exchanger is experienced during a phase-change process in a condenser or boiler.

Q = (m
 cpT )coolingwater
The mass flow rate of the cooling water can be determined from .

Q = (m
 h fg )steam
The rate of condensation of the steam is determined from , and the total

thermal resistance of the condenser is determined from R  Q / T .

When the heat capacity rates of the cold and hot fluids are identical, the temperature rise
of the cold fluid will be equal to the temperature drop of the hot fluid.

The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method

Tlm is called the log mean temperature difference, and is expressed as

T1  T2
Tlm 
ln(T1 / T2 )

where

T1 = Th,in - Tc,in T2 = Th,out - Tc,out

for parallel-flow heat exchangers and

T = Th,in - Tc,out T2 = Th,out - Tc,in

for counter-flow heat exchangers

The temperature difference between the two fluids decreases from T1 at the inlet to T2
at the outlet, and arithmetic mean temperature difference is defined as

T1 + T2
Tam =
2 .

The logarithmic mean temperature difference Tlm is obtained by tracing the actual
temperature profile of the fluids along the heat exchanger, and is an exact representation

74
of the average temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids. It truly reflects the
exponential decay of the local temperature difference. The logarithmic mean temperature
difference is always less than the arithmetic mean temperature.

Tlm cannot be greater than both T1 and T2 because Tln is always less than or equal
to Tm (arithmetic mean) which can not be greater than both T1 and T2.

No, it cannot. When T1 is less than T2 the ratio of them must be less than one and the
natural logarithms of the numbers which are less than 1 are negative. But the numerator is
also negative in this case. When T1 is greater than T2, we obtain positive numbers at
the both numerator and denominator.

In the parallel-flow heat exchangers the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the
same end, and the temperature of the hot fluid decreases and the temperature of the cold
fluid increases along the heat exchanger. But the temperature of the cold fluid can never
exceed that of the hot fluid. In case of the counter-flow heat exchangers the hot and cold
fluids enter the heat exchanger from the opposite ends and the outlet temperature of the
cold fluid may exceed the outlet temperature of the hot fluid.

The Tlm will be greatest for double-pipe counter-flow heat exchangers.

The factor F is called as correction factor which depends on the geometry of the heat
exchanger and the inlet and the outlet temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams. It
represents how closely a heat exchanger approximates a counter-flow heat exchanger in
terms of its logarithmic mean temperature difference. F cannot be greater than unity.

In this case it is not practical to use the LMTD method because it requires tedious
iterations. Instead, the effectiveness-NTU method should be used.

First heat transfer rate is determined from

75
Q = m
 c p [Tin - Tout ]
, Tln from

T1  T2
Tlm 
ln(T1 / T2 ) ,

correction factor from the figures, and finally the surface area of the heat exchanger from

Q = UAFDTlm,CF

Example

Water is heated in a double-pipe, parallel-flow uninsulated heat exchanger by geothermal

water. The rate of heat transfer to the cold water and the log mean temperature
difference for this heat exchanger are to be determined.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Changes in the kinetic and potential
energies of fluid streams are negligible. 4 There is no fouling. 5 Fluid properties are
constant.

Properties The specific heat of hot water is given to be 4.25 kJ/kg.C.

Analysis The rate of heat given up by the hot water is

Hot
water
Q h  [m c p (Tin  Tout )] hot water
 (1.4 kg/s)(4.25 kJ/kg.C)(85C  50C) = 208.3 kW 85C 50C

Cold
The rate of heat picked up by the cold water is
water

Q c  (1  0.03)Q h  (1  0.03)( 208.3 kW)  202.0kW

The log mean temperature difference is

Q 202.0 kW
Q  UATlm 
 Tlm    43.9C
UA (1.15 kW/m2  C)( 4 m 2 )

76
 Example

A stream of hydrocarbon is cooled by water in a double-pipe counterflow heat exchanger.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is to be determined.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The heat exchanger is well-insulated so

that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible and thus heat transfer from the hot fluid is
equal to the heat transfer to the cold fluid. 3 Changes in the kinetic and potential energies
of fluid streams are negligible. 4 There is no fouling. 5 Fluid properties are constant.

Properties The specific heats of hydrocarbon and water are given to be 2.2 and 4.18
kJ/kg.C, respectively.

Analysis The rate of heat transfer is

Q  [m
 c p (Tout  Tin )] HC  (720 / 3600 kg/s)(2.2 kJ/kg.C)(150C  40C) = 48.4 kW

The outlet temperature of water is

Q  [m c p (Tout  Tin )] w Water

48.4 kW  (540 / 3600 kg/s)(4.18 kJ/kg.C)(Tw,out  10C)
HC
Tw,out = 87.2 C 10C 40C

150C
The logarithmic mean temperature difference is

T1  Th,in  Tc,out  150C  87.2C = 62.8C

T2  Th,out  Tc,in  40C  10C = 30C

T1  T2 62.8  30

Tlm    44.4C
ln(T1 / T2 ) ln(62.8 / 30)
and

The overall heat transfer coefficient is determined from

Q  UATlm
48.4 kW  U (  0.025 6.0)(44.4C)
U  2.31kW/m 2  K

77
 Example

Oil is heated by water in a 1-shell pass and 6-tube passes heat exchanger. The rate of heat
transfer and the heat transfer surface area are to be determined.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The heat exchanger is well-insulated so

that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible and thus heat transfer from the hot fluid is
equal to the heat transfer to the cold fluid. 3 Changes in the kinetic and potential energies
of fluid streams are negligible. 4 There is no fouling. 5 Fluid properties are constant.

Properties The specific heat of oil is given to be 2.0 kJ/kg.C.

Analysis The rate of heat transfer in this heat exchanger is

Q  [m
 c p (Tout  Tin )] oil  (10 kg/s)(2.0 kJ/kg.C)(46C  25C) = 420 kW

The logarithmic mean temperature difference for counter-flow arrangement and the
correction factor F are

T1  Th,in  Tc,out  80C  46C = 34C

Water
T2  Th,out  Tc,in  60C  25C = 35C

80C
T1  T2 34  35 46C
Tlm,CF    34.5C
ln(T1 / T2 ) ln(34 / 35)
Oil

t 2  t1 46  25 
P   0.38  25C
T1  t1 80  25  1 shell pass
 F  0.94 60C
T T 80  60
R 1 2   0.95 10 kg/s
t 2  t1 46  25  6 tube passes

Then the heat transfer surface area on the tube side becomes

Q 420 kW
Q  UAs FTlm,CF 
 As    13.0 m 2
UFTlm,CF (1.0 kW/m2 .C)(0.94)(34.5C)

78
 Example

Steam is condensed by cooling water in the condenser of a power plant. The mass flow
rate of the cooling water and the rate of condensation are to be determined.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The heat exchanger is well-insulated so

that heat loss to the surroundings is negligible and thus heat transfer from the hot fluid is
equal to the heat transfer to the cold fluid. 3 Changes in the kinetic and potential energies
of fluid streams are negligible. 4 There is no fouling. 5 Fluid properties are constant.

Properties The heat of vaporization of water at 50C is given to be hfg = 2383 kJ/kg and
specific heat of cold water at the average temperature of 22.5C is given to be cp = 4180
J/kg.C.

Analysis The temperature differences between the steam and the cooling water at the two
ends of the condenser are

T1  Th,in  Tc,out  50C  27C = 23C Steam

T2  Th,out  Tc,in  50C  18C = 32C
50C 27C

and

T1  T2 23  32
Tlm    27.3C 18C
ln(T1 / T2 ) ln(23 / 32)

Then the heat transfer rate in the condenser becomes

50C
Water
Q  UAs Tlm  (2400 W/m2 .C)(42 m2 )( 27.3C) = 2752 kW

The mass flow rate of the cooling water and the rate of condensation of steam are
determined from

Q  [m c p (Tout  Tin )] coolingwater

Q 2752 kJ/s
m cooling   = 73.1kg/s
water c p (Tout  Tin ) (4.18 kJ/kg.C)(27C  18C)

Q 2752 kJ/s
Q  (m
 h fg ) steam 
 m
 steam    1.15 kg/s
h fg 2383 kJ/kg

79
15. Air Conditioning

The Need for Air Conditioning

The meaning of air conditioning Full air conditioning implies the automatic control of an
atmospheric environment either for the comfort of human beings or animals or for the
proper performance of some industrial or scientific process. The adjective 'full' demands
that the purity, movement, temperature and relative humidity of the air be controlled,
within the limits imposed by the design specification. (It is possible that, for certain
applications, the pressure of the air in the environment may also have to be controlled.)
Air conditioning is often misused as a term and is loosely and wrongly adopted to describe
a system of simple ventilation. It is really correct to talk of air conditioning only when a
cooling and dehumidification function is intended, in addition to other aims. This means
that air conditioning is always associated with refrigeration and it accounts for the
comparatively high cost of air conditioning. Refrigeration plant is precision-built machinery
and is the major item of cost in an air conditioning installation, thus the expense of air
conditioning a building is some four times greater than that of only heating it. Full control
over relative humidity is not always exercised, hence for this reason a good deal of partial
air conditioning is carded out; it is still referred to as air conditioning because it does
contain refrigeration plant and is therefore capable of cooling and dehumidifying. The
ability to counter sensible and latent heat gains is, then, the essential feature of an air
conditioning system and, by common usage, the term 'air conditioning' means that
refrigeration is involved.

Comfort conditioning

Human beings are born into a hostile environment, but the degree of hostility varies with
the season of the year and with the geographical locality. This suggests that the arguments

80
for air conditioning might be based solely on climatic considerations, but although these
may be valid in tropical and subtropical areas, they are not for temperate climates with
industrialised social structures and rising standards of living. Briefly, air conditioning is
necessary for the following reasons. Heat gains from sunlight, electric lighting and business
machines, in particular, may cause unpleasantly high temperatures in rooms, unless
windows are opened.

In any case, the relief provided by natural airflow through open windows is only effective
for a depth of about 6 metres inward from the glazing. It follows that the inner areas of
deep buildings will not really benefit at all from opened windows. Coupled with the need
for high intensity continuous electric lighting in these core areas, the lack of adequate
ventilation means a good deal of discomfort for the occupants. Mechanical ventilation
without refrigeration is only a partial solution. It is true that it provides a controlled and
uniform means of air distribution, in place of the unsatisfactory results obtained with
opened windows (the vagaries of wind and stack effect, again particularly with tall
buildings, produce discontinuous natural ventilation), but tolerable internal temperatures
will prevail only during winter months. For much of the spring and autumn, as well as the
summer, the internal room temperature will be several degrees higher than that outside,
and it will be necessary to open windows in order to augment the mechanical ventilation.

16. Psychrometric Chart and Air Characteristics

A psychrometric chart presents physical and thermal properties of moist air in a graphical
form. It can be very helpful in troubleshooting greenhouse or livestock building
environmental problems and in determining solutions. Understanding psychrometric
charts helps visualization of environmental control concepts such as why heated air can
hold more moisture, and conversely, how allowing moist air to cool will result in
condensation. The objective of this fact sheet is to explain characteristics of moist air and
how they are used in a psychrometric chart. Three examples are used to illustrate typical
chart use and interpretation. Properties of moist air are explained in the Definitions at the
end for your reference during the following discussions.

81
17. Definitions

Dry-bulb temperature is the commonly measured temperature from a thermometer. It is

called "dry-bulb" since the sensing tip of the thermometer is dry (see "wet bulb
temperature" for comparison). Dry-bulb temperature is located on the horizontal, or x-
axis, of the psychrometric chart and lines of constant temperature are represented by
vertical chart lines. Since this temperature is so commonly used, it can be assumed that
temperatures are dry-bulb temperatures unless otherwise designated.

Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water air can hold at a certain
temperature. It is "relative" with respect to the amount of water that air, at that same
temperature, can hold at 100 percent humidity, or saturation. Air temperature (dry-bulb)
is important because warmer air can hold more moisture than cold air. Air at 60 percent
relative humidity contains 60 percent of the water it could possibly hold (at that
temperature). It could pick up 40 percent more water to reach saturation. Lines of
constant relative humidity are represented by the curved lines running from the bottom
left and sweeping up through to the top right of the chart. The line for 100 percent relative
humidity, or saturation, is the upper, left boundary of the chart.

Humidity ratio of moist air is the weight of the water contained in the air per unit of dry
air. This is often expressed as pounds of moisture per pound of dry air. Since the humidity
ratio of moist air is not dependent on temperature, as is relative humidity, it is easier to
use in calculations. Humidity ratio is found on the vertical, y-axis with lines of constant
humidity ratio running horizontally across the chart.

Dewpoint temperature indicates the temperature at which water will begin to condense
out of moist air. Given air at a certain dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity, if the
temperature is allowed to decrease, the air is no longer able to hold as much moisture.
When air is cooled, the relative humidity increases until saturation is reached and
condensation occurs. Condensation occurs on surfaces which are at or below the dewpoint

82
temperature. Dewpoint temperature is determined by moving from a state point
horizontally to the left along lines of constant humidity ratio until the upper, curved,
saturation temperature boundary is reached.

Wet-bulb temperature is determined when air is circulated past a wetted sensor tip. It
represents the temperature at which water evaporates and brings the air to saturation.
Inherent in this definition is an assumption that no heat is lost or gained by the air. This is
different from dewpoint temperature where a decrease in temperature, or heat loss,
decreases the moisture holding capacity of the air, and hence, water condenses.
Determination of wet-bulb temperature on this psychrometric chart, follows lines of
constant enthalpy but values are read off the upper, curved, saturation temperature
boundary.

Enthalpy is the heat energy content of moist air. It is expressed in Btu per pound of dry air
and represents the heat energy due to temperature and moisture in the air. Enthalpy is
useful in air heating and cooling applications. The enthalpy scale is located above the
saturation, upper boundary of the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy run diagonally
downward from left to right across the chart. Lines of constant enthalpy and constant wet-
bulb are the same on this chart but values are read off separate scales. More accurate
psychrometric charts use slightly different lines for wet-bulb temperature and enthalpy.

Specific volume indicates the space occupied by air. It is the increase of density and is
expressed as a volume per unit weight (density is weight per unit volume). Warm air is less
dense than cool air which causes warmed air to rise. This phenomena is known as thermal
buoyancy. By similar reasoning, warmer air has greater specific volume and is hence lighter
than cool air. On the psychrometric chart, lines of constant specific volume are almost
vertical lines with scale values written below the dry-bulb temperature scale and above
the upper boundary's saturation temperature scale.

83
Example

Air at 60 C dry bulb temperature and 27.5 C wet bulb temperature, and a humidity ratio of
0.01 kg water/kg dry air is mixed with water adiabatically and is cooled and humidified to a
humidity ratio of 0.02 kg water/kg dry air. What is the final temperature of the conditioned
air?
Given
Inlet: dry bulb temperature = 60C
wet bulb temperature = 27.5 C
Initial humidity ratio W 1 = 0.01 kg water/kg dry air
Final humidity ratio W 2 =0.02 kg water/kg dry air
Solution
From Table A.4.2, latent heat of vaporization at 27.5 C = 2436.37 kJ/kg

Example
Calculate the rate of thermal energy required to heat 10 m3 /s of outside air at 30 C dry
bulb temperature and 80% relative humidity to a dry bulb temperature of 80 C.
Solution
1. Using the psychrometric chart, we find at 30 C dry bulb temperature and 80% relative
humidity, the enthalpy H1 = 85.2 kJ/kg dry air, humidity ratio W1 = 0.0215 kg water/kg dry
air, and specific volume V1= 0.89 m3 /kg dry air. At the end of the heating process, the dry
bulb temperature is 80 C with a humidity ratio of 0.0215 kg water/kg dry air. The
remaining values are read from the chart as follows: enthalpy H2 =140 kJ/kg dry air;
relative humidity φ2 =7%.
2.

3. The rate of heat required to accomplish the given process is 615.7 kW

4. In these calculations, it is assumed that during the heating process there is no gain of
moisture. This will not be true if a directly fired gas or oil combustion system is used, since

84
in such processes small amounts of water are produced as part of the combustion
reaction.

Example

In efforts to conserve energy, a food dryer is being modified to reuse part of the exhaust
air along with ambient air. The exhaust air flow of 10 m3/s at 70 C and 30% relative
humidity is mixed with 20 m3/s of ambient air at 30 C and 60% relative humidity. Using the
psychrometric chart, determine
the dry bulb temperature and humidity ratio of the mixed air.

Solution
1. From the given data, locate the state points A and B, identifying the exit and ambient air
as shown on the skeleton chart.
2. Join points A and B with a straight line.
3. The division of line AB is done according to the relative influence of the particular air
mass. Since the mixed air contains 2 parts ambient air and 1 part exhaust air, line AB is
divided in 1:2 proportion to locate point C. Thus, the shorter length of line AC corresponds
to larger air mass.
4. The mixed air, represented by point C, will have a dry bulb temperature of 44 C and a
humidity ratio of 0.032 kg water/kg dry air.

85
86
87
88
89
References

1) Joel, R. (1987). Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, Longman.

2) Embleton, W. and L. Jackson (2003). Reeds Vol 3: Applied Heat, Bloomsbury Academic.

3) RATHAKRISHNAN, E. (2005). FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS, PHI

Learning.

90
B. MECHANICS AND HYDROMECHANICS

1. Balancing

Reciprocating machine

Reciprocating machines means a piston reciprocating in a cylinder and connected to a

crank shaft by connecting rob.

Derivation of acceleration equation

A crank, con rod and piston mechanism is shown below

91
When θ=0 the piston will be furthest left at a distance L+R form point O. Take this as the
reference point and measure displacement x from there. Remember that θ=ωt and ω=2π
Ν . The displacement is then:

Differentiate to get the velocity.

Differentiate again and simplify to get the acceleration

The diagram shows a plot of displacement, velocity and acceleration against angle when
L=120mm, R=50mm and ω=π rad/sec. It should be noted taht none of them are sinusoidal
and not harmonic. The larger the value of n, the nearer it becoms to being harmonic.

92
The equation for acceleration may be expanded as a Fourier series into the form:

A is a constant involving n. Except at very high sppeds, the following giver a very good
approximation.

Force

Using the close approximation for acceleration, the inertia force required to accelerate the
piston is given

This may be thought of as two separate forces.

Primary force:

Secondary force:

Example

93
Determine the primary out of balamce force for a single cylinder machine with a piston of
mass 0.5 kg, with a connecting rob 120 mm long and a crank radius of 50 mm when the
speed of rotation is 3000 rev/min.

Solution:

Example

Determine the secondary force produced in a single cylinder machine with a piston of
mass 0.5 kg, with a connecting rob 120 mm long and a crank radius of 50 mm when the
speed of rotation is 3000 rev/min.

Solution:

Primary force for multiple cylinders

The primary inertia forces produced by reciprocating pistons may be thought of as simply
the inline component of the centrifugal force produced by a rotating mass. Each piston
may be represented by a rotating mass at the crank radius and angle. This leads us to using
the same graphical techniques as for rotating masses except that we must remember it is
not the centrifugal force but the component in line with the piston motion that we find.

94
Example

Two reciprocationg pistons have equals mass and crack radii and are placed apart.
Determine the primary force.

Solultion

The force for each piston is

95
so what ever the angle of the crank, the vertical components of the forces will be equal
and opposite .

Example

Three reciprocating pistons have equal mass and crank radii and are placed apart
from each other. Determine the primary force.

Solution

The force for each piston is

In order to draw the vectors choose that A is at zero degrees. Each vector has a value
and adding them we see there is no resultant so there is no resultant vertical
component and so and this will be true what ever the crank angle.

Secondary force for multiple cylinders

The secondary force for each piston is given by

if the crank rotates angle θ, the mass representing the secondary component has rotated
2θ so it needs to rotate at twice the crank speed. The centrifugal force of the mass will be

The suffix refers to the secondary quantities. if this is to represent the piston then we
equate.

96
The rotating mass will be ) and if the radii are the same .
This is only needed if we are working out of the balancing masses.

Moments

Each force produces a moment about any point distance x from the centre line of the
cylinder along the axis of the crank shaft. Consider the crank below

The turning moment about the reference plane is :

α,β,γ .. are the angles each crank has relative to crank A. This can be separated into
primary and secondary moments.

Primary moments

Secondary moments

97
Example

A machine has three reciprocating masses A,B and C with cranks located as shown in the
diagram. Determine the primary and secondary moments produced at 600 rev/min about
plane X-X .

Solution primary moments

Draw the MRx polygon

98
The resultant MRx vector is 3.9 x kg and φ=

The moment produced in plane XX is 3.88x x

At any other position of the crank it is 15.32 cos θ.

Solution secondary moments

Draw the MRx/n polygon with A drawn at 0 degrees.

The resulting MRx/n vector is 1.406 kg

The angle φ= .

The moment about XX in line with the cylinders is

At any other position of the crank it is 5.53 cos 2θ.

Balancing

Reciprocating balance

99
Reciprocating machines can be balanced by placing two reciprocating masses on two
planes. To balance primary components these would rotate at the crank speed. To balance
secondary, they would have to rotate at double the crank speed in order to produce
double angles in a given period of time.

Example

Two lines of reciprocating masses at A and B are to be balanced for primary forces and
couples by two lines of reciprocating pistons at C and D, Given and
and that crank B is rotated relative to A, determine the masses and
and the angle of their cranks, All crank radii are the same.

100
2. Simple harmonic motion
The wheel revolves at ω rad/sec and the pin forces the yoke to move up and down. The pin
slides in the slot and point P on the yoke oscillates up and down as it is constrained to
move only in the vertical direction by the hole through which it slides. The motion of point
P is simple harmonic motion. Point P moves up and down so at any moment it has a
displacement x, velocity v and an acceleration a.

The pin is located at radius R from the centre of the wheel. The verical displacement of the
pin from the horizontal centre line at any time is x. This is also the displacment of point P.
The yoke reaches a maximun displacment equal to R when pin is at the top and R- when
the pin is at the bottom.

101
This is the amplitude of the oscillation. if the wheel rotates at ω rad/sec then after time t
sec the angle rotated is θ=ωt radians. From the right angle triangle we find x=R sin (ωt) and
the graph of x- θ is shown:

Velocity is the rate of change of distance with time and in calculus form v=dx/dt. If we
differentiate x we get v=dx/dt=ω R cos (ωt).

The maximum velocity or amplitude is ωR and this occurs as the pin passes through the
horizontal position and is plus on the way up and minus on the way down. This makes
sense since the tangential velocity of a point moving in a circle is v=ωR and the horizontal
point they are the same thing.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time and in calculus from a=dv/dt.
Differentiating v we get a=dv/dt=- . The amplitude is and this is positive
at the bottom and minus at the time (when the yoke is about to change direction).

Since then substituting x we find

Angular frequency, frequency and periodic time

ω is the angular velocity of the wheel but in any vibartion such as the mass on the spring is
called the angular frequency as no phsysical wheel exists.

The frequency of the wheel in revolution/seconds is equivalent to the frequency of the

vibration. If the wheel rotates at 2 rev/sec the time of one revolution is 1/2 seconds. if the
wheel rotates at 5 rev/sec the time of one revolution is 1/5 seconds.

Periodic time T=time needed to perform one cycle.

102
f is the frequency or number of cycles per seconds.

it follows that T=1/f and f=1/T

Each cycle of an oscillation is equivalent to one rotation of the wheel and 1 revolution is an
angle of 2π radians. When θ=2π, t=T

It follows that since θ=ωt then 2π = ωΤ.

Rearrange and ω=2π/Τ. Substitute T=1/f and ω=2π f.

Natural vibrations

A free vibration has no external energy added after it starts moving that all the forces and
all the moment of force acting on the body must add up to zero.

Mass on spring

Consider the mass is pulled down with a force F as shown

The spring is stretched a distance . This is called the initial displacement.

When the mass is the released, it oscillated up and down with simple harmonic motion.

F is the applied force in Newtons.

x is the displacement from the rest position at any time and k is the spring stiffness.

103
 = Spring force tries to return the mass to the rest position.

From spring theory we know that =kx

Since the motion of the mass clearly has acceleration then there is an inertia force .

From Newton's second law of motion we know that mass x acceleration =M a

Balancing forces gives

if the mass is disturbed and released so that it is oscillating, the applied force must be zero
and this is the requirement for it to be a free natural oscillation.

Rearrange to make a the subject

a=

The constant of proportionality is k/M and this must be the angular frequency squared so

The frequency of oscillation is

Because this is a natural oscillation the frequencies are often denoted as and . This
equation is true for all elastic oscillations.

Example

A spring of stiffnes 20 kN/m supports a mass of 4 kg. The mass is pulled down 8 mm and
released to produce linear oscillations. Calculate the frequency and periodic time. Sketch
the graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration. Calculate the displacement, velocity
and acceleration 0.05 sec after being released.

Solution

104
The oscillation starts at the bottom of the cycle so . The resulting graph of x
against time will be a negative cosine curve with an amplitude of 8mm.

The equations describing the motion are the follows.

when t=0.05 sec x=-8 cos( 70.71 x 0.05)

x=7.378 mm Note the angles are in radians.

This us confirmed by the graph.

If we differentiate once we get the equation for velocity

Differentiate again to get the acceleration

Damper between the mass and the support

If the damper is fixed between the support and the mass then the velocity of the damper
piston is dx/dt - dy/dt

The equation becomes:

105
This reduces to

where )

The steady state solution is

and

The magnification factor

The magnification factor (MF) is the ratio A/a when the support is excited. The last
equation may be arranged into the following form:

Since then

This formula also applies to the case when a harmonic disturbing force is applied since
and it follows that MF=Maximum force in spring/

The response graph is show below and could apply to either case. At low speeds the
support and mass move up and down together. As ω approaches the amplitude of the
mass grows and the phase angle approaches . As the speed passes resonance, the

106
amplitude of the mass reduces and eventually becomes almost static. The phase angle
tends to at high speeds. The magnification is greatest at resonance and as before,
the resonant frequency is not quite the same as the natural frequency.

The peak MF occurs when

is a maximum. This can be found by max and min theory.

Peak MF occurs when

Example

The diagram shows a mass-spring-dashpot system. The support is moved with a motion of
y=6 sin (40 t) mm. Determine the amplitude of mass and the phase angle.

107
Solution

From the question we know that k=10000, M=5 and c=150

From the equation of motion a = 6mm and ω=40 rad/sec

Transmissibility
When a mass vibrated on an elastic support, a force is transmitted through the spring and
damper to the frame or ground. This is the sum of the spring and damping force. This may
be illustrated with the vector diagram

From the vector diagram we deduce that the transmitted force is

and

108
The ratio is called the transmissibility ratio.

The phase angle between the transmitted force and the applied force is

The above work applies to both harmonic disturbing forces and harmonic motion of the
support if the substitution

3. Torsional vibrations with multiple modes

Two inertia system

Consider a shaft with torsional stiffness connecting two inertias and . If the shaft is
free to rotate the torsional oscillation will take the form of both ends twisting but some
point in between will not be twisting. This is a node. The shaft must of course be
supported in at least two bearings.

The natural frequency can be derived. For two rotors

substitute for

substitute for

simplify and rearrange to get

109
The node will be somewhere between the two rotors.

Example

A shaft free to rotate carries a flywheel with at one end and at

the other. The shaft connecting them has a stiffness of 4 MN m/rad. Calculate the natural
frequency and the position of the node.

Solution

if we regard the node as a fixed point each rotor will have the same natural frequency
about that point. For a single rotor system

for the first rotor

for the other rotor

The difference in stiffness is due to the difference in length of the shaft.

and GL is the same for both sections.

so the node is L/3 from the right

This maybe be found another way.

110
Let

4. Stress & Strain

When a force, or load, is applied to a solid, the body changes shape and perhaps size.
These changes are called deformations. The objective of stress analysis is to quantitatively
relate loads and deformations. Elasticity theory deals with deformations sufficiently small
to be reversible; that is, the body returns to its original size and shape when the load is
removed. Within this range, the distances between atoms in the solid, or, alternatively, the
atom-atom bonds, are stretched or compressed, but are not broken. In order to remain in
the elastic range, the fractional changes in interatomic distances (on a microscopic scale)
or in the body’s gross dimensions (on a macroscopic scale) must be less than a percent or
so.

111
 When loads or deformations exceed the elastic range, the changes in shape of the
body are not recovered when the load is removed. This type of irreversible deformation is
termed plastic deformation. On a microscopic level, atomic bonds are broken and
reformed between different atoms than the original configuration. Plastic behavior of
solids is treated in subsequent chapters.

Instead of load (or force) and deformation, elasticity theory utilizes the related
quantities stress and strain. Stresses are forces per unit area acting on internal planes in
the body and strains are fractional deformations of the body.

Figure shows a rod of cross sectional area A attached to a rigid lower plate and
acted upon by an upward force F at its top. All planes perpendicular to the rod’s axis
experience the same force. Imagine removal of the portion of the rod above plane a-a in
the figure. The normal stress on this plane is:

n = F/A

The stress is called normal if it acts in the direction perpendicular to the plane. To
determine the sign of the stress requires reference to a set of orthogonal coordinate axes
such as that shown in the figure. The surface is positive if its outward normal points in the
direction of a positive coordinate axis. The normal stress is positive if it also acts in the
same direction. The load F in Figure generates a positive normal stress on plane a-a. This
stress tends to pull atomic planes apart and is termed tensile. If the force F were reversed,
the normal stress would act downward on surface a-a and would tend to squeeze the
atoms in the solid together. Such a stress is called compressive. Thus, tensile stresses are
positive and compressive stresses are negative.

F
x

n y

z s
a a F

b 's 'n


112
(a) (b)
In Figure the force is in the direction perpendicular to the rod axis. The stress is generated
in the internal surface rather than perpendicular to the surface. Such a stress is termed a
shear stress:

s = F/A

The sign convention for shear stresses is the same as for normal stresses; the shear
stress is positive if it acts on a surface with a positive normal in a positive coordinate
direction.

Shear stresses are produced in a body loaded purely by external normal forces if
the internal surface normal is tilted by an angle  > 0 with respect to the axis of the applied
stress. Surface b-b in Figure represents such a surface. The area of this surface is A’ =
A/cos and the resolved component of the applied force along the plane b-b is F’ =
Fcos(/2 - ) = F sin. The shear stress on b-b is:

σs  F  / A  ( F / A) sin θ cos θ  0.5σn sin(2 θ)

The resolved normal stress component on b-b is:

σ n  σ n cos2 θ

Equation σ s  F / A  (F / A) sin θ cos θ  0.5σ n sin( 2 θ ) shows that the shear stress

due to normal loading of the rod is largest at  = 45o and has a magnitude equal to one half
of the applied normal stress. The maximum normal stress on oblique planes naturally
occurs at  = 0.

THIN CYLINDERS AND SHELLS

The stresses set up in the walls of a thin cylinder owing to an internal pressure p are:

circumferential or hoop stress:

113
longitudinal or axial stress :

Where d is the internal diameter and t is the wall thickness of the cylinder

Then

longitudinal strain : ν

hoop strain: ν

change of internal volume of cylinder under pressure =

change of volume of contained liquid under pressure =

where K is the bulk modulus of the liquid.

For thin rotating cylinders of mean radius R the tensile hoop stress set up when rotating at
ω rad/s is given by

For thin spheres:

circumferential or hoop stress: :

change of volume under pressure: =

Eflects of end plates and joints-add “joint efficiency factor” ‘ n to denominator of stress

equations above.

Thin cylinders under internal pressure

When a thin-walled cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, three mutually

perpendicular principal stresses will be set up in the cylinder material, namely the
circumferential or hoop stress, the radial stress and the longitudinal stress. Provided that
the ratio of thickness to inside diameter of the cylinder is less than 1/20, it is reasonably
accurate to assume that the hoop and longitudinal stresses are constant across the wall
thickness and that the magnitude of the radial stress set up is so small in comparison with

114
the hoop and longitudinal stresses that it can be neglected. This is obviously an
approximation since, in practice, it will vary from zero at the outside surface to a value
equal to the internal pressure at the inside surface. For the purpose of the initial derivation
of stress formulae it is also assumed that the ends of the cylinder and any riveted joints
present have no effect on the stresses produced.

Hoop or circumferential stress

This is the stress which is set up in resisting the bursting effect of the applied pressure and
can be most conveniently treated by considering the equilibrium of half of the cylinder as
shown in Figure.

Total force on half-cylinder owing to internal pressure = p x projected area = p x dL.

Total resisting force owing to hoop stress on set up in the cylinder walls

circumferential or hoop stress

Longitudinal stress

Consider now the cylinder shown in Figure.

115
Total force on the end of the cylinder owing to internal pressure

= pressure x area =

Area of metal resisting this force = π d t (approximate1y)

stress set up =

longitudinal stress

Changes in dimensions

(a) Change in length

The change in length of the cylinder may be determined from the longitudinal strain, i.e.
neglecting the radial stress.

Longitudinal strain=

and change in length = longitudinal strain x original length=

(b) Change in diameter

As above, the change in diameter may be determined from the strain on a diameter, i.e.
the diametral strain

116
Now the change in diameter may be found from a consideration of the cipcumferential
change. The stress acting around a circumference is the hoop or circumferential stress on
giving rise to the circumferential strain .

Change in circumference = strain x original circumference =

New circumference =

But this is the circumference of a circle of diameter

New diameter =

change in diameter =

Diametral strain

the diametral strain equals the hoop or circumferential strain

thus change in diameter =

(c) Change in internal volume

Change in volume = volumetric strain x original volume

volumetric strain = sum of three mutually perpendicular direct strains

Therefore with original internal volume V

117
change in internal volume =

Thin rotating ring or cylinder

Consider a thin ring or cylinder as shown in Figure subjected to a radial pressure p caused
by the centrifugal effect of its own mass when rotating. The centrifugal effect on a unit
length of the circumference is:

Thus, considering the equilibrium of half the ring shown in the figure:

2F=px2r

F=pr

where F is the hoop tension set up owing to rotation.

The cylinder wall is assumed to be so thin that the centrifugal effect can be taken to be
constant across the wall thickness.

This tension is transmitted through the complete circumference and therefore is restricted
by the complete cross-sectional area.

where A is the cross-sectional area of the ring.

Now with unit length assumed, m/A is the mass of the ring material per unit volume, i.e.
the density ρ.

118
Thin spherical shell under internal pressure

Because of the symmetry of the sphere the stresses set up owing to internal pressure will
be two mutually perpendicular hoop or circumferential stresses of equal value and a radial
stress. As with thin cylinders having thickness to diameter ratios less than 1 : 20, the radial
stress is assumed negligible in comparison with the values of hoop stress set up. The stress
system is therefore one of equal biaxial hoop stresses.

Consider, therefore, the equilibrium of the half-sphere shown in Figure.

Force on half-sphere owing to internal pressure

= pressure x projected area =

Resisting force = (approximately)

Change in internal volume

As for the cylinder,

change in volume = original volume x volumetric strain

but

volumetric strain = sum of three mutually perpendicular strains (in this case all equal)

119
=

change in internal volume =

Example

A thin cylinder 75 mm internal diameter, 250 mm long with walls 2.5 mm thick is subjected
to an internal pressure of 7 MN/ . Determine the change in internal diameter and the
change in length. If, in addition to the internal pressure, the cylinder is subjected to a
torque of 200 N m, find the magnitude and nature of the principal stresses set up in the
cylinder. E = 200 GN/m2. v = 0.3.

Solution

a) change in diameter

= =

b) change in length

c) Hoop stress

In addition to these stresses a shear stress τ is set up.

From the torsion theory,

shear stress =

120
The stress system then acting on any element of the cylinder surface is as shown in Figure.

The principal stresses are then given by equations

and

then and

Rotating thick cylinders or solid shafts

In the case of rotating thick cylinders the longitudinal stress must be taken into account
and the longitudinal strain is assumed to be constant. Thus, writing the equations for the
strain in three mutually perpendicular directions.

Hoop and radial stresses in rotating thick cylinders can be obtained from the equations for
rotating discs provided that Poisson's ratio u is replaced by ν/(l - ν),

121
e.g. the stress at the centre of a rotating solid shaft will be given by

for a solid disc modified as stated above,

thin rotating rings and cylinders

For thin rotating rings and cylinders of mean radius R, the tensile hoop stress set up is
given by

The radial and hoop stresses at any radius r in a disc of uniform thickness rotating with an
angular velocity w rads are given by

where A and B are constants, p is the density of the disc material and u is Poisson's ratio.

Combined rotational and thermal stresses in uniform discs and thick cylinders

If the temperature of any component is raised uniformly then, provided that the
material is free to expand, expansion takes place without the introduction of any so-
called thermal or temperature stresses. In cases where components, e.g. discs, are
subjected to thermal gradients, however, one part of the material attempts to
expand at a faster rate than another owing to the difference in temperature
experienced by each part, and as a result stresses are developed. These are
analogous to the differential expansion stresses experienced in compound bars of
different materials.

122
 Example

A steel ring of outer diameter 300 mm and internal diameter 200 mm is shrunk onto
a solid steel shaft. The interference is arranged such that the radial pressure between
the mating surfaces will not fall below 30 MN/m2 whilst the assembly rotates in
service. If the maximum circumferential stress on the inside surface of the ring is
limited to 240 MN/m2, determine the maximum speed at which the assembly can be
rotated. It may be assumed that no relative slip occurs between the shaft and the
ring.

For steel, p = 7470 kg/m3, u = 0.3, E = 208 GN/m2.

Solution

When r=0.15

When r=0.1

Combining the two equation

and

But since the maximum hoop stress at the inside radius is limited to 240 MN/m2,

123
=1.06

124
5. Torsion

Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. This is true whether the shaft
is rotating (such as drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines) or stationary (such
as with a bolt or screw). The torque makes the shaft twist and one end rotates
relative to the other inducing shear stress on any cross section. Failure might occur
due to shear alone or because the shear is accompanied by stretching or bending

TORSION EQUATION

The diagram shows a shaft fixed at one end and twisted at the other end due to the
action of a torque T.

The radius of the shaft is R and the length is L.

Imagine a horizontal radial line drawn on the end face. When the end is twisted, the
line rotates through an angle θ. The length of the arc produced is Rθ.

Now consider a line drawn along the length of the shaft. When twisted, the line
moves through an angle γ.

The length of the arc produced is Lγ

If we assume that the two arcs are the same it follows that Rθ=L γ

Hence by equating Lγ = Rθ we

get

125
If you refer to basic stress and strain theory, you will appreciate that is the shear
strain on the outer surface of the shaft. The relationship between shear strain and
shear stress is

τ is the shear stress and G the modulus of rigidity.

G is one of the elastic constants of a material. The equation is only true so long
as the material remains elastic.

Substituting we get

Since the derivation could be applied to any radius, it

follows that shear stress is directly proportional to radius 'r'
and is a maximum on the surface.

Now let's consider how the applied torque 'T' is balanced by the internal stresses of
the material.

Consider an elementary ring of material with a shear stress acting on it at radius r.

The area of the ring is dA = 2 r dr

The shear force acting on it tangential is dF = τ dA=τ 2 r dr

This force acts at radius r so the torque produced is

126
Since and

The torque on the whole cross section resulting from the shear stress is

The expression is called the polar second moment of area and denoted as

J'. The Torque equation reduces to

and this is usually written as T/J= G θ/L 

Combining the equations we get the torsion equation
T/J= G θ/L=τ/r

POLAR SECOND MOMENTS OF AREA

This tutorial only covers circular sections. The formula for J is found by carrying out the
integration or may
be found in standard tables.

For a shaft of diameter D the formula is J =

This is not to be confused with the second moment of area about a diameter, used in
bending of beams (I)
but it should be noted that J = 2 I.

127
EXAMPLE

A shaft 50 mm diameter and 0.7 m long is subjected to a torque of 1200 Nm. Calculate
the shear stress
and the angle of twist. Take G = 90 GPa.

SOLUTION

Important values to use are D = 0.05 m, L = 0.7 m, T = 1200 Nm, G = 90 x109 Pa

Alternately

Converting to degrees

Crank Effort

128
The driving force acting on the piston is termed as piston effort. In a vertical cylinder IC
engine, following three types of forces act:
Gas Force.
The force due to variation of working fluid pressure is known as gas force.
Gas force:

where D = diameter of the piston and p = gas pressure

Inertia force.

In IC Engine, during the first half of the stroke, the reciprocating mass accelerates and
the inertia force tends to resist the motion. Thus the net force on the piston is
decreased. However, during the second half of the stroke, the reciprocating mass
decelerate and inertia force opposes this deceleration. Thus it increases the effective
force on the piston.
Inertia force:

Weight of reciprocating mass.

The weight of reciprocating mass assists the piston during its movement towards
bottom dead centre (BDC). Therefore, piston effort is increased by an amount equal to
the weight of the piston. However, when the piston moves towards top dead centre
(TDC), the piston effort is decreased by the same amount.
Net piston effort:

In IC engine mechanism, the gudgen pin, which connects piston and connecting rod is in
equilibrium under the action of the following three forces:
(i) piston effort P
(ii) axial force in the connecting rod F,
(iii) reaction thrust on cylinder surface F,. Geometrically, the axial force in
connecting rod and the thrust on cylinder surface can be expressed in terms of

129
piston effort P and obliquity angle 0 as given below:

Axial force

and reaction thrust:

Referring to Figure, a force F, equal and opposite to axial force F„ in connecting rod
acts at crank pin B. This force can be resolved into two components:
(i) A force acting along the crank, called radial force

(ii) A force acting perpendicular to the crank OB. This force constitutes a driving
torque which is called crank effort.
Driving force:

Forces acting on slider-crank mechanism.

Crank effort :

or

or

130
We know that and

Therefore,

or

Graphically, the crank effort or torque can be expressed

T = P x distance OY
Where OY is the distance measured between centre of crank and a point of
intersection of Y axis and extension of connecting rod

Helical spring
A helical spring is a spiral wound wire with a constant coil diameter and uniform
pitch. The most common form of helical spring is the compression spring but
tension springs are also widely used.
Helical springs are generally made from round wire.
It is comparatively rare for springs to be made from square or rectangular
sections. The strength of the steel used is one of the most important criteria to
consider in designing springs. Most helical springs are mass produced by specialists
organisations. It is not recommended that springs are made specifically for
applications if off-the-shelf springs can be obtained to the job.

131
Nomenclature
C = Spring Index D/d
d = wire diameter (m)
D = Spring diameter = (Di+Do)/2 (m)|
Di = Spring inside diameter (m)
Do = Spring outside diameter (m)
Dil = Spring inside diameter (loaded ) (m)
E = Young's Modulus (N/m2)
F = Axial Force (N)
Fi = Initial Axial Force (N) (close coiled tension spring)
G = Modulus of Rigidity (N/m2)
Kd= Traverse Shear Factor = (C + 0,5)/C
KW = Wahl Factor = (4C-1)/(4C-4)+ (0,615/C)
L = length (m)
L0= Free Length (m)
Ls= Solid Length (m)
nt= Total number of coils
n = Number of active coils
p = pitch (m)
y = distance from neutral axis to outer fibre of wire (m)
τ = shear stress (N/m2)
τi= initial spring stress (N/m2)
τmax= Max shear stress (N/m2)
θ= Deflection (radians)
δ = linear deflection (mm)

Spring Index

The spring index (C) for helical springs in a measure of coil curvature ..

132
For most helical springs C is between 3 and 12

Spring Rate

Generally springs are designed to have a deflection proportional to the applied load (or
torque -for torsion springs). The "Spring Rate" is the Load per unit deflection.
Rate (N/mm) = F(N) / δ e(deflection=mm)

Spring Stress Values

For General purpose springs a maximum stress value of 40% of the steel tensile stress may
be used. However the stress levels are related to the duty and material condition
(ref to relevant Code/standard).

Compression Springs- Formulae

a) Stress

A typical compression spring is shown below

133
Consider a compression spring under an axial force F. If a section through a single wire is
taken it can be seen that, to maintain equilibrium of forces, the wire is transmits a pure
shear load F and also to a torque of Fr.

The stress in the wire due to the applied load =

This equation is simplified by using a traverse shear distribution factor K d =

(C+0,5)/C.... The above equation now becomes.

The curvature of the helical spring actually results in higher shear stresses
on the inner surfaces of the spring than indicated by the formula above. A
curvature correction factor has been determined ( attributed to A.M.Wahl).
This (Wahl) factor K w is shown as follows.

134
 This factor includes the traverse shear distribution factor K d.. The formula
for maximum shear stress now becomes.

A table relating KW to C is provided below

C 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Kw 1,58 1,4 1,31 1,25 1,21 1,18 1,16 1,14 1,13 1,12 1,11 1,1 1,1 1,09

b) Deflection

The spring axial deflection is obtained as follows.

The force deflection relationship is most conventiently obtained using

Castigliano's theorem. Which is stated as .

When forces act on elastic systems subject to small displacements, the

displacement corresponding to any force collinear with the force is equal to
the partial derivative to the total strain energy with respect to that force.

For the helical spring the strain energy includes that due to shear and that
due to torsion.
Referring to notes on strain energy Strain Energy

Replacing T= FD/2, l = πDn, A = πd2 /4 The formula becomes.

135
Using Castiglianos theorem to find the total strain energy....

Substituting the spring index C for D/d The formula becomes....

In practice the term (1 + 0,5/C2) which approximates to 1 can be ignored

c) Spring Rate

The spring rate = Axial Force /Axial deflection

In practice the term (C2 /(C2 + 0,5)) which approximates to 1 can be ignored

Compression Spring End Designs

The figure below shows various end designs with different handing. Each
end design can be associated with any end design. The plain ends are not
desirable for springs which are highly loaded or for precise duties.

136
 The table below shows some equations affected by the end designs...

Note: The results from these equations is not necessarily integers and the
equations are not accurate. The springmaking process involves a degree of
variation.

Plain and Closed and

Term Plain Closed
Ground Ground

End Coils
0 1 2 2
(n e )

Total Coils
n n+1 n+2 n+2
(n t )

Free Length
pn+d p(n+1) pn +3d pn +2d
(L 0 )

Solid Length
d(n t +1) dn t d(n t +1 dn t
(L s )

Pitch(p ) (L 0-d)/n L 0/(n +1) (L 0-3d)/n (L 0-2d)/n

Helical Extension Springs

The formulae provided for the compression springs generally also apply to
extension springs.

An important design consideration for helical extensions springs is the

shape of the ends which transfers the load to the the spring body. These
must be designed to transfer the load with minimum local stress

137
concentration values caused by sharp bends. The figures below show some
end designs.. The third design C) design has relatively low stress
concentration factors.

Extension Spring Initial Tension

An Extension spring is sometimes tightly wound such that it is prestressed

with an initial stress τ i . This results in the spring having a property of an
initial tension which must be exceeded before any deflection can take place.
When the load exceeds the initial tension the spring behaves according the
the formulae above. This relationship is illustrated in the figure below

>

The initial tension load can be calculated from the formula.... T i = π τ i d 3/ (

8 D)

Best range of Initial Stress (τ i) for a spring related to the Spring Index C =
(D/d)

Best Initial Tension

C = D/d Stress range = τ i

(N/mm 2 )

3 140 205

138
 4 120 185

5 110 165

6 95 150

7 90 140

8 80 125

9 70 110

10 60 100

11 55 90

12 45 85

13 40 75

14 35 65

15 30 60

16 25 55

If the coils in a tension spring are not tightly wound, there is no initial
tension and the relevant equations are identical to those for the spring
under compression as identified above.

The equations for tension springs with initial tension are provided below

Helical Compression Springs (Rectangular Wire)

139
Spring Rate and Stress

Rate (N/mm) = K 2 G b t 3/ (n D 3) Stress (N/mm 2) = K W .K 1 F D /( b t 2 )

 D = Mean Diameter of spring(mm)

 b = Largest section dimension(mm)
 t = Smallest Section dimension(mm)
 n = Number of Active turns
 F = Axial Force on Spring
 K 1 = Shape Factor (see table)
 K 2 = Shape Factor (see table)
 K W = Wahl Factor (see table)
 C = Spring Index = D/(radial dimension = b or t)

b/t 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

K 1 2.41 2.16 2.09 2.04 1.94 1.87 1.77 1.67 1.63 1.60

K 2 0.18 0.25 0.272 0.292 0.317 0.335 0.385 0.381 0.391 0.399

COMPLEX STRESS

Materials in a stressed component often have direct and shear stresses acting in two or
more directions at the same time. This is a complex stress situation. The engineer must
then find the maximum stress in the material. We will only consider stresses in two
dimensions, x and y. The analysis leads on to a useful tool for solving complex stress

140
problems called Mohr's' Circle of Stress.

DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS

Consider a rectangular part of the material. Stress x acts on the x plane and y acts on

the y plane. The shear stress acting on the plane on which x acts is x and y act on the

plane on which y acts. The shear stresses are complementary and so must have

opposite rotation. We will take clockwise shear to be positive and anti-clockwise as

negative. Suppose we cut the material in half diagonally at angle θ as shown and replace

the internal stresses in the material with applied stresses σθ and τθ. In this case we will

do it for the bottom half. The dimensions are x, y and t as shown.

141
Now turn the stresses into force. If the material is t m

thick normal to the paper then the areas are t x and t y

on the edges and t y/sin or t x/cos on the sloping
plane.

The forces due to the direct stresses and shear stresses

are stress x area and as shown

142
The material is in equilibrium so all the forces and moments on the plane must add up
to zero. We now resolve these forces perpendicular and parallel to the plane. To make it
easier the forces are labelled a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h

a = t y y sin . b=ty y

c = t y y cos . d=ty y

e = t x x sin f = t x x cos

g = t x x cos h = t x x sin

All the forces normal to the plane must add up to (t y/sin ) .

Balancing we have a + c + e + g = (t y/sin )

All the forces parallel to the plane must add up to (t y/sin )

- f + h+ b - d = (t y/sin )

143
Making the substitutions and conducting algebraic process will yield the following
results.

Perhaps the point should have been made earlier that the shear stress on both planes ar
e

equal (read up complementary stress) so we denote them both xy = x = y

Repeating the process for the shear stress we ge

Consider the case where x=125 MPa, y=25 MPa and xy=100 MPa

75 50cos 2 100sin 2

50sin 2 100cos 2

If the value of and are plotted against the resulting graphs are as shown below.

144
In this example the maximum value of σθ is about 190 MPa. The plane with this stress

is at an angle of about 32o. The maximum shear stress is about 112 MPa on a plane at

angle 77o.

These general results are the same what ever the values of the applied stresses. The

graphs show that σθ has a maximum and minimum value and a mean value not usually

zero. These are called the principal stresses. The principal stresses occur on
planes 90o apart. These planes are called the princiral planes.

The shear stress τθ has an equal maximum and minimum value with a mean of zero.

The max and min values are on planes 90o apart and 45o from the principal planes.
This is of interest because brittle materials fail on these planes. For example, if a brittle
material is broken in a tensile test, the fracture occurs on a plane at 45o to the direction
of pull indicating that they fail in shear. Further it can be seen that the principal planes
have no shear stress so this is a definition of a principle plane.
τθ = 0 when σθ = on the principal planes where it is maximum or minimum.

There are several theories about why a material fails usually. The principle stresses and
maximum shear stress are used in those theories

145
DETERMINING THE PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND PLANES

You could plot the graph and determine the values of interest as shown in the previous
section but is convenient to calculate them directly. The stresses are a maximum or
minimum on the principal planes so we may find these using max and min theory (the
gradient of the function is zero at a max or min point). First differentiate the function
and equate to zero.

There are two solutions to this equation giving answers less than 360o and they differ by
90o.

146
 EXAMPLE

Using the formulae, find the principal stresses for the case shown below and the
position of the principal plane

Solution

using the other angle

147
COMBINED BENDING, TORSION AND AXIAL LOADING.

When a material is subjected to a combination of direct stress, bending and torsion at

the same time, we have a complex stress situation. A good example of this is a propeller
shaft in which torsion is produced. If in addition there is some misalignment of
the bearings, the shaft will bend as it rotates.
If a snap shot is taken, one side of the shaft will be in tension and one in
compression. The shear stress direction depends upon the direction of the torque
being transmitted.
The bending and shear stresses on their own are a maximum on the surface but they will
combine to produce even larger stresses. The maximum stress in the material is the
principal stress and this may be found with the formulae or by constructing Mohr’s
circle. In earlier work it was shown that the maximum direct and shear stress was given

If there is only one direct stress in the axial direction x and an accompanying shear

stress (assumed positive), then putting y = 0 we have the following

148
If the axial stress is only due to bending, then = B. From the bending and torsion

equations we have formula for B and as follows.

Substituting for and we get the following result

It was shown earlier that the angle of the principal plane could be found from the

following formula. .

Putting and this becomes .

If there is only bending stress and torsion we may substitute for and τ
as before, we get the following formula:

tan 2θ =

If the direct stress is due to bending and an additional axial load, (e.g. due to the
propeller pushing or pulling), the direct stresses should be added together first to find
as they are in the same direction. You could draw Mohr’s circle to solve these problems
or use the appropriate formulae.

149
Example
A propeller shaft has a bending stress of 7 MPa on the surface. Torsion produces a
shear stress of 5 MPa on same point of the surface. The propeller pushes and puts a
compressive stress of 2 MPa in the shaft.

Determine the following.

- The principal stresses on the surface.
- The position of the principal plane.

Solution

Since we have stress values, the problem is best solved by drawing Mohr’s circle.
At the point considered we have two a direct stresses and a shear stress. The total
direct stress is 7 - 2 = 5 MPa. Let this be and let the shear stress be positive on

this plane. will be zero and the shear stress will be negative on the y plane.

Construction of the circle yields principle stresses of 8.09 and -3.09 MPa. The
principle plane is 31.7o clockwise of the x plane.

150
Check the answers by using the formulae

151
 EXAMPLE

A solid circular shaft 100 mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 300

Nm and a Torque of 400 Nm. Calculate the maximum direct stress and shear stress
in the shaft
SOLUTION

As there is no other axial load we can use the simpler formulae

152
6. Fluid Mechanics

Derive the Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation.

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken
into consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a
stream-line as:

Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in S-direction. Consider a

cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS. The forces acting on the cylindrical
element are:

Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.

 p 
1. Pressure force  p  ds dA opposite to the direction of flow.
 s 
2. Weight of element gdAds.

Let  is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight
of element.

The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to the
mass of fluid element  acceleration in the direction S.

153
  p 
 pdA -  p + ds dA  gdAds cos 
 s 
= pdAds  as ..... (1)

where as is the acceleration in the direction of S.

dv
Now as = , where v is a function of s and t.
dt

v ds v vv v  ds 
      v
s dt t s t  dt 

v
If the flow is steady, 0
t

vv
 as 
s

Substituting the value of as in equation (1) and simplifying the equation, we get

p vv
 dsdA  g dAds cos  =  dAds 
s s

p vv
Dividing y dsdA,   g cos  =
s s

p vv
or  g cos  + v 0
s s

dz
we have cos  =
ds

154
 1 p dz vv p
 g  0 or  gdz  vdv  0
 s ds s 
p
or  gdz  vdv  0 ....(2)


Equation (2) is known as Euler’s equation of motion.

Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion (2) as

dp
  
 gdz   vdv = constant

If flow is incompressible,  is constant and

p v2
  gz +  constant
 2

p v2
or z  cons tan t
g 2g

p v2
or   z  cons tan t .....(3)
g 2g

Equation (3) is a Bernoulli’s equation in which

p
 pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure Head.
g

V2/2g = Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic Head.

z = potential energy per unit weight or potential Head.

155
Example

The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at sections 1 and 2
respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litres/s. The section 1 is 6m above datum
and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2, find the
intensity of pressure at section 2.

Solution:- Given

At section 1, D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m


.2   0.0314m2
2
A1 
4
p1  39.24 N/cm2
= 39.24  10 4N / m2
z1  6.0 m

At section 2, D2 = 0.10 m


 0.1  .00785 m2
2
A2 
4
z2  4 m
p2  ?

35
Rate of flow, Q  35lit / s   0.035 m3 / s.
1000

Now Q = A1V1 = A2V2

Q 0.035
 V1    1.114 m/s
A1 .0314

156
 Q 0.035
and V2    4.456 m/s
A 2 .00785

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2, we get

p1 v12 p v 2
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2g g 2g

39.24  104 1.114   4.456   4.0

2 2
p2
or   6.0  
1000  9.81 2  9.81 1000  9.81 2  9.81

p2
or 40  0.063  6.0   1.012  4.0
9810

p2
or 46.063   5.012
9810

p2
  46.063  5.012  41.051
9810

 p2 = 41.051  9810 N/m2

41.051 9810
 N/ cm2  40.27 N/cm2.
104

Example

Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom and
upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 N/cm2 and
the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 N/cm2. Determine the difference in datum head if
the rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s.

Solution:

Given:

157
Section 1, D1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m

p1 = 24.525 N/cm2 = 24.525  104 N/m2

Section 2, D2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m

p2 = 9.81 N/cm2 = 9.81  104 N/m2

Rate of flow = 40 lit/s.

40
or Q  0.04 m3 / s.
1000

Now A1V1 = A2V2 = rate of flow = 0.04

.04 .04 0.04

V1     0.5658 m / s.
A1  D 2  0.3 2
 
4 1 4
 0.566 m/s.
.04 .04 0.04
V2     1.274 m/s
A 2  D 2  .2 2
   
4 2 4

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at (1) and (2), we get

p1 v12 p v 2
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2g g 2g

9.81 104 1.274 

2
24.525  104 .566  .566
or   z1    z2
1000  9.81 2  9.81 1000  9.81 2  9.81

or 25 + .32 + z1 = 10 + 1.623 + z2

158
or 25.32 + z1 = 11.623+ z2

 z2 – z1 = 25.32 – 11.623 = 13.697 = 13.70 m

 Difference in datum head = z2 – z1 = 13.70 m.

Venturi-meter.

Venturimeter. A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts:

(i) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, and (iii) Diverging part. It is based on the
Principle of Bernoulli’s equation.

Expression for Rate of Flow through Venturimeter

Consider a venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing

(say water), as shown in figure.

Let d1 = diameter at inlet or at section (1),

p1 = pressure at section (1)

v1 = velocity of fluid at section (1),

 2
a = area at section (1) = d1
4

and d2, p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2).

159
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2), we get

p1 v12 p v 2
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2g g 2g

As pipe is horizontal, hence z1 = z2

p1 v12 p2 v 22 p  p2 v 22 v12
    or 1  
g 2g g 2g g 2g 2g

p1  p2
But is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h or
g
p1  p2
=h
g

p1  p2
Substituting this value of in the above equation, we get
g

v 22 v12
h  ...(1)
2g 2g

Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2

a2 v 2
a1v1  a2 v 2 or v1 
a1

Substituting this value of v1 in equation (1)

2
 a2 v 2 
 
v2 2
 a1  v 2  a 2  v 2 a 2  a 2 
h   2 1  22   2  1 2 2 
2g 2g 2g  a1  2g  a1 

a12
or v 22  2gh
a12  a22

160
 a12 a1
 v 2  2gh  2gh
a1  a2
2 2
a1  a22
2

 Discharge, Q = a2v2

a1 a1a2
 a2  2gh   2gh …(2)
a  a2
1
2 2
a12  a22

Equation (2) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called theoretical
discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.

a1a2
 Qact  Cd   2gh ....(3)
a12  a22

where Cd = Co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.

Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer

Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the liquid
flowing through the pipe. Let

Sh = sp. Gravity of the heavier liquid

So = sp. Gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe

x = difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube

S 
Then h  x  h  1 …(4)
 So 

Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe, the value of h is given by

161
  S 
h  x 1  h  ….(5)
 So 

where S1 = sp. gr. Of lighter liquid in U-tube

So = sp. Gr. Of fluid flowing through pipe

x = difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.

Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer.

The above two cases are given for a horizontal venturimeter. This case is related to
included venturimeter having differential U-tube manometer. Let the differential
manometer contains heavier liquid then h is given as

p  p  S 
h   1  z1    2  z2   x  h  1 ….(6)
 g   g   So 

Case IV

Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains a

liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given as

p  p   S 
h   1  z1    2  z2   x 1  l  …. (7)
 g   g   So 

Example

A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm respectively is

used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to
the inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.

162
Solution

Dia. at inlet, d1 = 30 cm

 2 
d1   30   706.85 cm2
2
 Area at inlet, a1 
4 4

Dia, at throat, d2 = 15 cm


 a2   152  176.7 cm2
4

Cd = 0.98

Reading of differential manometer = x = 20 cm of mercury.

 Difference of pressure head is given by

S 
or h  x  h  1
 So 

where Sh = sp. gravity of mercury = 13.6, So = sp. gravity of water = 1

13.6 
 20   1  20  12.6 cm  252.0 cm of water
 1 

The discharge through venturimeter is given by

a1a2
Q  Cd  2gh
a12  a22
706.85  176.7
= 0.98   2  981 252
 706.85   176.7 
2 2

163
 86067593.36 86067593.36
 
499636.9  31222.9 684.4
125756
 125756 cm3 / s  lit / s  125.756 lit / s.
1000

Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate

It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a
cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle as that of
venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called
orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times
the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe diameter.

A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of

about 1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at section
(2), which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the down stream side
from the orifice plate.

Let p1 = pressure at section (1),

v1 = velocity at section (1),

a1 = area of pipe at section 1), and

p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoulli’s equation at
sections (1) and (2) we get

p1 v12 p v 2
  z1  2  2  z2
g 2g g 2g

164
  p1   p2  v 22 v12
  z1     z2   
or  g   g  2g 2g

 p1   p2 
  z1     z2   h  Differential head
But  g   g 

v 22 v12
h  or 2gh = v 22  v12
 2g 2g

v 2  2gh  v12
or …..(i)

Now section (2) is at the vena contracts and a2 represents the area at the vena
contracts. If a0 is the area of orifice then, we have

a2
Cc 
ao

where Cc = Co-efficient of contraction

a2  ao  Cc
 ….(ii)

By continuity equation, we have

a2 aC
a1v1  a2 v 2 or v1  v2  0 c v2
a1 a1 ….(iii)

Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get

165
 a0 2Cc 2 v 22
v 2  2gh 
a12

 a0  2 2   a 2 
v2 2
 2gh    Cc v 2 or v 2  1   0  Cc 2   2hg
2

 a1    a1  
or

2gh
v2 
2
a 
1   0  Cc 2
  a1 

The discharge
Q  v 2  a2  v 2  a0Cc  a 2  a0Cc from (ii)

a0Cc 2gh
 ....(iv)
2
a 
1   0  Cc 2
 a1 

The above expression is simplified by using

2
a 
1  0 
 a1 
Cd  Cc
2
a 
1   0  Cc 2
 a1 

2
a 
1   0  Cc 2
 a1 
Cc  Cd
2
a 
1  0 
  a1 

Substituting this value of Cc in equation (iv), we get

166
 2
a 
1   0  Cc 2
 a1  2gh
Q  a0  Cd 
a 
2
a 
1  0  1   0  Cc 2
 a1   a1 

Cda0 2gh Cda0a1 2gh

=  ....(1)
a 
2
a12  a0 2
1  0 
 a1 

where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a
venturimeter.

Example

An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm diameter. The

pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential manometer on the two sides of
the orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil of sp. gr.
0.9 when the co-efficient of discharge of the meter = 0.64.

Sol. Given:

Dia. Of orifice, d0 = 15 cm


15   176.7 cm2
2
ao 
 Area, 4 a

Dia. of pipe, d1 = 30 cm


 30   706.85 cm2
2
a1 
 Area, 4

167
Sp. gr. of oil S0 = 0.9

Reading of Differential manometer, x = 50 cm of mercury

 Sg  13.6 
h  x   1  50   1 cm of oil
 Differential head,  So   0.9 

 50  14.11  705.5 cm of oil

Cd = 0.64

 The rate of the flow, Q is given equation

a0a1
Q  Cd .  2gh
a12  a0 2

176.7  706.85
= 0.64   2  981  705.5
 706.85   176.7 
2 2

94046317.78
=  137414.25 cm3 / s  137.414 Litres/s.
684.4

7. Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe

For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution across a
section, the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress distribution
and drop of pressure for a given length is to be determined. The flow through the circular
pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the Reynolds number (Re*) is less than 2000. The
expression for Reynold number is given by

168
 VD
Re 


where  = Density of fluid flowing through pipe

V = Average velocity of fluid

D = Diameter of pipe and

 = Viscosity of fluid.

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing from left to right
in the pipe. Consider a fluid element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid element of
radius (r + dr). Let the length of fluid element be x. If ‘p’ is the intensity of pressure on the
 p 
 p  x x 
face AB, then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be   . Then the forces
acting on the fluid element are:

1. The pressure force, p  r2 on face AB.

 p  2
 p  x x  r
2. The pressure force,   on face CD.
3. The shear force,   2rx on the surface of fluid element. As there is no
acceleration, hence the summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be
zero i.e.

 p  2
pr 2   p  x r    2r  x  0
 x 

p
 xr 2    2r  x  0
or x

p
 .r  2  0
or x

p r
 ....(1)
x 2

169
 p
The shear stress  across a section varies with ‘r’ as x across a section is constant.
Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear.

(i) Velocity Distribution. To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the value of
du
 y
shear stress dy is substituted in equation (1).

du
y
But in the relation  =  dy , is measured from the pipe wall. Hence

y = R – r and dy = -dr

du du
  
 dr dr

Substituting this value in (1), we get

du p r du 1 p
  or  r
dr x 2 dr 2 x

Integrating this above equation w.r.t., ‘r’, we get

1 p 2
u r C
4 x ….(2)

where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary
condition that at r = R, u = O.

170
 1 p 2
O R C
4 x

1 p 2
C R
4 x

Substituting this value of C in equation (2), we get

1 p 2 1 p 2
u r  R
4 x 4 x
1 p 2 2
=- R  r  ....(3)
4 x 

p
In equation (3), values of , x and R are constant, which means the velocity, u
varies with the square of r. Thus equation (3) is a equation of parabola. This shows that the
velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity distribution is
shown in figure (b).

(ii) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity

The velocity is maximum, when r = 0 in equation (3). Thus maximum velocity, Umax is
obtained as

1 p 2
Umax   R
4 x ….(4)

The average velocity, u , is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid across the
section by the area of the pipe (R2). The discharge (Q) across the section is obtained by
considering the flow through a circular ring element of radius r and thickness dr as shown
in figure (b). The fluid flowing per second through this elementary ring

171
 dQ = velocity at a radius r  area of ring element

= u  2r dr

1 p 2 2
 R  r   2r dr
4 x 

1 p 2 2
R  r   2r dr
R R
Q   dQ   
0 0 4 x

1  p 
 
R
    2 R2  r 2 rdr
4  x  0

1  p 
 
R
    2 R2r  r 3 dr
4  x  0

R
1  p   R2r 2 r 4  1  p  R4 R4 
           
4  x   x 
2 2
 2 4 0 4    2 4 

1  p  R4   p  4
    2  
4 8  x 
R
4  x 

  p  4
8  x 
R
Q
u 
Average velocity, Area R2

  p  2
u
8  x 
R ...(5)
or

Dividing equation (4) by equation (5),

1 p 2
R
Umax 4 x
  2.0
u 1  p  2

8  x 
R

172
 Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity = 2.0.

(iii) Drop of pressure for a given Length (L) of a pipe

From equation (5), we have

1  p  2  -p  8u

u  2
8  x 
R or 
 x  R

Integrating the above equation w.r.t. x, we get

1 18u
  dp   dx
2 2 R2

8u 8u
 - p1  p2   2  1
x  x 2  or p1  p2   2  x 2  x1 
R R

8u
 L  x 2  x1  L from figure
R2
8uL  D
  R= 
D / 2   2
2

32uL
p1  p2   , where p1  p2 is the drop of pressure.
or D2

p1  p2

Loss of pressure head g

p1  p2 32uL
 hf  ....(6)
g gD2

Equation (6) is called Hagen Poiseuille Formula.

173
Example

A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a horizontal
circular pipe of diameter 100 mm and of length 10 m. Calculate the difference of pressure
at the two ends of the pipe, if 100 kg of the oil is collected in a tank in 30 seconds.

0.97
  0.97 poise =  0.097 Ns/m2
Sol. Given: 10

Relative Density = 0.9

= 0.9  1000  900kg/ m

3
0, or Density

Dia. Of pipe, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m

L = 10 m

Mass of oil collected, M = 100 kg

in time, t = 30 seconds

Calculate difference of pressure or (p1 – p2).

The difference of pressure (p1 – p2) for viscous or laminar flow is given by

32uL Q
p1  p2  where u  averagevelocity 
D2 Area

100
 kg / s
Now, mass of oil/sec 30

 0  Q  900  Q  0  900 

100
 900  Q
30

100 1
Q   0.0037 m3 / s.
30 900

174
 Q .0037 .0037
u    0.471 m/s.
 2 
Area
.1
2
D
4 4

For laminar or viscous flow, the Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000. Let us
calculate the Reynolds number for this problem.

VD
Re  
Reynolds number, 

where   0  900, V = u  0.471, D  0.1 m, = 0.097

.471 0.1
Re  900   436.91
0.097

As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

32uL 32  0.097  .471 10

p1  p2   N/ m2
.1
2
D2


= 1462.28 N/m2 = 1462.28  10-4 N/cm2 = 0.1462 N/cm2.

Example

A fluid of viscosity 0.7 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 1.3 is flowing through a circular pipe of
diameter 100 mm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe wall is given as 196.2 N/m2, find
(a) the pressure gradient (b) the average velocity and (c) Reynold number of the flow.

Ns
  0.7
Sol. Given: m2

Sp. gr. = 1.3

= 1.3  1000  1300 kg/m

3
Density

Dia. Of pipe, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m

Shear stress, 0 = 196.2 N/m2

175
Find

dp
(i) Pressure gradient, dx
(ii) Average velocity, u
(iii) Reynold number, Re

dp
(i) Pressure gradient, dx

The maximum shear stress (0) is given by

p R p D p 0.1
0   or 196.2 = -    
x 2 x 4 x 4

p 196.2  4
  7848 N/m2 per m
x 0.1

Pressure Gradient = -7848N/m2 per m.

(ii) Average velocity, u

1 1  1 p 2   1 p 2 
u  Umax    R  Umax   R 
2 2  4 x   8 x 

1  p  2
 
8  x 
R

1  D 1 
  7848   .05 
2
  R=   .05 
8  0.7  2 2 
 3.50 m/s.

(iii) Reynold number, Re

176
 uD uD uD
Re   
v / 
3.50  0.1
= 1300   650.00.
0.7

Example

Calculate: (a) the pressure gradient along flow, (b) the average velocity, and (c) the
discharge for an oil of viscosity 0.02 Ns/m2 flowing between two stationary parallel plates
1 m wide maintained 10 mm apart. The velocity midway between the plates is 2 m/s.

Sol. Given:

Viscosity,   .02 Ns/m2

Width, b=1m

Distance between plates, t = 10 mm = .01 m

Velocity midway between the plates, Umax = 2 m/s.

 dp 
 
(i) Pressure gradient  dx 

1 dp 2 1  dp 
.01
2
Umax   t or 2.0 = -  
8 dx 8  .02  dx 

dp 2.0  8  .02
  3200 N/m2 per m.
dx .01 .01

177
(ii) Average velocity ( u )

Umax 3

Using equation u 2

2 Umax 2  2
u   1.33 m/s.
 3 3

= Area of flow  u  b  t  u  1 .01 1.33  .0133 m / s.

3
(iii) Discharge (Q)

Derive Darcy-Weisbach equation.

Expression for loss of head due to Friction in pipes

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe, having steady flow as shown in figure. Let 1-1
and 2-2 are two sections of pipe.

Let p1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1,

V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1,

L = length of the pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2

d = diameter of pipe,

f’ = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity,

hf = loss of head due to friction

and p2, V2 = are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equations between sections 1-1 and 2-2,

178
 Total head at 1-1 = Total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1 and
2-2

p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hf
or g 2g g 2g

But z1 = z2 pipe is horizontal

V1 = V2 as dia. Of pipe is same at 1-1 and 2-2

p1 p2 p1 p2
  hf or hf   ....(i)
 g g g g

But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be
reduced in the direction of flow by frictional resistance.

Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit
velocity  wetted area  velocity2

or F1 = f’  dL  V2 [ wetted area = d  L velocity = V = V1 = V2]

= f’  P  L  V2 [ d = Perimeter = P] ….(ii)

The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are:

1. Pressure force at section 1-1 = p1  A

where A = Area of pipe

2. Pressure force at section 2-2 = p2  A

3. Frictional force F1 as shown in figure.
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have

179
 p1A – p2A – F1 = 0 …(1)

or p1  p2  A  F1  f ' P  L  V 2 [ From (ii), F1  f 'PLV 2 ]

f ' P  L  V 2
p1  p2 
or A

But from equation (i), p1 – p2 = ghf

Equation the value of (p1 – p2), we get

f ' P  L  V 2
ghf 
A

f' P
hf    L  V2 ...(iii)
or g A

P Wetted perimeter d 4
  
A Area  2 d
d
In equation (iii), 4

f' 4 f ' 4LV 2

hf    L  V2   ...(iv)
 g d g d

f' f
 ,
Putting g 2 where f is known as co-efficient of friction.

4.f LV 2 4f. L. V 2
hf  .  ...(2)
Equation (iv), becomes as 2g d d  2g

Equation (2) is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation. This equation is commonly used for
finding loss of head due to friction in pipes.

Sometimes equation (2) is written as

f. L. V 2
hf 
d  2g ….(2A)

180
 Then f is known as friction factor.

Example

Find the diameter of a pipe of length 2000 m when the rate of flow of water through the
pipe is 200 litres/s and the head lost due to friction is 4 m. Take the value of C = 50 in
Chezy’s formulae.

Sol. Given:

Length of pipe, L = 2000 m

Discharge, Q = 200 litre/s = 0.2 m3/s

Head lost due to friction hf = 4 m

Value of Chezy’s constant, C = 50

Let the diameter of pipe =d

Discharge Q 0.2 0.2  4

  
Area  2  2 d2
d d
Velocity of flow, V= 4 4

d
Hydraulic mean depth, m= 4

hf 4
i   .002
Loss of head per unit length, L 2000

Chezy’s formula is given by equation as V = C mi

Substituting the values of V, m, I and C, we get

181
 0.2  4 d d 0.2  4 .00509
 50  .002 or  .002  2 
d 2
4 4 d  50 d2

Squaring both sides,

d .005092 .0000259 4  .0000259

 .002  4
 4
or d5   0.0518
4 d d .002

d  5 0.0518  .0518 
1/ 5
 0.553 m  553 mm.

Example

An oil of sp.gr. 0.7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 500 litres/s.
Find the head lost due to friction and power required to maintain the flow for a length of
1000 m. Take v = .29 stokes.

Sol. Given :

Sp.gr. of oil, S = 0.7

Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.3 m

Discharge, Q = 500 litres/s = 0.5 m3/s.

Length of pipe, L = 1000 m

Q 0.5 0.5  4
V    7.073 m/s
Area  2   0.3 2
d
Velocity, 4

182
 V  d 7.073  0.3
 7.316  10 
4
Re   4
Reynolds number, v 0.29  10

.079 0.79
f   .0048
7.316  10 
1 1
4 4 4
Re
Co-efficient of friction,

Head lost due to friction,

4  f  L  V 2 4  .0048  1000  7.0732

hf    163.18 m
d  2g 0.3  2  9.81

g.Qhf
 kW
Power required 1000

where  = density of oil = 0.7  1000  700 kg/m

3

700  9.81 0.5  163.18

  560.28 kW.
Power required 1000

1. Explain the main parts of a single stage centrifugal pump with sketches.

Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump:

The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:

Impeller

183
Casing

Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer.

Delivery pipe.

Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called ‘impeller’. It consists of a series
of backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the
shaft of an electric motor.

Casing: The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction turbine. It is a
air-tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such a way that the kinetic
energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted into pressure
energy before water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe.

Suction Pipe with a Foot-Valve and a Strainer:

A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump and other end dips into water
in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which is a non-return valve or one-way
type of valve is fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The foot valve opens in the
upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe.

Delivery pipe: A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end
delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.

Main Parts of a centrifugal pump:

2. What are the different types of casings commonly used for centrifugal pumps?

The following three types of the castings are commonly adopted:

Volute casing as shown in figure. (Previous Q & A)

184
Vortex casing as shown in figure

Casing with guide blades as shown in figure.

(a) Volute Casing:

Figure above shows the volute casing which surrounds the impeller. It is of spiral
type in which area of flow increases gradually. The increase in area of flow decreases the
velocity of flow. The decrease in velocity increases the pressure of the water flowing
through the casing. It has been observed that in case of volute casing, the efficiency of the
pump increases slightly as a large amount of energy is lost to the formation of eddies in
this type of casing.

Different types of Casing

(b) Vortex Casing:

If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller as shown in
figure. The casing is known as Vortex Casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss
of energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced to a considerable extent. Thus the
efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute casing is provided.

(c) Casing with Guide Blades:

This casing is shown in figure in which the impeller is surrounded by a series of

guide blades mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. The guide varies are designed
in such a way that the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without stock. Also
the area of the guide vanes increases, thus reducing the velocity of flow through guide
vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of water. The water from the guide vanes
then passes through the surrounding casing which is in most of the cases concentric with
the impeller.

185
3. Define the terms:

Suction head, Delivery head, Static head, Manometric head?

Suction Head (hs): It is the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump above
the water surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be lifted. This height is also
called lift and is denoted by ‘hs’.

Delivery Head (hd): The vertical distance between the centre line of the pump and the
water surface in the tank to which water is delivered is known as delivery head. This is
denoted by ‘hd’.

Static Head (Hs): The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head. This is
represented by ‘Hs’ and is written as

Hs = hs + hd

Manometric head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head against which a
centrifugal pump has to work. It id denoted by ‘Hm’. It is given by the following
expressions:

(a) Hm = head imparted by the impeller to the water – loss of head in the pump

Vw1u2

g - Loss of head in impeller and casing

Vw1u2

g - if loss of pump is zero

(b) Hm = Total head at outlet of the pump – Total head at the inlet of the pump

p V2   P V2 
  0  0  Z0    i  i  Zi 
 w 2g   w 2g 

186
 Po
Where w = Pressure head at outlet of the pump = hd

Vo2
2g = Velocity head at outlet of the pump

Vd2
= Velocity head is delivery pipe = 2g

Zo = Vertical height of the outlet of the pump from datum line and

Pi Vi2
, ,Zi
w 2g = Corresponding values of pressure head, velocity head and datum head at the
inlet of the pump.

Vs2
i.e. hs, 2g and Zs respectively.

Vd2
(c) Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd + 2g

Where hs = Suction head

hd = Delivery head

hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe

hfd = Frictional head loss in delivery pipe and

Vd = Velocity of water in delivery pipe.

4. What are the important functions of multistage pumps?

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps:

187
 If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a
multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on
different shafts. A multistage pump is having the following two important functions:

To produce a high head, and

To discharge a large quantity of liquid.

If a high head is to be developed, the impellers are connected in series (or on the same
shaft) while for discharging large quantity of liquid, the impellers (or pumps) are
connected in parallel.

5. Define specific speed of a centrifugal pump. Derive an expression for the same.

Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (Ns): The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is
defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump which would deliver one cubic meter
of liquid per second against a head of one meter. It is denoted by ‘Ns’.

Expression for specific speed for a pump: The discharge, Q, for a centrifugal pump is given
by the relation

Q = Area x Velocity of flow

=  D x B x Vf

Or Q  D x B x Vf ------ (i)

Where D = Diameter of the impeller of the pump, and

188
 B = Width of the impeller

We know that B  D

From equation (i), we have

Q  D2 x Vf ----- (ii)

We also know that tangential velocity is given by

DN
u DN
60 ------- (iii)

Now the tangential velocity (u) and velocity of flow (Vf) are related to the manometer
Hm
head (Hm) as u  Vf  ------- (iv)

Substituting the value of u in equation (iii), we get

Hm
 DN

Hm
or D N

Substituting the valve of D in equation (ii)

Hm
2
 Vf
QN

Hm
2
 Hm Hm
N (Since From equation (iv) Vf  )

Hm3 / 2
2
 N

189
 Hm3 / 2
2
Q=K N (v)

Where K is a constant of proportionality

If Hm = 1 m and Q = 1 m3/sec. N becomes = Ns

Substituting these values in equation (v) we get

3
12 K
1 k 2  2
Ns Ns

K = Ns2

Substituting the value of K in equation (v), we get

Hm3 / 2
Q  N2s
N2
N2Q
N2s  3
Hm2
N Q
Ns  3
Hm4

6. What is priming? Why is it necessary?

Priming of a Centrifugal Pump:

Priming of a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the suction pipe, casing
of the pump and a portion of the delivery pipe upto the delivery valve is completely filled
up from outside source with the liquid to be raised by the pump before starting the pump.
Thus the air from these parts of the pump is removed and these parts are filled with the
liquid to be pumped.

190
 The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the
head generated by the pump. The head generated by the pump Vw2 u2 /g metre. This
equation is independent of the density of the liquid. This means that when pump is
running in air, the head generated is in terms of metre of air. But as the density of air is
very low, the generated head of air in terms of equivalent metre of water head is
negligible and hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid this difficulty,
priming is necessary.

7. Define cavitation. What are the effects of cavitation? Give the necessary precautions
against cavitation?

Cavitation: Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a

flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour pressure
and the sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When
the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic surface, above
which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action
on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and also considerable
noise and vibrations are produced.

Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing
of the vapour bubbles. Formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid take place only
whenever the pressure in any region falls below vapour pressure. When the pressure of
the flowing liquid is less than its vapour pressure, the liquid starts boiling and vapour
bubbles are formed. These vapour bubbles are carried along with the flowing liquid to
higher pressure zones where these vapours condense and bubbles collapse. Due to sudden
collapsing of the bubbles on the metallic surface, high pressure is produced and metallic
surfaces are subjected to high local stresses. Thus the surfaces are damaged.

Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against

cavitation:

The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should not be
allowed to fall below its vapour pressure. If the flowing liquid is water, then the absolute
pressure head should not be below 2.5 m of water.

191
The special materials of coatings such as aluminium-bronze and stainless steel, which are
cavitation resistant materials, should be used.

Effects of Cavitation: The followings are the effects of cavitations:

The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.

Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable noise and vibrations are produced.

The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action the surface of
the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by water on the turbine blades
decreases. Hence the work done by water or output horse power becomes less and thus
efficiency decreases.

8. What are the different efficiencies of a centrifugal pump?

Efficiencies of a centrifugal pump: In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted

from the shaft of the electric motor to the shaft of the pump and then to the impeller.
From the impeller, the power is given to the water. Thus power is decreasing from the
shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the water. The followings are the important
efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:

a. Manometric efficiency, mano

b. Mechanical efficiency, m and

c. Overall efficiency, o.

Manometric Efficiency (mano): The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted
by the impeller to the water is known as manometric efficiency. Mathematically, it is
written as

192
 Manometric head
man 
head imparted by impeller to water
Hm gHm
             (1)
 Vw 2 u2  Vw 2 u2
 
 g 

Mechanical Efficiency (m): The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is more than
the power available at the impeller of the pump. The ratio of the power available at the
impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is known as mechanical
efficiency. It is written as

Power at the impeller

m 
Power at the shaft

The power at the impeller

Work done by impeller per second

 kw
1000

W Vw 2 u2
  kw
g 1000
W  v w 2u2 
g  1000 
m  ---- (2)
S.P

Where W=weight of water lifted and S.P = shaft Power.

Overall Efficiency (o): It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power
input to the pump. The power output of the pump.

193
 Weight of water lifted  Hm
 kw
1000
WHm

1000

Power input to the pump

= Power supplied by the electric motor

= S.P of the pump

 WHm 
 1000 
o    -------- (3)
S.P

Also o = mano x m ----------- (4)

9. What are the main characteristics and operating characteristic curves of a centrifugal
pump?

Main Characteristic curves of a pump

Main Characteristics Curves: The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consists
of variation of head (manometric head, Hm), power and discharge with respect to speed.
For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is kept constant. For
plotting curves of discharges versus speed, manometric head (Hm) is kept constant. And
for plotting curves of power versus speed, the manometric head and discharge are kept
constant Figure shows main characteristics curves of a pump.

Operating Characteristics Curves of a pump

194
Operating Characteristic Curves: If the speed is kept constant, the variation of manometric
head, power and efficiency with respect to discharge gives the operating characteristic
curves of a pump.

10. What are the main parts of a reciprocating pump?

The main parts of a reciprocating pump are:

A cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank.

Suction pipe

Delivery pipe

Suction valve and

Delivery valve

11. Define ‘Slip’ of a reciprocating pump.

Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical

discharge and actual discharge of the pump.

Slip = Qthe - Qact.

The actual discharge of a pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to friction
and leakage in the pipe.

12. What is the main difference between single acting and double acting reciprocating
pump?

195
 In a single acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on one side of the piston only.
In a double acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on both sides of the piston.

13. Define negative slip of the reciprocating pump.

If the actual discharge is greater than the theoretical discharge, then the slip of the
pump is called as negative slip.

Negative slip occurs when the delivery pipe is short and suction pipe is long and the
pump is running at high speed.

14. What are the uses of air vessels fitted in a reciprocating pump?

Air vessels are used in a reciprocating pump to obtain a continuous supply of water
at uniform rate, to save a considerable amount of work and to run the pump at a high
speed without separation.

15. Compare the reciprocating pump with the centrifugal pump.

Reciprocating Pump Centrifugal Pump

Suitable for large discharge and smaller

1. Suitable for small discharge and high heads.
heads.

2. The discharge is fluctuating and pulsating. The discharge is continuous and smooth.

It can be used for lifting highly viscous

3. It is used for lifting less viscous liquids.
liquids.

4. The reciprocating pump runs at low speed. The centrifugal pump runs at high speed.

5. The efficiency is low. The efficiency is high.

196
6. It requires larger floor area for installation. It needs smaller floor area for installation.

7. The initial and maintenance costs are high. The initial and maintenance are low.

8. Air vessels are required. Air vessels are not required.

Priming is needed if it is not a self-priming

9. No need of priming.
type.

197
Example

A centrifugal pump delivers 1.27 m3 of water per minute at 1200 r.p.m. The impeller
diameter is 350 mm and breadth at outlet 12.7 mm. The pressure difference between
inlet and outlet of pump casing is 272 kN/m2. Assuming manometric efficiency as 63%,
calculate exit blade angle.

Solution:

Given: Q =1.27 m3/min; N=1200 rpm; D2 =350 mm =0.35 m,

B2 =12.7 mm = 0.0127 m;mano = 63% = 0.63

Pressure difference between outlet and inlet of pump casin, (Pd = Ps) = 272 kN/m2.

1.27
Q  0.021 m3 / s
Discharge, 60

Manometric head,

Pd  Ps
Hm 
.g
272  103
=
1000  9.81
=27.73 m

Blade velocity at outlet,

D2N   0.35  1200

u2    21.99 m / s
60 60

198
Discharge,

Q  D2B2 .Vf 2
0.021    0.35  0.0127  Vf 2  Vf2 =1.52 m/s

g.Hm
mano 
Vw 2 .u2

g  Hm 9.81 27.73
 Vw 2    19.64 m / s
mano  u2 0.63  21.99

From outlet velocity diagram shown in Fig.

Vf2 1.52
tan=   06468
u2  Vw 2 21.99  19.64

 Exi t angle of impeller blade,

Example

The internal and external diameter of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 20 cm and 40
cm respectively. The speed of the pump is 1400 rpm. Assuming a constant velocity of flow
of 5 m/s throughout, radial entry to impeller vanes and the exit vane angle of 300. Find:

i) Inlet vane angle.

ii) Work done by impeller per N Weight of water.

Solution:

Given : D1=20 cm = 0.2 m; D2=40 cm = 0.4 m; N = 1400 rpm, Vf1 = Vf2 = 5 m/s;

Radial entry i.e,  =900, VW1=0,=300.

199
 D1N
1 
Vane velocity at inlet, 60

  0.2  1400

60
=14.66 m/s

D2N
u2 
Vane velocity at outlet, 60

  0.4  1400
=
60
=29.32 m/s

i) Inlet vane angle, :

From inlet velocity triangle,

Vf1 5
tan =   0.341  =18.83o
u1 14.66

ii) Workdone/N weight of water, W:

From outlet velocity diagram,

5
VW2  u2  (Vf 2 / tan )  29.32   20.66 m/s
tan30o
Vw2 .u2 20.66  29.32
W=   61.75Nm / N
g 9.81

200
Example

The external and internal diameter of the impeller of centrifugal pump are 0.6 m and 0.3 m
respectively and the width of impeller at outlet is 60 mm. The speed of the pump is 1440
rpm and it is required to work against the head of 105 m. The velocity of flow through the
impeller is maintained at 4 m/s. The exit vane angle is 350. Determine the vane angle at
inlet, workdone by impeller on water per second and the manometric efficiency of the
pump.

Solution: Refer the velocity diagram shown in Fig.

Given: D2 = 0.6 m, D1=0.3 m, B2=60 mm =0.06 m:

N=1440 rpm, Hm=105 m:

Vf1=Vf2 = 4 m/s; =350.

i) Inlet vane angle. :

Vane velocity at inlet,

D1N   0.6  1440

u1  
60 60
= 22.62 m/s
Vf1 4
tan =   0.1768
u1 22.62
=10.03o

ii) Work done by impeller per second, W:

Discharge, Q  D2B2 .Vf 2

  0.6  0.06  4  0.452m3 / s

D2N   0.6  1440

u2    45.24 m/s
Vane velocity at exit, 60 60

201
From outlet velocity diagram,

Vf 2 4
Vw2  u2   45.24   39.53 m/s
tan  tan350

workdone by impeller on waters,

W  QVw2  u2  103  0.452  39.53  45.24

= 808.33  103 W = 808.33 kW

iii) Monometric efficiency of the pump, mano:

gHm 9.81 105

mano    0.576 or 57.6%
Vw2  u2 39.53  45.24

Example

A three stage centrifugal pump has impellers 40 cm diameter and 2 cm wide at outlet. The
varies are curved back at 450 and reduce the circumferential area by 10%. It’s manometric
efficiency is 90% and overall efficiency is 80%.

Determine, the head generated by the pump when running at 1000 r.p.m. delivering 50
litre per second. What should be the shaft power in kW.

Solution:

Given:

202
 Number of stages, n1=3; D2=40 cm=0.4 m, B2 = 2cm = 0.02 m;  = 450,

Reduction in circumferential area = 10% = 0.1, therefore, Kb = (1-0.1)=0.9;

mano = 90% = 0.9, 0=80%=0.8; N=1000 rpm;

50
 0.05 m3 / s
Q=50 litre/s= 1000

(i) Total head generated, H:

Velocity of flow,

Q 0.05
Vf 2    2.21m
 D2B2 K b   0.4  0.02  0.9 s

Blade velocity at outlet,

 D2N   0.4  1000

u2    20.94 m
60 60 s

From outlet velocity diagram shown in Figure.

Vf 2 2.21
Vw 2  u2   20.94 
tan tan 45o

= 18.73 m/s

g Hm
mano 
Vw 2 u2
9.81 Hm
i .e. 0.9=
18.73  20.94

203
Hm = 35.98 m/stage

Since the pump is multistage pump in series,

Therefore,

Total head generated, H=Number of stages x H/ stage

= 3 x 35.98 = 107.94 m

(ii) Shaft power, Ps :

gQH
o 
Overall efficiency, Ps

 g Q H 1000  9.81 0.05  107.94


 Ps = 0 0.8

= 66.18 x 10-3 W = 66.18 kW

204
Example

A centrifugal pump has to deliver 13.5 m3/min of water against a head of 30 m. The speed
of the pump is 1500 rpm. Manometric efficiency of the pump is 80%. The breadth of
impeller is 0.4 times the impeller diameter at outlet. The friction head loss in pump is 0.03
times the square of absolute velocity of water at outlet. Find:

(i) Impeller diameter (ii) Exit angle of vane.

Solution:-

13.5
Given: Q = 13.5 m3/min = 60 = 0.225 m3/s; Hm = 30 m; N = 1500 rpm;

mano = 80% = 0.8; B2 = 0.4 D2; hf = 0.03 x V22

(i) Impeller diameter, D2 :

Manometric efficiency is given by the equation,

g Hm g  30
mano  ; or 0.8=
Vw 2 u2 Vw2 .u2
Vw 2 .u2 30
   37.5 m
g 0.8

(It represents the head required to be developed by the pump).

 Friction losses in the pump,

205
 Vw 2 u2
hf 
g -Hm = 37.5 – 30 = 7.5 m

But, hf = 7.5 m = 0.03 V22  V2 = 15.81 m/s

Q Q
Vf 2  
Velocity of flow at outlet, A  D2B2

0.225
Vf 2   0.179 / D22m / s
  D2  0.4D2

Blade velocity at outlet,

 D2N   D2  1500
u2    78.54D2m / s.
60 60

Substituting the value of u2 in Equation (i) above, we get,

Vw 2  78.54D2
 37.5
9.81
4.684
Vw 2 
D2

From the outlet velocity diagram shown in figure.

V22  V22  Vf 22
2
 4.684   0.179 
2

15.81  
2
  
 D   D2 
2 2  249.96=
21.94 0.032
D22

D24

 249.96 D24 – 21.94 D22 – 0.032 = 0

On solving, D2 = 0.2963 m or 29.63 cm

(ii) Exit angle of vane, 

206
 0.179 0.179
2
 2
 2.039 m/s
V12= D 2 (0.2963)

4.684 4.684
Vw 2    15.808 m/s
D2 0.2963

u2  78.54D2  7.54  0.2963  23.271 m/s

Vf 2 2.039
tan     0.273.
u2  Vw 2 (23.271  15.808)

  15.28 Ans

Example

A centrifugal pump while running 1000 rpm discharges 80 litres/sec. against a net head of
16m. The manometric efficiency of the pump is 85% . If the vane angle at the outlet is 35
and the velocity of flow is 1.5m/s, estimate the outer diameter the impeller and its width
at the outlet.

Solution:

Given N=1000rpm, q =80 litres/s =80 x 10-3=0.08m3/s; Hm=16 m;

mano=85=0.85;=35, Vf2=1.5 m/s

Outer diameter of impeller , D2:

From outlet velocity diagram shown in fig P.5.7

207
 Vf 2 1.5
u2  Vw 2    2.142m / s;
tan  tan35
Vw 2  u2  2.142

g.Hm
mano 
Vw 2 .u2

9.81 16
0.85 
(u2  2.142)u2

 u22  2.142u2  184.66  0

2.142  (2.142)2  4  184. 2.142  27.262

 u2  
2 2
=14.702 m/s or (12.56m/s, which is not possible)

 D2N 60u2 60  14.702

u2  ; D2  
60 N   1000
 D2  0.28208 m or 28.08 cm Ans

width of impeller at outplet , B2

Q   D2B2Vf 2 0.08=  0.808  B2  1.5

B2  0.0605 m or 6.05 cm

Example

A centrifugal pump delivers 0.1 m3/s of water through a pipe of 0.2m diameter of length
300m upto a height o 26m. Darc’s coefficient for pipe, f=0.02, inlet losses in suction pipe
are estimated to e 0.4m. Calculate the power required to drive the pump I its overall
efficiency is 73%

Solution;

208
Given:

Q  0.1m3 / s, dd  0.2m, Id  300m; Hs  26m; f  0.4hfs  0.4m;

0  73%  0.73
Q Q 4  0.1
Vs  Vd     3.183m / s
A  .d 2   0.22
4 d

Head equivalent to kinetic energy in piple

V 2d 3.1832
  0.52m
2g 2  9.81
fId .Vd2 0.02  300  (3.183)2
hfd    15.49m
dd  2g 0.2  2  9.81

Manometric head,

Vd2
Hlm  Hs  hfs  hfd   26  0.4  15.49  0.52  42.41m
2g
Power required to drive the pump , Ps :
p.g.Q.Hm
Ps   103 kW
0
1000  9.81 0.1 42.41
=  10 3  56.992kW
0.73

References

1) Hillier, J. and J. Hannah (1988). Applied Mechanics, ELBS.

2) Embleton, W., L. Jackson, et al. (1969). Reed's Applied Mechanics for Engineers, Reed.

209
C. Propulsive characteristics of diesel engines, steam and gas turbines,
including speed, output and fuel consumption

1.Engine Layout and Load Diagrams

Power functions and logarithmic scales

As is well-known, the effective brake power PB of a diesel engine is proportional to the

mean effective pressure (mep) Pe and engine speed (rate of revolution). When using c as a
constant,

PB may then be expressed as follows:

PB = c × pe × n

or, in other words, for constant mep the power is proportional to the speed:

PB = c × n1 (for constant mep)

As already mentioned – when running with a fixed pitch propeller – the power may,
according to the propeller law, be expressed as:

PB = c × n3 (propeller law)

Thus, for the above examples, the brake power PB may be expressed as a function of the
speed n to the power of i, i.e.

PB = c × ni

Figure shows the relationship between

the linear functions, y = ax + b, see (A),

using linear scales and the power functions

PB = c × ni , see (B), using logarithmic scales. The power functions will be linear when using
logarithmic scales, as:

210
log (PB) = i × log (n) + log (c)

which is equivalent to: y = ax + b

Figure 1

Thus, propeller curves will be parallel to lines having the inclination i = 3, and lines with
constant mep will be parallel to lines with the inclination i = 1. Therefore, in the layout and
load diagrams for diesel engines, as described in the following, logarithmic scales are used,
making simple diagrams with straight lines.

Propulsion and engine running points

211
Propeller design point PD

Normally, estimations of the necessary propeller power and speed are based on
theoretical calculations for loaded ship, and often experimental tank tests, both assuming
optimum operating conditions, i.e. a clean hull and good weather. The combination of
speed and power obtained may be called the ship’s propeller design point PD placed on
the light running propeller curve 6, see Figure 2.

Figure 2

212
On the other hand, some shipyards and/or propeller manufacturers sometimes use a
propeller design point PD' that incorporates all or part of the so called sea margin
described below.

Fouled hull

When the ship has been sailing for some time, the hull and propeller become fouled and
the hull’s resistance will increase. Consequently, the ship speed will be reduced unless the
engine delivers more power to the propeller, i.e. the propeller will be further loaded and
will become heavy running HR Furthermore, newer high-efficiency ship types have a
relatively high ship speed, and a very smooth hull and propeller surface (at sea trial) when
the ship is delivered. This means that the inevitable build-up of the surface roughness on
the hull and propeller during sea service after sea trial may result in a relatively heavier
running propeller, compared with older ships born with a more rough hull surface.

Heavy weather and sea margin used for layout of engine

If, at the same time, the weather is bad, with head winds, the ship’s resistance may
increase much more, and lead to even heavier running. When determining the necessary
engine power, it is normal practice to add an extra power margin, the so-called sea margin,
which is traditionally about 15% of the propeller design PD power. However, for large
container ships, 20- 30% may sometimes be used. When determining the necessary engine
speed, for layout of the engine, it is recommended – compared with the clean hull and
calm weather propeller curve 6 – to choose the heavier propeller curve 2, see Figure 2,
corresponding to curve 6 having a 3-7% higher rate of revolution than curve 2, and in
general with 5% as a good choice. Note that the chosen sea power margin does not
equalise the chosen heavy engine propeller curve.

Continuous service propulsion point SP.

The resulting speed and power combination – when including heavy propeller running and
sea margin – is called the “continuous service rating for propulsion” SP for fouled hull and
heavy weather. The heavy propeller curve, curve 2, for fouled hull and heavy weather will

213
normally be used as the basis for the engine operating curve in service, and the propeller
curve for clean hull and calm weather, curve 6, is said to represent a “light running” LR
propeller.

Continuous service rating S

The continuous service rating is the power at which the engine, including the sea margin, is
assumed to operate, and point S is identical to the service propulsion point SP unless a
main engine driven shaft generator is installed.

Light running factor fLR

The heavy propeller curve for a fouled hull and heavy weather, and if no shaft generator is
installed may, as mentioned above, be used as the design basis for the engine operating
curve in service, curve 2, whereas the light propeller curve for clean hull and calm
weather, curve 6, may be valid for running conditions with new ships, and equal to the
layout/design curve of the propeller. Therefore, the light propeller curve for clean hull and
calm weather is said to represent a “light running”

LR propeller and will be related to the heavy propeller curve for fouled hull and heavy
weather condition by means of a light running factor fLR, which, for the same power to the
propeller, is defined as the percentage increase of the rate of revolution n, compared to
the rate of revolution for heavy running, i.e

Engine margin

Besides the sea margin, a so-called “engine margin” of some 10-15% is frequently added as
an operational margin for the engine. The corresponding point is called the “specified MCR
for propulsion” MP, seeFigure 2, and refers to the fact that the power for point SP is 10-
15% lower than for point MP, i.e. equal to 90-85% of MP.

214
Specified MCR M The engine’s specified MCR (SMCR) point M is the maximum rating
required by the yard or owner for continuous operation of the engine. Point M is identical
to the specified propulsion MCR point MP unless a main engine driven shaft generator is
installed. In such a case, the extra power demand of the shaft generator must also be
considered.

Engine layout diagram

An engine’s layout diagram is limited by two constant mean effective pressure (mep) lines
L1-L3 and L2-L4, and by two constant engine speed lines L1-L2 and L3-L4, see Figure 2. The
L1 point refers to the engine’s nominal maximum continuous rating. Within the layout
area there is full freedom to select the engines specified MCR point M which is optimum
for the ship and the operating profile. Please note that the lowest specific fuel oil
consumption for a given SMCR point M will be obtained at 70% and 80% of point M’s
power, for electronically (ME) and mechanically (MC/ME-B) controlled engines,
respectively.

Based on the propulsion and engine running points, as previously found, the layout
diagram of a relevant main engine may be drawn-in. The specified MCR point M must be
inside the limitation lines of the layout diagram; if it is not, the propeller speed will have to
be changed or another main engine type must be chosen.

Standard engine load diagram

Definitions

The load diagram (Figure 3) defines the power and speed limits for continuous as well as
overload operation of an installed engine which has a specified MCR point M that
conforms to the ship’s specification. Normally, point M is equal to the MCR propulsion
point MP, but in cases where a shaft generator is installed, point M may incorporate the
engine power required for ship propulsion MP and for the shaft generator SG, if installed.

215
Figure 3

During shop test running, the engine will always operate along curve 1, with point M as
100% SMCR. If CP-propeller and constant speed operation is required, the delivery test
may be finished with a constant speed test.

Limits to continuous operation

The continuous service range is limited by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see Fig. 18

Line 3 and line 9

Line 3 represents the maximum acceptable speed for continuous operation, i.e. 105% of
M. During sea trial conditions the maximum speed may be extended to 107% of M, see

216
line 9. The above limits may, in general, be extended to 105% and, during sea trial
conditions, to 107% of the nominal L1 speed of the engine, provided the torsional
vibration conditions permit.

The overspeed set-point is 109% of the speed in M, however, it may be moved to 109% of
the nominal speed in L1, provided that torsional vibration conditions

permit. Running at low load above 100% of the nominal L1 speed of the engine is,
however, to be avoided for extended periods.

Line 4:

Represents the limit at which an ample air supply is available for combustion and imposes
a limitation on the maximum combination of torque and speed.

Line 5:

Represents the maximum mean effective pressure level (mep) which can be accepted for
continuous operation.

Line 7:

Represents the maximum power for continuous operation.

Line 10:

Represents the mean effective pressure (mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the 100% mep-line.
The mep-lines are also an expression of the corresponding fuel index of the engine. Limits
for overload operation The overload service range is limited as follows, see Figure 3

Line 8:

Represents the overload operation limitations. The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the
dashed line 8 in Fig. 18 is available for overload running for limited periods only (1 hour
per 12 hours). Electronic governor with load limitation In order to safeguard the diesel
engine against thermal and mechanical overload, the approved electronic governors
include the following two limiter functions:

„ Torque limiter

217
The purpose of the torque limiter is to ensure that the limitation lines of the load diagram
are always observed. The torque limiter algorithm compares the calculated fuel pump
index (fuel amount) and the actually measured engine speed with a ref

The torque limiter algorithm compares the calculated fuel pump index (fuel amount) and
the actually measured engine speed with a reference limiter curve giving the maximum

allowable fuel pump index at a given engine speed. If the calculated fuel pump index is
above this curve, the resulting fuel pump index will be reduced correspondingly. The
reference limiter curve is to be adjusted so that it corresponds to the limitation lines of the
load diagram.

„ Scavenge air pressure limiter

The purpose of the scavenge air pressure limiter is to ensure that the engine is not being
overfuelled during acceleration, as for example during manoeuvring. The scavenge air
pressure limiter algorithm compares the calculated fuel pump index and measured
scavenge air pressure with a reference limiter curve giving the maximum allowable fuel
pump index at a given scavenge air pressure. If the calculated fuel pump index is above
this curve, the resulting fuel pump index will be reduced correspondingly. The reference
limiter curve is to be adjusted to ensure that sufficient air will always be available for a
good combustion process.

Extended engine load diagram

When a ship with fixed pitch propeller is operating in normal sea service, it will

in general be operating around the design propeller curve 6, as shown on the standard
load diagram in Fig. 18. Sometimes, when operating in heavy weather, the fixed pitch
propeller performance will be more heavy running, i.e. for equal power absorption of the
propeller, the propeller speed will be lower and the propeller curve will move to the left.

As the two-stroke main engines are directly coupled to the propeller, the engine has to
follow the propeller performance, i.e. also in heavy running propeller situations. For this
type of operation, there is normally enough margin in the load area between line 6 and the
normal torque/speed limitation line 4, see Figure 3. To the left of line 4 in torque-rich

218
operation, the engine will lack air from the turbocharger to the combustion process, i.e.
the heat load limits may be exceeded and bearing loads might also become too high

For some special ships and operating conditions, it would be an advantage - when
occasionally needed - to be able to operate the propeller/main engine as much as possible
to the left of line 6, but inside the torque/speed limit, line 4. Such cases could be for: „
ships sailing in areas with very heavy weather ships operating in ice ships with two fixed
pitch propellers/ two main engines, where one propeller/one engine is declutched for one

or the other reason. Thus, measurements show an approximate 8-10% heavy running of
the remaining propeller in operation for a twin-skeg ship.

The increase of the operating speed range between line 6 and line 4 of the standard load
diagram may be carried out as shown in Fig. 19 for the extended load diagram for speed
derated engine with increased light running. The maximum speed limit (line 3) of the

engines is 105% of the SMCR speed, as shown in Figure 3. However, for speed and,
thereby, power derated engines it is possible to extend the maximum speed limit to 105%
of the engine’s nominal L1 speed, line 3’, but only provided that the torsional vibration
conditions permit this. Thus, the shafting, with regard to torsional vibrations, has to be
approved by the classification society in question, based on the extended maximum speed
limit.

219
Figure 4

When choosing an increased light running to be used for the design of the propeller, the
load diagram area may be extended from line 3 to line 3’, as shown in Figure 4, and the
propeller/ main engine operating curve 6 may have a correspondingly increased heavy
running margin before exceeding the torque/speed limit, line 4.

A corresponding slight reduction of the propeller efficiency may be the result, due to the
higher propeller design speed used.

Use of layout and load diagrams –examples with FP-propeller

In the following, four different examples based on fixed pitch propeller (FPP) are

given in order to illustrate the flexibility of the layout and load diagrams.

Example 1:

220
Normal running conditions, without shaft generator

Once point M = MP has been found in the layout diagram, the load diagram can be drawn,
as shown in Figure 5, and hence the actual load limitation lines of the diesel engine may be
found.

Figure 5

Example 2: Normal case, with shaft generator (PTO)

In this example a shaft generator (SG) used as power take out (PTO) is installed, and
therefore the service power of the engine also has to incorporate the extra shaft power
required for the shaft generator’s electrical power production.

In Figure 6 a, the engine service curve shown for heavy running incorporates

this extra power. The SMCR point M, and thereby the engine layout curve 1, will normally
be chosen on the propeller curve through point M = MP + SG, where SG indicates the shaft
generator power needed inclusive shaft efficiencies.

Once point M has been found, the load diagram can be drawn as shown in Figure 6 b.

221
Figure 6

References

[1] Technical discussion with Keld Kofoed Nielsen, Burmeister & Wain Shipyard,
Copenhagen

[2] Ship Resistance H.E. Guldhammer and Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1974

[3] Resistance and Propulsion of Ships, Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1983

[4] Paint supplier “International Coatings Ltd.”, 2003

[5] Fartygspropellrar och Fartygs Framdrift, Jan Tornblad, KaMeWa Publication, 1985

[6] MAN Alpha Propeller MAN Diesel & Turbo, Frederikshavn, Denmark, December 2011

[7] MAN Alpha High-efficient Fixed Pitch Propellers, MAN Diesel & Turbo, Frederikshavn,
Denmark, January 2012

2. Propeller and load diagrams

222
Propeller Propulsion

The traditional agent employed to move a ship is a propeller, sometimes two and, in very
rare cases, more than two. The necessary propeller thrust T required moving the ship at
speed V is normally greater than the pertaining towing resistance RT, and the flow-related
reasons are, amongst other reasons, explained in this chapter. See also Fig., where all
relevant velocity, force, power and efficiency parameters are shown.

223
Propeller types
Propellers may be divided into the following two main groups, see also Fig.

• Fixed pitch propeller (FP-propeller)

• Controllable pitch propeller (CP-propeller)
Propellers of the FP-type are cast in one block and normally made of a copper alloy. The
position of the blades, and thereby the propeller pitch, is once and for all fixed, with a
given pitch that cannot be changed in operation. This means that when operating in, for
example, heavy weather conditions, the propeller performance curves, i.e. the
combination of power and speed (r/min) points, will change according to the physical laws,
and the actual propeller curve cannot be changed by the crew. Most ships which do not
need a particularly good manoeuvrability are equipped with an FP-propeller.
Propellers of the CP-type have a relatively larger hub compared with the FP-propellers
because the hub has to have space for a hydraulically activated mechanism for control of
the pitch (angle) of the blades. The CP-propeller, therefore, is more expensive than a
corresponding FP-propeller. Furthermore, because of the relatively larger hub, the
propeller efficiency is slightly lower.
CP-propellers are mostly used for Ro-Ro ships, shuttle tankers, ferries and similar ships
that require a high degree of manoeuvrability. For ordinary ships like container ships, bulk
carriers and crude oil tankers sailing for a long time in normal sea service at a given ship
speed, it will, in general, be a waste of money to install an expensive CP-propeller instead
of an FP-propeller. Furthermore, a CP-propeller is more complicated, involving a higher
risk of problems in service.

3. Flow conditions around the propeller

Wake fraction coefficient w

224
When the ship is moving, the friction of the hull will create a so-called friction belt or
boundary layer of water around the hull. In this friction belt the velocity of the water on
the surface of the hull is equal to that of the ship, but is reduced with its distance from the
surface of the hull. At a certain distance from the hull and, per definition, equal to the
outer “surface” of the friction belt, the water velocity is equal to zero.
The thickness of the friction belt increases with its distance from the fore end of the hull.
The friction belt is therefore thickest at the aft end of the hull and this thickness is nearly
proportional to the length of the ship, this means that there will be a certain wake velocity
caused by the friction along the sides of the hull.
Additionally, the ship’s displacement of water will also cause wake waves both fore and
aft. All this involves that the propeller behind the hull will be working in a wake field.
Therefore, and mainly originating from the friction wake, the water at the propeller will
have an effective wake velocity Vw which has the same direction as the ship’s speed V, see
Fig.. This means that the velocity of arriving water VA at the propeller, (equal to the speed
of advance of the propeller) given as the average velocity over the propeller’s disk area is
Vw lower than the ship’s speed V.
The effective wake velocity at the propeller is therefore equal to
Vw = V – VA and may be expressed in dimensionless form by means of the wake fraction
coefficient w. The normally used wake fraction coefficient w given by Taylor is defined as:

The value of the wake fraction coefficient depends largely on the shape of the hull, but
also on the propeller’s location and size, and has great influence on the propeller’s
efficiency.
The propeller diameter or, even better, the ratio between the propeller diameter d and
the ship’s length LWL has some influence on the wake fraction coefficient, as d/LWL gives
a rough indication of the degree to which the propeller works in the hull’s wake field. Thus,
the larger the ratio d/LWL, the lower w will be. The wake fraction coefficient w increases
when the hull is fouled.
For ships with one propeller, the wake fraction coefficient w is normally in the region of
0.20 to 0.45, corresponding to a flow velocity to the propeller VA of 0.80 to 0.55 of the
ship’s speed V. The larger the block coefficient, the larger is the wake fraction coefficient.
On ships with two propellers and a conventional aft body form of the hull, the propellers
will normally be positioned outside the friction belt, for which reason the wake fraction
coefficient w will, in this case, be a great deal lower. However, for a twin-skeg ship with
two propellers, the coefficient w will be almost unchanged (or maybe slightly lower)
compared with the single-propeller case.
Incidentally, a large wake fraction coefficient increases the risk of propeller cavitation, as
the distribution of the water velocity around the propeller is generally very
inhomogeneous under such conditions.
A more homogeneous wake field for the propeller, also involving a higher speed of
advance VA of the propeller, may sometimes be needed and can be obtained in several
ways, e.g. by having the propellers arranged in nozzles, below shields, etc. Obviously, the

225
best method is to ensure, already at the design stage that the aft end of the hull is shaped
in such a way that the optimum wake field is obtained.

Thrust deduction coefficient t

The rotation of the propeller causes the water in front of it to be “sucked” back towards
the propeller. This results in an extra resistance on the hull normally called “augment of
resistance” or, if related to the total required thrust force T on the propeller, “thrust
deduction fraction” F, see Fig. This means that the thrust force T on the propeller has to
overcome both the ship’s resistance RT and this “loss of thrust” F.
The thrust deduction fraction F may be expressed in dimensionless form by means of the
thrust deduction coefficient t, which is defined as:

The thrust deduction coefficient t can be calculated by using calculation models set up on
the basis of research carried out on different models.
In general, the size of the thrust deduction coefficient t increases when the wake fraction
coefficient w increases. The shape of the hull may have a significant influence, e.g. a
bulbous stem can, under certain circumstances (low ship speeds), reduce t.
The size of the thrust deduction coefficient t for a ship with one propeller is, normally, in
the range of 0.12 to 0.30, as a ship with a large block coefficient has a large thrust
deduction coefficient.
For ships with two propellers and a conventional aftbody form of the hull, the thrust
deduction coefficient t will be much less as the propellers’ “sucking” occurs further away
from the hull. However, for a twin-skeg ship with two propellers, the coefficient t will be
almost unchanged (or maybe slightly lower) compared with the single-propeller case.

Efficiencies
Hull efficiency ηH
The hull efficiency ηH is defined as the ratio between the effective (towing) power PE= RT
х V, and the thrust power which the propeller delivers to the water
PT = T × VA, i.e.:

For a ship with one propeller, the hull efficiency ηH is usually in the range of 1.1 to 1.4,
with the high value for ships with high block coefficients. For ships with two propellers and
a conventional aftbody form of the hull, the hull efficiency ηH is approx. 0.95 to 1.05, again
with the high value for a high block coefficient. However, for a twin-skeg ship with two
propellers, the hull coefficient ηH will be almost unchanged compared with the single-
propeller case.

226
Open water propeller efficiency ηo Propeller efficiency ηo is related to working in open
water, i.e. the propeller works in a homogeneous wake field with no hull in front of it.
The propeller efficiency depends, especially, on the speed of advance VA, thrust force T,
rate of revolution n, diameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the design of the propeller, i.e. the
number of blades, disk area ratio, and pitch/diameter ratio – which will be discussed later
in this chapter. The propeller efficiency ηo can vary between approx. 0.35 and 0.75, with
the high value being valid for propellers with a high speed of advance VA,

Fig.shows the obtainable propeller efficiency ηo shown as a function of the speed of

advance VA, which is given in dimensionless form as:

where J is the advance number of the propeller.

Relative rotative efficiency ηR

The actual velocity of the water flowing to the propeller behind the hull is neither constant
nor at right angles to the propeller’s disk area, but has a kind of rotational flow. Therefore,
compared with when the propeller is working in open water, the propeller’s efficiency is
affected by the ηR factor – called the propeller’s relative rotative efficiency.
On ships with a single propeller the rotative efficiency ηR is, normally, around 1.0 to 1.07,
in other words, the rotation of the water has a beneficial effect. The rotative efficiency ηR
on a ship with a conventional hull shape and with two propellers will normally be less,
approx. 0.98, whereas for a twin-skeg ship with two propellers, the rotative efficiency ηR
with be almost unchanged. In combination with w and t, ηR is probably often being used
to adjust the results of model tank tests to the theory.

Propeller efficiency ηB working behind the ship

The ratio between the thrust power PT, which the propeller delivers to the water, and the
power PD, which is delivered to the propeller, i.e. the propeller efficiency ηB for a
propeller working behind the ship, is defined as:

Propulsive efficiency ηD.

The propulsive efficiency , which must not be confused with the open water propeller
efficiency ηo, is equal to the ratio between the effective (towing) power PE and the
necessary power delivered to the propeller

227
As can be seen, the propulsive efficiency is equal to the product of the hull efficiency ηH,
the open water propeller

The shaft efficiency is normally around 0.99, but can vary between 0.96 and 0.995.

Total efficiency ηT
The total efficiency ηT, which is equal to the ratio between the effective (towing) power
PE, and the necessary brake power PB delivered by the main engine, can be expressed
thus:

228
Propeller coefficients J, KT and KQ
Propeller theory is based on models, but to facilitate the general use of this theory, certain
dimensionless propeller coefficients have been introduced in relation to the diameter d,
the rate of revolution n, and the water’s mass density ρ. The three most important of
these coefficients are mentioned below.
The advance number of the propeller J is, as earlier mentioned, a dimensionless expression
of the propeller’s speed of advance VA.
VA

The thrust force T, is expressed dimensionless, with the help of the thrust coefficient KT, as

and the propeller torque

is expressed dimensionless with the help of the torque coefficient KQ, as

The propeller efficiency ηo can be calculated with the help of the above-mentioned
coefficients, because, as previously mentioned, the propeller efficiency ηo is defined as:

229
With the help of special and very complicated propeller diagrams, which contain,. J, KT and
KQ curves, it is possible to find/calculate the propeller’s dimensions, efficiency, thrust,

power, etc.

very useful for design purposes. In design the problem is usually to find the diameter and
pitch of a propeller to provide the desired power at set revolutions and speed. The thrust
power, PT, is the product of thrust and speed.

That is where G is a new function of J.

Taylor used U to denote thrust power and using seawater as the fluid,
Dropped p and took the square root of the left hand side of the above equation to give a
coefficient BU. He used a corresponding coefficient,
Bp, for shaft power which he designated P, That is:

230
For a series of propellers in which the only parameter varied was pitch ratio, Taylor plotted
BU or Bp against pitch ratio in the form of contours for constant δ values, δ being the
reciprocal of the advance coefficient.
A typical plot is shown in Figure.

Typical taylor plot

To use the plot the designer decides upon a value of revolutions for a given power and
advance coefficient. This gives BU or Bp. Erecting an ordinate at this value gives a choice of
values of δ from which the diameter is obtained. Associated with each diameter is a value
of pitch ratio. For a given Bp the maximum efficiency that can be obtained is that defined
by the efficiency contour which is tangential to the ordinate at that Bp. In other words a
line of maximum efficiency can be drawn through the points where the efficiency contours
are vertical.
Such a line is shown in Figure. The intersection of this line with the designer's Bp value
establishes the pitch and diameter of the most efficient propeller.

Open water tests of propellers are used in conjunction with tests behind

models to determine the wake and relative rotative efficiency. Also

methodical propeller testing is carried out in a towing tank. The
propeller is powered from the carriage through a streamlined housing.
It is pushed along the tank with the propeller ahead of the housing so
that the propeller is effectively in undisturbed water. Records of thrust
and torque are taken for a range of carriage speeds and propeller
revolutions, that is advance coefficient. Such tests eliminate cavitation and provide data
on propeller in uniform flow. This methodical series
data can be used by the designer, making allowance for the actual
flow conditions a specific design is likely to experience behind the hull
it is to drive.

231
Figure Propeller diagram (Troost’s)

There have been many methodical series. Those by Froude, Taylor,

Gawn, Troost and van Lammeren are worthy of mention. The reader should refer to
published data if it is wished to make use of these series.
A typical plot for a four bladed propeller from Troost's series is presented in figure.

232
4. Heavy running of a propeller

Propeller law for heavy running propeller

The propeller law, of course, can only be applied to identical ship running conditions.
When, for example, the ship’s hull after some time in service has become fouled and thus
become more rough, the wake field will be different from that of the smooth ship (clean
hull) valid at trial trip conditions.
A ship with a fouled hull will, consequently, be subject to extra resistance which will give
rise to a “heavy propeller condition”, i.e. at the same propeller power, the rate of
revolution will be lower.
The propeller law now applies to another and “heavier” propeller curve than that applying
to the clean hull, propeller curve.
The same relative considerations apply when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea against the
current, a strong wind, and heavy waves, where also the heavy waves in tail wind may give
rise to a heavier propeller running than when running in calm weather. On the other hand,
if the ship is sailing in ballast condition, i.e. with a lower displacement, the propeller law
now (normally) applies to a “lighter” propeller curve, i.e. at the same propeller power; the
propeller rate of revolution will be higher.
As mentioned previously, for ships with a fixed pitch propeller, the propeller law is
extensively used at part load running. It is therefore also used in MAN B&W two-stroke
engine layout and load diagrams to specify the engine’s operational curves for light
running conditions (i.e. clean hull and calm weather) and heavy running conditions (i.e. for
fouled hull and heavy weather). These diagrams using logarithmic scales and straight lines
are described in detail in Chapter 3.
Propeller performance in general at increased ship resistance
The difference between the above-mentioned light and heavy running propeller curves
may be explained by an example, see below Figures, for a ship using, as reference, 15
knots and 100% relative propulsion power when running with a clean hull in calm weather
conditions. With 15% more power, the corresponding ship speed may increase from 15.0 to
15.6 knots.
As described in previous, and compared with the calm weather conditions, it is normal to
incorporate an extra power margin, the so-called sea margin, which is often chosen to be
15%. This power margin corresponds to extra resistance on the ship caused by the
weather conditions. However, for very rough weather conditions the influence may be
much greater, as described in previous.

233
 In below Figures1, Propeller speed performance at large extra ship resistance
the propulsion power is shown as a function of the ship speed. When the resistance
increases to a level which requires 15% extra power to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
the operating point A will move towards point B.

Figure 1. Ship speed performance at 15% sea margin

In Fig. 2 the propulsion power is now shown as a function of the propeller speed. As a first
guess it will often be assumed that point A will move towards B’ because an unchanged
propeller speed implies that, with unchanged pitch, the propeller will move through the
water at an unchanged speed.

If the propeller was a corkscrew moving through cork, this assumption would be correct.
However, water is not solid as cork but will yield, and the propeller will have a slip that will
increase with increased thrust caused by increased hull resistance.
Therefore, point A will move towards B which, in fact, is very close to the propeller curve
through A. Point B will now be positioned on a propeller curve which is slightly heavy run-
ning compared with the clean hull and calm weather propeller curve.

234
Figure 2 Fig. 12b: Propeller speed performance at 15% sea margin

Sometimes, for instance when the hull is fouled and the ship is sailing in heavy seas in a
head wind, the increase in resistance may be much greater, corresponding to an extra
power demand of the magnitude of 100% or even higher. An example is shown in Fig. 3

Figure 3 Propeller speed performance at large extra ship resistance

In this example, where 100% relative power will give a ship speed of 15.0 knots, point A, a
ship speed of, for instance, 12.3 knots at clean hull and in calm weather conditions, point
C, will require about 50% propulsion power.

235
However, at the above-mentioned heavy running conditions, it might only be possible to
obtain the 12.3 knots by 100% propulsion power, i.e. for 100% power going from point A
to D. Running point D may now be placed relatively far to the left of point A, i.e. very heavy
running. Such a situation must be considered when laying out the main engine in relation
to the layout of the propeller, as described in previous Chapter.

Parameters causing heavy running propeller

Together with the previously described operating parameters which cause a heavy running
propeller, the parameters summarized below may give an indication of the risk/sensitivity
of getting a heavy running propeller when sailing in heavy weather and rough seas:

1 Relatively small ships (<70,000 dwt)

such as reefers and small container ships are sensitive whereas large ships, such as large
tankers and container ships, are less sensitive because the waves are relatively small
compared to the ship size.

2 Small ships (Lpp < 135m ≈ 20,000 dwt)

have low directional stability and, therefore, require frequent rudder corrections, which
increase the ship resistance (a self-controlled rudder will reduce such resistance).

3 High-speed ships
are more sensitive than low-speed ships because the waves will act on the fast-going ship
with a relatively larger force than on the slow-going ship.

4 Ships with a “flat” stem

may be slowed down faster by waves than a ship with a “sharp” stem. Thus an axe-shaped
upper bow may better cut the waves and thereby reduce the heavy running tendency.

5 Fouling of the hull and propeller

will increase both hull resistance and propeller torque. Polishing the propeller (especially
the tips) as often as possible (also when in water) has a positive effect. The use of effective
anti-fouling paints will prevent fouling caused by living organisms.

6 Ship acceleration
will increase the propeller torque, and thus give a temporarily heavy running propeller.

7 Sailing in shallow waters

increases the hull resistance and reduces the ship’s directional stability.

8 Ships with skewed propeller

are able to absorb a higher torque under heavy running conditions.

236
Heavy seas and 'sea margin' in the graph. The propeller design point PD.
Usually, the estimations of the required propeller power and the speed are based on
theoretical calculations for a loaded ship and often (based on) towing tests executed in a
hydraulics laboratory.

The combination of the speed and the required power output is referred to as the design
point PD of the Ship propeller. In the figure for a light running propeller, straight line no. 6.

Some shipyards and! or propeller manufacturers use a design point PD that also partially
or entirely incorporates the sea margin (power surplus).
When establishing the required engine speed of a propulsion engine, it is advisable, in
comparison to line 6, clean hull, propeller and calm weather, to select the heavier
propeller line 2.

Line 2 has 3 to 7% fewer revolutions.

On average a 5% difference is acceptable.
Note that the chosen 'sea margin' does not signify that a heaver propeller line was
selected.

(2) Heavy propeller curve - fouled hull and heavy weather

(6) Light propeller curve - clean hull and calm weather

MP; Specified propulsion point

SP: Service propulsion point

237
PD: Propeller design point
PD': Alternative propeller design point
LR: Light running factor
HR: Heavy running

The SP point = the maximum service propulsion point for

a sailing ship.

The combination of the speed and the engine power for a heavier running propeller and a
sea margin is referred to as the maximum service propulsion point S.P. This applies to a
fouled hull and heavy weather conditions.
The 'heavy' propeller line 2 will generally be applied as the basis for the engine
characteristics during free sailing and the propeller line for a clean hull and calm weather,
line 6, for a 'light' running propeller, LR.

[1]References and Further Reading

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons,
Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer.
6) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

5.Propulsion characteristics diesel [1]

Continues service rating

Continuous service propulsion point SP
The resulting speed and power combination – when including heavy propeller running and
sea margin – is called the “continuous service rating for propulsion” SP for fouled hull and
heavy weather. The heavy propeller curve, curve 2, for fouled hull and heavy weather will
normally be used as the basis for the engine operating curve in service, and the propeller
curve for clean hull and calm weather, curve 6, is said to represent a “light running” LR
propeller

Continuous service rating S

238
The continuous service rating is the power at which the engine, including the sea margin, is
assumed to operate, and point S is identical to the service propulsion point SP unless a
main engine driven shaft generator is installed

Normal operating conditions without a shaft generator

239
Ship propulsion running points and engine layout

Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a so-called “engine margin” of some 10-15% is frequently added as
an operational margin for the engine. The corresponding point is called the “specified MCR
for propulsion” MP, see Fig. 1, and refers to the fact that the power for point SP is 10-15%
lower than for point MP, i.e. equal to 90-85% of MP.

Specified MCR M

240
The engine’s specified MCR (SMCR) point M is the maximum rating required by the yard or
owner for continuous operation of the engine. Point M is identical to the specified
propulsion MCR point MP unless a main engine driven shaft generator is installed. In such
a case, the extra power demand of the shaft generator must also be considered.
Note:
Light/heavy running, fouling and sea margin are overlapping terms. Light/heavy running of
the propeller refers to hull and propeller deterioration, and bad weather, and sea margin,
i.e. extra power to the propeller, refers to the influence of the wind and the sea.
Based on feedback from service, it seems reasonable to design the propeller for 3-7% light
running. The degree of light running must be decided upon, based on experience from the
actual trade and hull design, but 5% is often a good choice

6. Limits to continuous operation

The continuous service range is limited by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see Fig. 2.

Line 3 and line 9

Line 3 represents the maximum acceptable speed for continuous operation, i.e. 105% of
M. During sea trial conditions the maximum speed may be extended to 107% of M, see
line 9.

The above limits may, in general, be extended to 105% and, during sea trial conditions, to
107% of the nominal L1 speed of the engine, provided the torsional vibration conditions
permit.

The overspeed set-point is 109% of the speed in M, however, it may be moved to 109% of
the nominal speed in L1, provided that torsional vibration conditions permit.
Running at low load above 100% of the nominal L1 speed of the engine is, however, to be
avoided for extended periods.

Line 4:
Represents the limit at which an ample air supply is available for combustion and imposes
a limitation on the maximum combination of torque and speed.

Line 5:
Represents the maximum mean effective pressure level (mep) which can be accepted for
continuous operation.

Line 7:
Represents the maximum power for continuous operation.

Line 10:

241
Represents the mean effective pressure (mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the 100% mep-line.
The mep-lines are also an expression of the corresponding fuel index of the engine.

7. Limits for overload operation

The overload service range is limited as follows, see Fig. 2.

Line 8:
Represents the overload operation limitations.
The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the dashed line 8 in Fig. 2 is available for overload
running for limited periods only (1 hour per 12 hours).

242
Figure 2.. Standard engine load diagram

8.Specific fuel oil consumption

This is the amount of fuel consumed per power unit and per time unit. It is normally
indicated in grams per kilowatt.
The lower the fuel consumption, the less fuel engine’s uses and the higher the engine’s,
΄΄return efficiency΄΄ . In this way, one easily make comparisons of engines.

Of course the measurement of fuel consumption must take place under the same
condition; these have been laid down in the ISO norm 3046 - -1995.

The stipulates amongst others:

-the intake air temperature of 25°C
-the temperature after the air cooler of 25 °C·
-the ambient pressure 1000millibar;
-relative humidity of 30%;
-the heat value of the fuel.

All engine manufactures provide these details when stating fuel consumption,
The fuel consumption in conjunction with the lubricating oil consumption (in grams per
kW h) form a major consideration in decision of which engine to chose.
The fuel consumption varies from 167gr/kwh, to 220 gr/kWh, an I depends for instance on
the size of the diesel engine. The larger the engine the higher the efficiency so the lower
the fuel consumption.

SFOC at reference conditions

The SFOC is based on the reference ambient conditions
stated in ISO 3046/1-1986:
1,000 mbar ambient air pressure
25 °C ambient air temperature
25 °C scavenge air coolant temperature

and is related to a fuel oil with a lower calorific value of 10,200 kcal/kg (42,700 kJ/kg).
For lower calorific values and for ambient conditions that are different from the ISO
reference conditions, the SFOC will be adjusted according to the conversion factors in the
below table provided that the maximum combustion pressure (Pmax) is adjusted to the
nominal value (left column), or if the Pmax is not re-adjusted to the nominal value (right
column).

243
With for instance 1 °C increase of the scavenge air coolant temperature, a corresponding 1
°C increase of the scavenge air temperature will occur and involves an SFOC increase of
0.06% if Pmax is adjusted.

Correction of LCV (lower calorific value) of Fuel Oil

In order to be able to compare consumption measurements carried out for various types
of fuel oil, allowance must be made for the differences in the lower calorific value (LCV) of
the fuel concerned. Normally, on the test bed, gas oil will have been used, having a lower
calorific value of approx. 42,707 kJ/kg (corresponding to 10,200 kcal/kg). If no other
instructions have been given by the ship-owner, it is recommended to convert to this
value. Usually, the lower calorific value of bunker oil is not specified by the oil companies.
However, by means of the graph given in the manual as a function of sulphur content and
density at 15 deg C, the LCV can be determined . The corrected consumption can then be
determined by multiplying the "measured consumption
LCV 1
42,707
LCV1 = the specific lower calorific value, in kJ/kg, of the bunker oil concerned

OR

LCV2
10,200
LCV2 = the specific lower calorific value, in kcal/kg, of the bunker oil concerned

244
Calculation with an example
Effective Engine Power, Po - Say 8,130 bhp (Engine power is calculated from the
performance sheet. It can be calculated from the Indicator digram or with fuel pump index
or turbocharger method. All methods are explained below)
Consumption, Co - 3.83 m3 over 3 hours
Measuring point temperature - 119°C
Density at 119°C - Specific gravity 0.9364 t/m^3, 3% sulphur

SFOC = Co x D119 x 10^6

h x Pe

where:
Co = Fuel oil consumption over the period (m^3)
D 119 = Corrected gravity (t/m3)
h = Measuring period, hours
Pe =Brake horse power, bhp
10^6 is multiplied to convert the fuel oil unit in tonnes to gram

3.83 x 0.8684 x 10^6 = 136.4 g/bhph

3 x 8,130

Calculating LCV from the graph

LCV1, = 40,700 kJ/kg, derived from the graph given in manual

245
Consumption corrected for calorific value:

136.4 x 40,700 = 130.0 g/bhph

42,707

Note - The ambient conditions (blower inlet temperature and pressure and scavenge air
coolant temperature) will also influence the fuel consumption. Correction for ambient
conditions is not considered important when comparing service measurements.

[1]References and Further Reading

1)Pounder’s Marine Diesel Enginess & Gas Turbine Edited by Doug Woodyard
2) Engineers Databook-Fourth Edition by Clifford Matthews- A John Wiley & Sons,
Publications.
3) Nondestructive Test Methods by Nicholas J. Carino
Research structural engineer in the Structures Division at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg.
4) Diesel Engines for Ship propulsion and Power Plants by Kees Kuiken
5) Handbook of Diesel Engines Editors Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Mollenhauer.
6) Introduction to Marine Engineering, Second Edition by D. A. Taylor, MSc, BSc, CENG,
FIMarE, FRINA Marine Consultant, Harbour Craft Services Ltd, Hong Kong Formerly Senior
Lecturer in Marine Technology, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
7) MAN B&W S50MC-C7 Project Guide Camshaft Controlled Two-stroke Engines.
8)MAN – service Experience – Two –Stroke Engines.
9)ΜΑΝ-Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion.

9. Propulsion characteristics steam plan [1]

Steam Plants have been around for well over one-hundred years, and have paved the way
for modern shipping. Steam plants work by heating water past its boiling point, until it’s
superheated, then driving it through multiple turbines to produce electricity and thrust.
The purpose of this project is to set forth data for a specified marine steam power plant
heat balance. This project is not for all power plants however; it is specifically applicable to
oil-fired steam-turbine marine power plants at maximum continuous power. Some
modifications have been made to suit this plant as was saw fit.
A heat balance is a necessary tool for designing a marine power plant. They can also be
used to determine optimum steam conditions and a cycle design or even to analyze the
performance of a power plant already in service. In order to solve the heat balance
calculation, shaft horsepower, steam conditions and the basic steam-water cycle must be
established. Once these have been solved, various steam, feed and condensate, and
exhaust flow can be determined.
The figure below shows a basic rendition of a typical Marine Steam Power Plant Cycle.

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The Basic Steam-Water Cycle is as follows:
1. Boiler– A boiler contains the heating element of the system; fire generated by burning
fuel, and applies it to boil the medium, water.
2. Throttle Box – This is the means to control the output of the boiler. In this project I will
be using set values to calculate the heat balance.
3. High Pressure (HP) Turbine – The HP Turbine is where the superheated steam from the
boiler is directed to, in order to generate a spinning action of the blades of the turbine.
The more nozzles open, the greater the flow, the greater the power.
4. Low Pressure (LP) Turbine – The LP Turbine is where the now less-superheated steam
travels through after the HP Turbine.
5. Condenser (Main/Auxiliary) – The Condenser is where the steam is dumped after the HP
and LP Turbine. It interacts with a cooling medium (usually Seawater) and heat transfer
occurs, cooling the steam into water. In this project, a Low Pressure Condenser will be
used (at Vacuum Pressure).
6. Condensate Pump – The means of pumping the condensed steam through the
remainder of the system.
7. Air Ejector (Main/Auxiliary) – Air Ejectors remove the non-condensable gases from the
system and helps to draw and maintain vacuum.
8. Low Pressure Heater (First Stage Heater) – Heats the water for hotel loads, auxiliary
loads, and miscellaneous loads.
9. DC Heater (Direct Contact Heater, or Deaerating Feed Tank) – acts as a holding tank for
the incoming water to the feed pump to pump into the boiler, removes non-condensable
gas, and heats the water more.
10. Feed Pump – The Feed Pump serves as the driving force of the water into the boiler. Its
discharge pressure must be greater than that of the boilers in order to have positive flow.

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11. High Pressure Heater (Economizer) – Acts as a reheat to the system so a shock to the
system with the entrance of cold water into the boiler will not occur.
12. Boiler – This is considered the last part of the cycle as well as the beginning of the
cycle.

A heat balance contains many variable factors. Some of these include fuel, hotel and
domestic loads, ambient conditions (which I am nullifying this project – atmospheric
pressure is equal to 1 atmosphere), and various other ship components. These variables
will vary from ship to ship and will affect its associated calculated results

Specific Fuel Consumption

The Specific Fuel Consumption, SFC is the ratio of the fuel mass flow of an engine to its
output power, in specified units. Specific Fuel Consumption is a widely used measure of
atmospheric engine performance. Its units are pound-mass-per-hour-per-horsepower
lbm/hr/hp.

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Ships Horsepower “SHP”

SPC, Specific Power Consumption, kWh/kgal

E, Total Energy, lb/hr

Q(DESUP), Desuperheater flow, lb/hr

h, enthalpy, BTU/lb

hF3, enthalpy of the Temperature Outlet, BTU/lb Eff(.), Efficiency

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HHV, Higher Heating Value, BTU/lb

A/F, Air to Fuel Ratio

ΔT, Change in Temperature, °F

ΔT(FO), Change in Temperature of the Fuel Oil, °F

Heat Capacity of the Fuel Oil “Cp(FO)”

Fuel Consumption
Fuel consumption is the rate at which the Fuel Oil is consumed in a Boiler. To calculate the Flow of
Fuel Oil “Q(FO)”, I need to find the amount of fuel I consume.

Power
Power Equation
Horsepower was originally defined to compare the output of steam engines with the power of
draft horses in continuous operation. The unit is used to measure the output of piston engines,
turbines, electric motors, and various other pieces of machinery. The power generated is usually
defined in terms of kilo-Watts.

Superheater
Component Detail

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The Superheater is a series of tubes inside the Boiler. It’s meant to increase the
temperature of steam past its saturation state and into the superheated state. This
superheated steam is considered ‘dry steam’ as it has no water moisture in it.
Moisture is extremely detrimental to any steam turbine; it can cause excessive pounding
of the turbine, it can cause extreme erosion of the turbine blades, and in some cases it can
rip the turbine apart. A turbine spinning over 8000 revolutions-per-minute, if shaken loose
from the turbine, can easily shred through the casing. There have been cases of a spinning
turbine blade breaking its shell and whirling out into the engine room and destroying other
engine-room components.
Figure below - Superheater Tubes (Exposed) shows a section of Superheater Tubes that
resides in typical marine boiler.

One environmental change for LNG carriers in recent years is the very rapid increase in
propulsion plant energy saving, which is attributed to the increase in the price of crude oil.
In an effort to cope with this, in addition to conventional steam turbine ships, the DFE (dual
fuel engine) ship with an electric propulsion motor, with higher plant efficiency and the DRL
(diesel engine with re-liquefaction plant) ship fitted with a 2 cycle, low speed engine, for
propulsion have been introduced. The first DFE ship was built in a French shipyard and is

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already in service, and a number of the LNG carriers with DFE and DRL plants are now
being constructed in Korea. Although existing steam turbine plants have good operational
reliability, maintainability, and operability proven by past performance, they are far behind
the new plants in plant efficiency, which is an urgent issue. To address this issue, Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI) has developed the UST (ultra steam turbine) with 15% higher
efficiency than a conventional steam turbine plant, while retaining the high reliability,
maintenance workability, and operability of a conventional plant. This paper introduces
this new UST plant.

Introduction
Until a few years ago, steam turbines were used for almost all LNG carriers for the propulsion plant
because of their operation profitability, reliability, operability, maintainability and initial
investment. Another reason is that the steam turbine plant could safely treat boil-off gas (BOG)
generated from the cargo tank and could also use heavy oil as fuel. However, due to the following
factors, new DFE and DRL plants using diesel engines began to attract attention and the use of
alternative propulsion plants accelerated rapidly. These factors include: (1) the introduction of gas-
burning diesel engines, (2) energy-saving trends as a result of the rising price of crude oil in recent
years, and (3) a shortage of crew for steam turbine ships due to the LNG carrier construction boom
caused by the rapid increase in worldwide demand for natural gas. In the current LNG carrier
market, it is no exaggeration to say that DFE and DRL ships are becoming the mainstream.
However, as the new DFE and DRL plants use new technology, it is naturally presumed that the
crew will also need a level of technical knowledge as with turbine ships. In other words, in selecting
a propulsion plant for an LNG carrier today, plant efficiency is the most important issue. In these
circumstances, MHI has developed the UST (ultra steam turbine) plant whose efficiency is equal to
the new diesel plants while retaining the merits of conventional turbine plants.

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2. UST plant
2.1 Plant configuration
The UST plant is a 2-stage feed water heating system based on the reheat cycle, ensuring a simple
configuration considering improved efficiency, operability, and maintainability. A comparison with
the conventional plant is shown in Table 1.

The steam conditions of the UST plant were determined considering the actual performance and
cost-effectiveness of land use natural circulation boilers as well as the scope of the ANSI2500LB
flange. On the reheat cycle plant, steam flows through the reheater (REHTR) as shown in Fig. 1.

2.2 UST plant layout

An outline of the arrangement of the UST plant on a vessel is shown below (Fig. 2). The space
required for a UST plant is the same as a conventional steam turbine plant.

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3. UST turbine
3.1 Components of UST turbine
The UST turbine is an MHI high performance turbine based on the latest technology and which has
a good track record for land use. It consists of a high/intermediate pressure turbine (Fig. 3), a low
pressure turbine, a main condenser and a reduction gear unit located in a single casing and on a
single shaft.

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3.2 Adoption of the latest technology
3.2.1 Thermal shield
While HP and IP turbines are located in the same single casing, we should remember that the
operation mode of the UST turbine is different from land use turbine. That is, the UST turbine
requires both start and stop operations within one voyage and the HP/IP turbine casing in
particular is subjected to repeated thermal loads. The severe difference between HP turbine inlet
steam temperature and LP turbine inlet steam temperature may cause uneven deformation of the
casing and consequent steam leakage from the horizontal flange of HP/ IP casing. For that purpose,
a thermal shield structure has been applied, which has been proven in MHI landuse turbines (Fig.
4).

3.2.2 Technology to improve turbine performance

Figures 5 and 6 show the latest technologies that were introduced for the UST to improve turbine
performance.

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4. UST boiler
4.1 UST boiler
The re-heater is designed to achieve a specified steam temperature by using the reheat burner
(Fig. 7). The reheat burner stops automatically in low steam flow conditions (reduction of tube
cooling effect), so that the tubes are not exposed to high temperature combustion gas. In this
situation, there is no damaging effect on the reheater tubes because the combustion gas
temperature from the main furnace will be low. Therefore, the reheater is thoroughly protected,
simply by stopping the reheat burner.

In addition, high reliability is to be expected over longterm operation, because there are no
moveable parts, gas damper etc., in the flow path of the combustion gas. Also, in order to ensure
the main steam conditions, we have adopted the vertical twin header super heater system shown
in Fig. 8 to secure the heat transfer area and also use 18 Cr stainless steel which is resistant to
hightemperature corrosion.

4.2 Boiler performance verification test

4.2.1 Boiler cold model test

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For the development of the UST boiler, a cold boiler model test (fluid dynamic simulation test) was
carried out using the 1/4 scale simulator at MHI Nagasaki's R&D Center (Fig. 9). In this test the
distribution of the exhaust gas temperature at the boiler outlet could be analyzed and optimized.
As a result, we ensured a uniform gas flow by using shielding material at the exhaust gas outlet.

4.2.2 Combustion test of reheat burner

The reheat burner of the UST boiler is installed in the path of the boiler exhaust gas flow. Therefore
it was necessary to check the influence of the exhaust gas flow when burning the reheat burner, so
an ignition test and a low load firing test were carried out using the test furnace of the burner
manufacturer. As a result, an excellent state of combustion and ignition performance were
confirmed in an extreme gas flow (Fig. 10).

4.2.3 Plant simulator

In order to understand the dynamic behavior of the UST plant, we built a plant model and
developed a simulator which can deal with all kinds of load fluctuations. As shown in Fig. 11, the
simulator has a function which displays the changes taking place in each part of the plant as the
trend data and the dynamic behavior of each part become analyzable, thus contributing to the
automation and instrumentation of the UST plant.

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A dynamic condition analysis in all operations was necessary to analyze the dynamic behavior of
the UST plant. This plant simulator can simulate all loads and operations.
The dynamic behavior of each parameter (for example, the steam temperature and pressure, fuel
flow and M/T output) can be identified and they are displayed as trend data in the table below (Fig.
11).
It is very important to verify the dynamic condition of each parameter and this simulation is also
useful for the development of the control and automatio system for the UST plant (both turbine
and boiler).

5. Shaft generator
One shaft generator motor (SGM) is located on the intermediate shaft. Under normal operation,
the SGM is used as a generator to improve the plant efficiency (SG mode). If the operator wants
100% MCR power when one re-heater is out of service, the SGM can be changed to assist motor
mode (PAM mode). By this operation, the propulsion power will be recovered to 100% MCR (Fig.
12).

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6. Influence on environment
6.1 Comparison of exhaust gas components during navigation (gas single fuel combustion mode)
Under normal sea going conditions in gas burning mode, SOx is not emitted at all from the
propulsion plant, and the emission of NOx and CO2 from the steam turbine plant is the smallest of
all propulsion plants. The UST's emissions are smaller than conventional steam turbine plants due
to fuel saving (Fig. 13).

6.2 Comparison of exhaust gas components during loading and unloading

During loading and unloading, steam turbine plants (CST and UST) have dual fuel burning modes.
However, a DFE plant is restricted to diesel mode only, because gas mode cannot be used in low

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load conditions. Therefore the NOx and SOx emissions from a DFE plant are higher than other
plants (Fig. 14).
The majority of emission regulations for current environmental measures are targeted at coastal
zones and port areas including those of Europe and the west coast of the US. The introduction of
stricter regulation is expected in the near future especially concerning exhaust gas components
during loading and unloading. In this regard, the UST plant is the most outstanding compared with
other plants.

7. Conclusion
This paper has introduced the UST plant which can achieve an efficiency equivalent to that of other
diesel propulsion engines, while maintaining high reliability, which is the primary advantage of
conventional turbine ships. Its major characteristics are summarized as follows:
(1) Higher plant efficiency: about 15% improvements in fuel consumption.
(2) High reliability and safety: the same high reliability and safety as conventional turbine plants.
(3) Low maintenance costs: similar low maintenance costs to conventional turbine plants.
(4) Environmentally friendly: about 15% decrease in emissions (NOx, SOx, CO2)
(5) Flexibility of fuel selection: flexible burning of any fuel combination, oil only, gas only and dual.
(6) Extremely long plant life: operational for more than 40 years.
Finally, while hoping that the UST plant developed through the collective efforts of MHI will be
actually realized in the near future, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to all parties
concerned for the wide-ranging guidance and cooperation extended to us during the development
period of about a year and a half.

[1]References and further reading

(1) Ito, M., Development of Mitsubishi High Efficiency Marine Propulsion Plant (Ultra Steam
Turbine), KANRIN (Bulletin of The Japan Society of Naval Architects and Ocean Engineers) Vol. 12
(2007) p.43
2) MARINE STEAM POWER PLANT HEAT BALANCE by Steven A. Gelardi

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