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Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Fourth Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2018
About the Authors
Ravish R Singh is presently Academic Advisor at Thakur Educational

Trust, Mumbai. He obtained a BE degree from University of Mumbai
in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT Bombay in 2001, and a PhD
degree from Faculty of Technology, University of Mumbai, in 2013.
He has published several books with McGraw Hill Education (India)
on varied subjects like Engineering Mathematics, Applied
Mathematics, Electrical Networks, Network Analysis and Synthesis,
Basic, Electrical Engineering, Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities
like Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University,
and Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University. Dr Singh is a member of IEEE, ISTE,
and IETE, and has published research papers in national and international journals. His
fields of interest include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and Engineering Mathematics.
Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

Humanities and Sciences, at Thakur College of Engineering and
Technology, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics) degree
from H N B Garhwal University in 1992, and a PhD degree from
Faculty of Science, PAHER University, Udaipur, Rajasthan in 2017.
She has published several books with McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited on Engineering Mathematics and Applied Mathematics
for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities like Gujarat
Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University, and
Uttar Pradesh Technical University. Dr. Bhatt has twenty six years of teaching
experience at various levels in engineering colleges and her fields of interest include
Integral Calculus, Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of
ISTE.
Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Fourth Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2018
Ravish R Singh
Academic Advisor
Thakur Educational Trust
Mumbai, Maharashtra
Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Sciences
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Chennai
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Dedicated
to
Aman and Aditri
Ravish R Singh
Soumya and Siddharth

Mukul Bhatt
Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
1. Introduction to Some Special Functions 1.1–1.10
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Gamma Function 1.2
1.3 Beta Function 1.2
1.4 Bessel Function 1.3
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function 1.4
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function 1.5
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function 1.5
1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5
1.10 Gate Function 1.6
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 1.6
1.12 Signum Function 1.7
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function 1.7
1.14 Triangular Wave Function 1.7
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.7
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.8
1.17 Square-Wave Function 1.8
Multiple Choice Questions 1.8
2. Fourier Series and Fourier Integral 2.1–2.136
2.2 Periodic Functions 2.1
2.3 Fourier Series 2.2
2.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series 2.2
2.5 Fourier Series of Functions of Any Period 2.3
2.6 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions 2.62
2.7 Half-Range Fourier Series 2.89
2.8 Fourier Integral 2.116
Points to Remember 2.130
viii Contents
3. Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications 3.1–3.266

3.2 Differential Equations 3.2
3.3 Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 3.5
3.4 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 3.92
3.5 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order with
Constant Coefficients 3.103
3.6 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations: Method of
Reduction of Order 3.111
3.7 Nonhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations of
Higher Order with Constant Coefficients 3.118
3.8 Method of Variation of Parameters 3.180
3.9 Cauchy’s Linear Equations 3.206
3.10 Legendre’s Linear Equations 3.226
3.11 Method of Undetermined Coefficients 3.234
3.12 Applications of Higher Order Linear Differential Equations 3.247
4. Series Solution of Differential Equations 4.1–4.63
4.2 Power-Series Method 4.1
4.3 Series Solution about an Ordinary Point 4.6
4.4 Frobenius Method 4.25
5. Laplace Transforms and Applications 5.1–5.223
5.2 Laplace Transform 5.2
5.3 Laplace Transform of Elementary Functions 5.2
5.4 Basic Properties of Laplace Transform 5.13
5.5 Differentiation of Laplace Transforms (Multiplication by t) 5.35
5.6 Integration of Laplace Transforms (Division by t) 5.52
5.7 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives 5.63
5.8 Laplace Transforms of Integrals 5.66
5.9 Evaluation of Integrals using Laplace Transform 5.76
5.10 Unit Step Function 5.83
5.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 5.90
5.12 Laplace Transforms of Periodic Functions 5.94
5.13 Inverse Laplace Transform 5.102
5.14 Convolution Theorem 5.173
5.15 Solution of Linear Ordinary Differential Equations 5.194
Contents ix
6. Partial Differential Equations and Applications 6.1–6.143

6.2 Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.3 Formation of Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.4 Solution of Partial Differential Equations 6.15
6.5 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.19
6.6 Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.35
6.7 Charpit’s Method 6.53
6.8 Homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with
6.9 Nonhomogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with
6.10 Classification of Second Order Linear Partial Differential
Equations 6.77
6.11 Applications of Partial Differential Equations 6.78
6.12 Method of Separation of Variables 6.78
6.13 One-Dimensional Wave Equation 6.88
6.14 D’ Alembert’s Solution of the Wave Equation 6.104
6.15 One-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.106
6.16 Two-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.126
Index I.1–I.3
Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.
Users
This book is designed for the 2nd year GTU engineering students pursuing the
course Advanced Engineering Mathematics, SUBJECT CODE: 2130002 in their
3rd Semester. It covers the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Advanced
Engineering Mathematics, which is common to all the engineering branches.
Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.
Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point of view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
are well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set follow-
ing a ‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background
to easily grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved
examples enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain
logical understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving simi-
lar exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface
Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Advanced Engineering
Mathematics (Regulation 2014)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination questions from 2012 to 2018 present appropriately
within the chapters and on companion web link
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
 Solved examples within chapters: 475
 Solved GTU questions within chapters: 247
 Unsolved exercises: 571
 MCQs at the end of chapters: 121
 MCQs on web link: 50
Chapter Organization
The content spans the following six chapters which wholly and sequentially cover
each module of the syllabus.
 Chapter 1 introduces Some Special Functions.
 Chapter 2 discusses Fourier Series and Fourier Integral.
 Chapter 3 presents Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications.
 Chapter 4 covers Series Solution of Differential Equations.
 Chapter 5 deals with Laplace Transforms and Applications.
 Chapter 6 presents Partial Differential Equations and Applications.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed various chapters of the script
or previous editions of the book and generously shared their valuable comments:
Mukesh Shimpi BVM Engineering College, Anand, Gujarat
Manokamna Agrawal Silver Oak College of Engineering and Technology,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
Som Sahni ITM Universe Vadodara
Vijay Solanki GEC Bharuch
Foram Rajdev Marwadi Education Foundation Group of
Institutions, Rajkot
Vishal Bhatt Marwadi Education Foundation Group of
Institutions, Rajkot
Usha Bag Shree L R Tiwari College of Engineering,
Thane, Maharashtra
Preface xiii
We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Shalini Jha, Hemant K Jha, Tushar Mishra, Satinder Singh Baveja,
Taranpreet Kaur and Anuj Shriwastava for coordinating with us during the editorial,
copyediting, and production stages of this book.
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of
all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt
Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback,
comments and ideas to enhance the quality of this book. You can reach us at
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subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
RoAdmAP to the SyllAbuS
This text is useful for
SUBjECT CodE: 2130002 – Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Module 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Gamma function; Beta function; Bessel function; Error function and
complementary error function; Heaviside’s function; Pulse unit height and
duration function; Sinusoidal pulse function; Rectangle function; Gate function;
Dirac’s Delta function; Signum function; Sawtooth wave function; Triangular
wave function; Half-wave rectified sinusoidal function; Full rectified sine
wave; Square wave function.
GO TO
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions
Module 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Periodic function; Trigonometric series; Fourier series; Functions of any period;
Even and odd functions; Half-range expansion; Forced oscillations; Fourier
integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral
Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications

First order differential equations: basic concepts; Geometric meaning of
y ’ = f (x, y) Direction fields; Exact differential equations; Integrating factor;
Linear differential equations; Bernoulli equations; Modeling: Orthogonal
trajectories of curves; Linear differential equations of second and higher
order: Homogeneous linear differential equations of second order; Modeling:
Free oscillations; Euler-Cauchy Equations; Wronskian; Nonhomogeneous
equations; Solution by undetermined coefficients; Solution by variation of
parameters; Modeling: Free Oscillations, Resonance and electric circuits; Higher
order linear differential equations; Higher order homogeneous equations with
constant coefficient; Higher order nonhomogeneous equations. Solution by
[1/f(D)] r(x) method for finding particular integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus
Module 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Power series method; Theory of power series methods; Frobenius method.
GO TO
CHAPTER 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations
Module 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Definition of the Laplace transform; Inverse Laplace transform; Linearity;
Shifting theorem; Transforms of derivatives and integrals; Differential
equations; Unit step function; Second shifting theorem; Dirac’s delta function;
Differentiation and integration of transforms; Convolution and integral
equations; Partial fraction differential equations; Systems of differential
equations.
GO TO
CHAPTER 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications
Module 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications

Formation of PDEs; Solution of partial differential equations f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0;
Nonlinear PDEs of first order; Some standard forms of nonlinear PDEs; Linear
PDEs with constant coefficients; Equations reducible to homogeneous linear
form; Classification of second-order linear PDEs; Separation of variables; Use
of Fourier series; D’Alembert’s solution of the wave equation; Heat equation:
Solution by Fourier series and Fourier integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Some
Special Functions
chapter outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Gamma Function
1.3 Beta Function
1.4 Bessel Function
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function
1.9 Rectangle Function
1.10 Gate Function
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function
1.12 Signum Function
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function
1.14 Triangular Wave Function
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.17 Square-Wave Function
1.1 IntroductIon
There are some special functions which have importance in mathematical analysis,
functional analysis, physics, or other applications. In this chapter, we will study
different special functions such as gamma, beta, Bessel, error, unit step, Dirac delta
functions, etc. The study of these functions will help in solving many mathematical
problems encountered in advanced engineering mathematics.
1.2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions
1.2 Gamma FunctIon

[Winter 2013]
The gamma function is an extension of the factorial function to real and complex
numbers and is also known as Euler integral of the second kind. The gamma function
is a component in various probability-distribution functions. It also appears in various
areas such as asymptotic series, definite integration, number theory, etc.
• - x n -1
The gamma function is defined by the improper integral Ú0 e x dx, n > 0 and is
denoted by n .
•
Hence, n = Ú e - x x n -1 dx , n > 0
0
The gamma function can also be expressed as

• 2
n = 2 Ú e - x x 2 n -1 dx
0
Properties of the Gamma Function

(i) n +1 = n n
This is known as recurrence formula or reduction formula for the gamma
function.
(ii) n + 1 = n ! if n is a positive integer
n +1
(iii) n= if n is a negative fraction
n
p
(iv) n 1- n =
sin np
(v) 1
= p
2
1.3 Beta FunctIon

[Winter 2016, 2015, 2014; Summer 2016, 2014, 2013]
The beta function B(m, n) is defined by
1
B(m, n) = Ú x m -1 (1 - x )n -1 dx, m > 0, n > 0
0
B(m, n) is also known as Euler’s integral of the first kind. The beta function can also
be defined by
p
B(m, n) = 2Ú 2 sin 2 m -1 x cos2 n -1 x dx
0
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3
Properties of the Beta Function

(i) The beta function is a symmetric function, i.e., B(m, n) = B(n, m).
m n
(ii) B(m, n) =
m+n
1 p 2m
(iii) m m+ = 2 m -1
2 2
This is known as duplication formula.
• x m -1
(iv) B(m, n) = Ú dx
0 (1 + x )m + n
This is called improper integral form of the beta function.
1.4 Bessel FunctIon
The Bessel function (Fig. 1.1) is a special function that occurs in problems of wave
propagation, static potentials, and signal processing. A Bessel function of order n is
defined by
• n+2k
( -1)kÊ xˆ
J n ( x) = Â k ! n + k + 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯
k =0
xnÈ x2 x4 ˘
= Í1 - + - L˙
2 n + 1 Î 2(n + 2) 2 ◊ 4(2 n + 2)(2 n + 4)
n
˚
Properties of Bessel Functions
J0(x)
x2 x4
(i) J 0 ( x ) = 1 -+ -L 1
22 22 ◊ 42 0.8
0.6
(ii) J–n(x) = (–1)n Jn(x) if n is a positive 0.4
integer 0.2
x
0 5 10 15 20
–0.2
(iii) 2 n J n ( x ) = J n +1 ( x ) + J n -1 ( x ) –0.4
x
d È n Fig. 1.1 Bessel function
(iv) x J n ( x )˘˚ = x n J n -1 ( x )
dx Î
(v) d È x - n J n ( x )˘ = - x - n J n +1 ( x )
dx Î ˚
1.5 error FunctIon and comPlementary

error FunctIon
[Winter 2012]
The error function (Fig. 1.2) is a special function that occurs in probability, statistics,
and partial differential equations.
The error function of x is defined by

erf(x)
2 x -t2
erf ( x ) =
p
Ú
0
e dt
0.75
1
where x may be a real or complex variable. 0.5
The complementary error function of x is 0.25
defined by x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–0.25
2 • -t2
erfc( x ) = Ú e dt
p x
–0.5
–0.75
where x may be a real or complex variable. –1
Relation between error function and the com- Fig. 1.2 Error function
plementary error function is given by
2 • -t2
erfc( x ) = Ú e dt
p x
2 • -t2 2 x -t2
= Ú e
p 0
dt - Ú e
p 0
dt
2 Ê pˆ
= Á ˜ - erf ( x )
p Ë 2 ¯
= 1 - erf ( x )
Properties of the error Function

(i) erf (0) = 0
(ii) erf ( •) = 1
(iii) erf (–x) = –erf (x)
(iv) erf ( z ) = erf ( z ), where z is any complex number and z is the complex
conjugate of z.
1.6 HeavIsIde’s unIt steP FunctIon

[Winter 2016, 2014]
Heaviside’s unit step function u(t) (Fig. 1.3) is defined by
u(t)
u(t ) = 0 t<0
1
=1 t>0
t
The displaced or delayed unit step function 0
Fig 1.3 Unit step function
u(t – a) (Fig. 1.4) represents the function u(t) which
is displaced by a distance a to the right. It is defined
by
u(t - a ) = 0 t<a
=1 t>a Fig. 1.4 Delayed unit step
function
1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5
Properties of the unit step Function

(i) f (t ) u(t ) = 0 t<0
= f (t ) t>0
(ii) f (t ) u(t - a ) = 0 t<a
= f (t ) t>a
(iii) f (t - a ) u(t - b) = 0 t<b
= f (t - a ) t>b
(iv) f (t ) [u(t - a ) - u(t - b)] = 0 t<a
= f (t ) a<t<b
=0 t>b
1.7 Pulse oF unIt HeIGHt and duratIon FunctIon

The pulse of unit height and duration function
(Fig. 1.5) is defined by
f (t ) = 1 0<t <T
=0 t >T Fig. 1.5 Pulse of unit height
and duration function
1.8 sInusoIdal Pulse FunctIon
[Winter 2012; Summer 2014]

The sinusoidal pulse function (Fig. 1.6) is defined by
p
f (t ) = a sin at 0<t<
a
p
=0 t>
a
Fig. 1.6 Sinusoidal pulse
function
1.9 rectanGle FunctIon
[Winter 2017; Summer 2013]
The rectangle function (Fig. 1.7) is defined by
f (t ) = 1 a<t<b
=0 otherwise
Fig. 1.7 Rectangle function
In terms of unit step function, the rectangle function
can be expressed as
f(t) = u(t – a) – u(t – b)
If a = 0, the rectangle function reduces to a pulse of unit height and duration b

function.
1.10 Gate FunctIon
The gate function (Fig. 1.8) is defined by

f (t ) = 1 |t | < a
=0 |t | > a
Fig. 1.8 Gate function
1.11 dIrac’s delta FunctIon

[Winter 2014, 2013]
Consider the function f(t) (Fig. 1.9) over a time interval 0 < t < Œ, defined by
f (t ) = 0 -• < t < 0
1
= 0<t<Œ
Œ
=0 Œ< t < •
Fig. 1.9 any function
The area enclosed by the function f(t) and the t-axis is f(t)
given by
• 0 Œ •
Ú-• f (t ) dt = Ú-• f (t ) dt + Ú0 f ( t ) dt + Ú f ( t ) d t
Œ
Œ1
= 0+Ú dt + 0
0 Œ
1 Œ
= t
Œ 0
1
= Œ
Œ
=1
As Œ Æ 0, the height of the rectangle increases indefinitely in such a way that its area
is always equal to 1. This function is known as Dirac’s delta function or unit impulse
function and is denoted by d (t).
\ d (t ) = lim f (t )
ŒÆ0
The displaced (delayed) delta or displaced impulse
function d (t – a) (Fig. 1.10) represents the function
d (t) displaced by a distance a to the right.
Ï0 -• < t < a Fig. 1.10 Delayed function
Ô1
Ô
d (t - a ) = lim f (t ) = lim Ì a<t<a+Œ
ŒÆ 0 ŒÆ 0 Œ
Ô
ÔÓ0 a + Œ< t < •
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.7
Properties of dirac’s delta Function

(i) d (t) = 0 tπ0
•
(ii) Ú-• d (t ) dt = 1
•
(iii)
Ú-• f (t ) d (t ) dt = f (0)
•
(iv) Ú-• f (t ) d (t - a) dt = f (a)
1.12 sIGnum FunctIon
The signum function (Fig. 1.11) is defined by f(t)

f (t ) = 1 t>0 1
= -1 t<0 0 t
In terms of unit step function, the signum function can –1

be expressed as Fig. 1.11 Signum function
f(t) = u(t) – u(–t) = 2u(t) – 1
1.13 sawtootH wave FunctIon

[Winter 2017]
The sawtooth wave function with period a (Fig. 1.12)
is defined by
f (t ) = t 0<t<a
=0 t<0
Fig. 1.12 Sawtooth wave
function
1.14 trIanGular wave FunctIon
The triangular wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.13)
is defined by
f (t ) = t 0<t<a
Fig. 1.13 Triangular
= 2a - t a < t < 2a
wave function
1.15 HalF-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

The half-wave rectified sinusoidal function with
period 2p (Fig. 1.14) is defined by
f (t ) = a sin t 0<t <p
=0 p < t < 2p Fig. 1.14 Half-wave rectified
sinusoidal function
1.16 Full-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

The full-wave rectified sinusoidal function with
period p (Fig. 1.15) is defined by
f (t) = a sin t 0<t<p
Fig. 1.15 Full-wave rectified
sinusoidal function
1.17 square-wave FunctIon
The square-wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.16)

is defined by
f (t ) = a 0<t<a
= -a a < t < 2a
Fig. 1.16 Square-wave
function
multiple choice questions

Select the most appropriate response out of the various alternatives given in each
of the following questions:
Ê 13 ˆ
1. The value of Á ˜ is [Winter 2015]
Ë 2¯
10395 10395
(a) p (b) p
64 64
10395 1 10395 1
(c) (d)
64 p 64 p
2. The relationship between beta and gamma functions is
[Winter 2016, 2015; Summer 2017]
m n m n
(a) B(m, n) = (b) B(m, n) =
m+n m+n
mn m+n
(c) B(m, n) = (d) B(m, n)
m+n mn
3. Duplication formula is [Summer 2016]
1 p 2m
(a) m m- = (b) m m + 1 = p 2 m
2 2m - 1 2 22 m - 1
1 p 1 2m
(c) m m+ = 2m - 1 (d) m m + = 2m - 1
2 2 2 2
Ê 9 7ˆ
4. The value of B Á , ˜ is [Summer 2016]
Ë 2 2¯
p 5p p 5p
(a) (d) (c) (d)
1024 1024 2048 2048
5. The value of ÊÁ 1 ˆ˜ is [Winter 2016]

Ë 2¯
1 1
(a) p (b) p (c) (d)
2 p
Ê 1ˆ Ê 3ˆ
6. The value of Á ˜ Á ˜ is
Ë 4¯ Ë 4¯
(a) 2 p (b) 2 p (c) 2p (d) 2p
Ê 1 1ˆ
7. The value of B Á , ˜ is
Ë 2 2¯
p
(a) p (b) p (c) (d) 2p
2
•
8. The value of Ú f (t ) d (t ) dt is
-•
(a) f(•) (b) f(0) (c) 0 (d) 1
9. The signum function can be expressed as
(a) u(t) – u(–t) (b) u(t) + u(–t)
(c) 2u(t) (d) 2u(t) + 1
10. The value of J n + 1 ( x ) + J n - 1 ( x ) is
2 2n 1 n
(a) J ( x) (b) J ( x) (c) J ( x) (d) J ( x)
x n x n x n x n
11. The value of erf (•) is
(a) 0 (b) –1 (c) 1 (d) 2
12. Heaviside’s unit function, u(t) is defined by
(a) u(t ) = 0 t<0 (b) u(t ) = 1 t<0
=1 t>0 =0 t>0
(c) u(t ) = - 1 t < 0 (d) u(t ) = 0 t<0

=1 t>0 = -1 t > 0
7
13. The value of is [Summer 2017]
2
15 p 5 p 15 p 15 p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8 2 4
answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a)
CHAPTER
2
Fourier Series and
Fourier Integral
chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Periodic Functions
2.3 Fourier Series
2.4 Trigonometric Fourier Series
2.5 Fourier Series of Functions of any Period
2.6 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions
2.7 Half-Range Fourier Series
2.8 Fourier Integral
2.1 IntroductIon
Fourier series is used in the analysis of periodic functions. Many of the phenomena
studied in engineering and sciences are periodic in nature, e.g., current and voltage
in an ac circuit. These periodic functions can be analyzed into their constituent
components by a Fourier analysis. The Fourier series makes use of orthogonality
relationships of the sine and cosine functions. It decomposes a periodic function into a
sum of sine-cosine functions. The computation and study of Fourier series is known
as harmonic analysis. It has many applications in electrical engineering, vibration
analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, etc.
2.2 PerIodIc FunctIons

A function f(x) is said to be periodic with period T > 0, if f (x) = f (x + T) for all real x.
The function f(x) repeats itself after each interval of T. If f (x) = f (x + T) = f (x + 2T)
= f (x + 3T) = ... then T is called the period of the function f (x).
e.g. sin x is a periodic function with period 2p. Hence, sin x = sin(x + 2p).
2.2 Chapter 2 Fourier Series and Fourier Integral
2.3 FourIer serIes

Representation of a function over a certain interval by a linear combination of mutually
orthogonal functions is called Fourier series representation.
convergence of the Fourier series (dirichlet’s conditions)

A function f (x) can be represented by a complete set of orthogonal functions within the
interval (c, c + 2l). The Fourier series of the function f (x) exists only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (x) is periodic, i.e., f (x) = f (x + 2l), where 2l is the period of the function
f (x).
(ii) f (x) and its integrals are finite and single-valued.
(iii) f (x) has a finite number of discontinuities, i.e., f (x) is piecewise continuous in
the interval (c, c + 2l).
(iv) f (x) has a finite number of maxima and minima.
These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
2.4 trIgonometrIc FourIer serIes

np x np x
We know that the set of functions sin and cos are orthogonal in the interval
l l
(c, c + 2l) for any value of c, where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
c + 2l mp x np x
i.e., Úc sin
l
sin
l
dx = 0 mπn
=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc cos
l
cos
l
dx = 0 mπn
=l m=n
c + 2l mp x np x
Úc sin
l
cos
l
dx = 0 for all m, n
Hence, any function f (x) can be represented in terms of these orthogonal functions in
the interval (c, c + 2l) for any value of c.
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin
n =1 l n =1 l
This series is known as a trigonometric Fourier series or simply, a Fourier series. For
example, a square function can be constructed by adding orthogonal sine components
(Fig. 2.1).
f (x)
x One sine component

O
f (x)
x Addition of two sine

O components
f (x)
x Addition of three sine

O components
..
..
f (x) ..
.
Addition of many sine
x
O components
..
f (x)
x Square function
O
Fig. 2.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components
2.5 FourIer serIes oF FunctIons oF Any PerIod

Let f (x) be a periodic function with period 2l in the interval (c, c + 2l). Then the Fourier
series of f (x) is given by
•
np x • np x
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos + Â bn sin …(2.1)
n =1 l n =1 l
determination of a0
Integrating both the sides of Eq. (2.1) w.r.t. x in the interval (c, c + 2l),
c + 2l c + 2l c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ
Úc f ( x )dx = a0 Ú dx + Ú Á Â an cos l ˜ dx + Úc Á Â bn sin l ˜ dx
c c Ë n =1 ¯ Ë n =1 ¯
= a0(c + 2l – c) + 0 + 0
= 2la0
1 c + 2l
2l Úc
Hence, a0 = f ( x )dx …(2.2)
determination of an
np x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (2.1) by cos and integrating w.r.t. x in the
l
interval (c, c + 2l),
c + 2l np x c + 2l np x c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
Úc f ( x ) cos
l
dx = a0 Ú
c
cos
l
dx + Ú
c Á Â
Ë n =1
an cos
l ¯ ˜ cos
l
dx
c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
+Ú Á Â bn sin l ˜ cos l dx
c Ë n =1 ¯
= 0 + lan + 0
= l an
1 c + 2l np x
l Úc
Hence, an = f ( x ) cos dx …(2.3)
l
determination of bn
np x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (2.1) by sin and integrating w.r.t. x in the
interval (c, c + 2l ), l
c + 2l np x c + 2l np x c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
Úc f ( x )sin
l
dx = a0 Ú
c
sin
l
dx + Ú
c Á Â
Ë n =1
an cos
l ¯ ˜ sin
l
dx
c + 2l Ê • np x ˆ np x
+Ú Á Â bn sin l ˜ sin l dx
c Ë n =1 ¯
= 0 + 0 + lbn
= l bn
1 c + 2l np x
Hence, bn =
l Úc
f ( x )sin
l
dx …(2.4)
The formulae (2.2), (2.3), and (2.4) are known as Euler’s formulae which give the values
of coefficients a0, an, and bn. These coefficients are known as Fourier coefficients.
Corollary 1 When c = 0 and 2l = 2p
∞ ∞
f ( x) = a0 + ∑ an cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
where a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 2p
an = Ú f ( x ) cos nx dx
p 0
1 2p
bn = Ú f ( x )sin nx dx
p 0
Corollary 2 When c = –p and 2l = 2p

• •
f ( x ) = a0 + Â an cos nx + Â bn sin nx
n =1 n =1
1 p
where a0 =
2p Ú-p f ( x) dx
1 p
an =
p Ú-p f ( x) cos nx dx
1 p
bn =
p Ú-p f ( x)sin nx dx
Corollary 3 When c = 0
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 2l
where a0 = Ú f ( x ) dx
2l 0
1 2l np x
an = Ú f ( x ) cos dx
l 0 l
1 2l np x
bn = Ú f ( x )sin dx
l 0 l
Corollary 4 When c = – l
•
np x • np x
n =1 l n =1 l
1 l
2l Ú - l
where a0 = f ( x )dx
1 l np x
an = Ú f ( x ) cos dx
l - l l
1 l np x
bn = Ú f ( x )sin dx
l - l l
Fourier series expansion with Period 2p
example 1
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x in the interval (0, 2p).
Solution
The Fourier series of f (x) with period 2p is given by
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p
=
2p Ú0 x dx
2p
1 x2
=
2p 2
0
1 Ê 4p 2 ˆ
= Á ˜
2p Ë 2 ¯
=p
1 2p
an =
p Ú0 f ( x ) cos nx dx
1 2p
=
p Ú0 x cos nx dx
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= xÁ ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 Ê cos 2 np cos 0 ˆ
=
p ÁË n2
- 2 ˜ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
n ¯
=0 [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1 2p
p Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin nx dx
1 2p
= Ú x sin nx dx
p 0
2p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= xÁ- ˜ - (1) Á - 2 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È Ê cos 2 np ˆ ˘
= Í -2p Á
pÎ Ë n ˜¯ ˚
˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
2
=-
n
[Q cos 2np = 1]
•
1
Hence, f ( x ) = p - 2Â sin nx
n =1 n
Ê 1 1 ˆ
x = p - 2 Á sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x + L˜
Ë 2 3 ¯
example 2
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 in the interval (0, 2p) and, hence,
p2 1 1 1
deduce that = 2 - 2 + 2 -L
12 1 2 3
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p
=
2p Ú0 x 2 dx
2p
1 x3
=
2p 3
0
1 Ê 8p 3 ˆ
= Á ˜
2p Ë 3 ¯
4p 2
=
3
1 2p
p Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos nx dx
1 2p
= Ú x 2 cos nx dx
p 0
2p
1 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2 np ˆ ˘
= Í 4p
p Î ÁË n2 ˜¯ ˚
˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
1 Ê 4p ˆ
= Á 2˜
pËn ¯
[Q cos 2np = 1]
4
= 2
n
1 2p
bn =
p Ú0 f ( x )sin nx dx
1 2p
=
p Ú0 x 2 sin nx dx
2p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= x2 Á - ˜ - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È 2 Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘

= Í4p ÁË - ˜¯ + 2 Á ˜ - 2Á 3 ˜˙
pÎ n Ë n 3 ¯ Ë n ¯˚
1 Ê 4p 2 ˆ
= Á-
pË n ¯
˜ [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
4p
=-
n
• •
4p 2 1 1
Hence, f ( x) = + 4 Â 2 cos nx - 4p Â sin nx
3 n =1 n n =1 n
4p 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
x2 = + 4 Á 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos3 x + L˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
Ê1 1 1 ˆ
- 4p Á sin x + sin x + sin 3 x + L˜ ... (1)
Ë1 2 3 ¯
Putting x = p in Eq. (1),
4p 2 Ê1 1 1 ˆ
p2 = + 4 Á 2 cos p + 2 cos 2p + 2 cos 3p + L˜ + 0
3 Ë1 2 3 ¯
4p 2 Ê 1 1 1 ˆ
= + 4 Á - 2 + 2 - 2 + K˜
3 Ë 1 2 3 ¯
p2 1 1 1
= - + -K
12 12 22 32
example 3
1
(p - x ) in the interval (0, 2p).
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) =
2
p 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 1 - + - +K [Winter 2013]
4 3 5 7
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p 1
=
2p Ú0 2
(p - x )dx
2p
1 x2
= px-
4p 2
0
1
= (2p 2 - 2p 2 )
4p
=0
1 2p
an =
1 2p 1
=
p Ú0 2
(p - x ) cos nx dx
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= (p - x ) Á ˜ - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
2p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È cos 2 np cos 0 ˘
= Í- + 2 ˙
2pÎ n2 n ˚
= 0 [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
1 2p 1
bn =
p Ú0 2
(p - x )sin nx dx
2p
1 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= (p - x ) Á - - (-1) Á - 2 ˜
2p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘
= Í(-p ) ÁË - ˜¯ - p ÁË - ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
2p Î n n ¯˚
1 Êp pˆ
= Á + ˜
2p Ë n n ¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n
•
1
Hence, f ( x ) = Â sin nx
n =1 n
1 1 1 1 1
(p - x ) = sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x + sin 4 x + sin 5 x
2 2 3 4 5
1 1
+ sin 6 x + sin 7 x +L ...(1)
6 7
p
Putting x = in Eq. (1),
2
1Êpˆ p 1 1 3p 1 1 5p
Á ˜ = sin + sin p + sin + sin 2p + sin
Ë
2 2¯ 2 2 3 2 4 5 2
1 1 7p
+ sin 3p + sin +L
6 7 2
p 1 1 1
= 1 - + - +º
4 3 5 7
example 4 2
Ê p - xˆ
Obtain the Fourier series of f ( x ) = ÁË ˜ in the interval 0 £ x £ 2p.
2 ¯
p2 1 1 1
Hence, deduce that = - + -L [Winter 2014]
12 12 22 32
Solution
The Fourier series of f(x) with period 2p is given by
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x ) dx
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
2p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ dx
2p
1 (p - x )3
=
8p -3 0
1
=- (-p 3 - p 3 )
24 p
p2
=
12
1 2p
p 0
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ cos nx dx
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= (p - x )2 Á ˜ - 2(p - x )(-1) Á - 2 ˜ + 2(-1)(-1) Á - 3 ˜
4p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1È Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ï Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸˘
= Í2p Á ˜ - Ì-2p Á 2 ˜ ˝˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
ÍÎ Ë n ¯ Ó Ë n ¯ ˛˙˚
4p 2
1 Ê 2p 2p ˆ
= +
4p ÁË n2 n2 ˜¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n2
1 2p
bn = Ú f ( x ) sin nx dx
p 0
2
1 2p Ê p - xˆ
=
p Ú0 ÁË
2 ¯
˜ sin nx dx
2p
= (p - x )2 Á - - 2(p - x )(-1) Á - 2 ˜ + 2(-1)(-1) Á 3 ˜
4p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 ÈÏ 2 Ê cos 2np ˆ 2 cos 2np ¸ Ï 2 Ê cos 0 ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ¸˘

= ÍÌp Á - ˜ + ˝ - Ìp Á - ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜ ˝˙
ÍÎÓ Ë n ¯ ˛ Ó Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ ˛˙˚
4p 3
n
[Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0]
1 Ê p2 2 p2 2ˆ
= Á - + 3 + - 3˜ [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
4p Ë n n n n ¯
=0
•
p2 1
Hence, f ( x ) = + Â 2 cos nx
12 n = 1 n
2
Ê p - xˆ p2 1 1 1
ÁË 2 ˜¯ = 12 + 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + L ....(1)
1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
0= - 2 + 2 - 2 +L
12 1 2 3
p2 1 1 1
= - + -L
12 12 22 32
example 5
Find the Fourier series for f(x) = eax in (0, 2p), a > 0. [Summer 2018]
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p ax
=
2p Ú0 e dx
2p
1 e ax
=
2p a
0
1
= (e2 ap - 1)
2 ap
1 2p
an =
1 2p ax
=
p Ú0 e cos nx dx
2p
1 e ax
= (a cos nx + n sin nx )
p a 2 + n2
0
1 È e2 ap a ˘ ÈQ sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ˘
= Í 2 (a cos 2 np ) - 2 ˙ Í ˙
Î cos 0 = 1
2
p ÍÎ a + n a + n2 ˙˚ ˚
a
= 2 2
(e2 ap - 1) [Q cos 2np = 1]
p (a + n )
1 2p
bn =
1 2p
=
p Ú0 a ax sin nx dx
2p
1 e ax
= (a sin nx - n cos nx )
p a 2 + n2
0
1È e2 ap n ˘ ÈQ sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ˘
= Í 2 (- n cos 2 np ) + 2 ˙ Í ˙
pÍÎ a + n
2
a + n2 ˙˚ Î cos 0 = 1 ˚
n
= 2 2
(1 - e2 ap ) [Q cos 2np = 1]
p (a + n )
1 a(e2 ap - 1) • 1
Hence, f ( x) = (e2 ap - 1) + Â a2 + n2 cos nx
2 ap p n =1
•
1 - e2 ap n
+
p
Â a2 + n2 sin nx
n =1
example 6
3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = in the interval (0, 2p)
12
p2 1 1
Hence, deduce that = 1 + 2 + 2 +K
6 2 3
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2
=
2p Ú0 12
dx
2p
1 Ê x3 ˆ Ê x2 ˆ
= 3 Á ˜ - 6p Á ˜ + 2p 2 x
24p Ë 3 ¯ Ë 2¯ 0
1 È Ê 8p 3 ˆ Ê 4p 2 ˆ ˘
= Í3 Á ˜ - 6p Á ˜ + 4p 3 ˙
24p Î Ë 3 ¯ Ë 2 ¯ ˚
=0
1 2p
an =
1 2p Ê 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ˆ
=
p Ú0 Á
Ë 12 ˜ cos nx dx
¯
2p
1 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= (3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ) Á - (6 x - 6p ) Á - 2 ˜ + 6 Á - 3 ˜
12p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È Ê cos 2np ˆ Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘

= Í(6p ) ÁË ˜ - (-6p ) Á 2 ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
12p Î n 2 ¯ Ë n ¯˚
1 Ê 6p 6p ˆ
= +
12p ÁË n2 n2 ˜¯
[Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
1
=
n2
1 2p
p 0
1 2p Ê 3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ˆ
p Ú0 ÁË
= ˜ sin nx dx
12 ¯
2p
= (3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 ) Á - ˜ - (6 x - 6p ) Á - 2 ˜ + 6 Á 3 ˜
12p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È 2 2 2 Ê cos 2 np ˆ Ê cos 2 np ˆ 2 Ê cos 0 ˆ

= Í(12p - 12p + 2p ) ÁË - ˜¯ + 6 Á
Ë 3 ˜¯ - (2p ) ÁË - n ˜¯
12p Î n n
Ê cos 0 ˆ ˘
- 6 Á 3 ˜ ˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
Ë n ¯˚
=0 [Q cos 2np = cos 0 = 1]
∞
1
Hence, f ( x) = ∑ 2
cos nx
n =1 n
3 x 2 - 6 xp + 2p 2 1 1
= cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + L … (1)
12 2 3
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
p2 1 1
= cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + L
6 2 3
1 1
= 1+ 2 + 2 + L
2 3
example 7
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = e–x in the interval (0, 2p).
p 1 • ( -1)n
Hence, deduce that = Â 2 . [Summer 2014]
2 sinh p n = 2 n + 1
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 2p - x
2p Ú0
= e dx
1 2p
= -e- x
2p 0
-e -2p + e0
=
2p
1 - e -2p
=
2p
1 2p
p 0
1 2p
= Ú e - x cos nx dx
p 0
2p
1 e- x
= (- cos nx + n sin nx )
p n2 + 1
0
1 È e -2p 1 ˘
= Í 2
p Î n +1
(- cos 2 np ) - 2 (- cos 0)˙ [Q sin 2np = sin 0 = 0]
n +1 ˚
1
= (1 - e -2p ) [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
p (n + 1)
2
1 2p
bn =
1 2p - x
=
p Ú0 e sin nx dx
2p
1 e- x
= (- sin nx - n cos nx )
p n2 + 1
0
Èe
1 -2p
1 ˘
= Í 2 (- n cos 2 np ) - 2 (- n cos 0)˙ [Q sin 2 np = sin 0 = 0 ]
ÍÎ n + 1
p n +1 ˙˚
n
= 2
(1 - e -2p ) [Q cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1]
p (n + 1)
1 - e -2p 1 - e -2p •
1 1 - e -2p •
n
Hence, f ( x ) =
2p
+
p
Â n2 + 1 cos nx + p
Â n2 + 1 sin nx … (1)
n =1 n =1

1 - e -2p 1 - e -2p •
( -1)n
f (p ) =
2p
+
p
Â n2 + 1 ÈÎQ cos np = ( -1)n , sin np = 0 ˘˚
n =1
1- e -2p
1- e -2p È 1 • ( -1)n ˘
e -p = + Í- + Â 2 ˙
2p p ÍÎ 2 n = 2 n + 1 ˙˚
1 - e -2p •
( -1)n
=
p
Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p (-1)n
p
e (1 - e -2p
)
= Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p (-1)n
e -ep -p
= Â n2 + 1
n=2
•
p 1 (-1)n
Hence, =Â 2
2 sinh p n = 2 n + 1
example 8
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = 1 - cos x in the interval (0, 2p). Hence,
1 • 1
deduce that = Â 2
.
2 n= 1 4 n -1
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
x
f ( x ) = 1 - cos x = 2 sin
2
1 2p
a0 =
2p Ú0 f ( x )dx
1 2p x
=
2p Ú0 2 sin dx
2
2p
2 x
= -2 cos
2p 2 0
2
= ( -2 cos p + 2 cos 0)
2p
2 2
= [Q cos p = -1, cos 0 = 1]
p
1 2p
an =
1 2p x
=
p Ú0
2 sin cos nx dx
2
2 2p È Ê 2 n + 1 ˆ Ê 2n - 1ˆ ˘
2p Ú0 Î ÁË 2 ˜¯
= Ísin x - sin Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
x dx
2p
2 2 Ê 2n + 1ˆ 2 Ê 2n - 1ˆ
= - cos Á ˜ x+ cos Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ 0
x
2p 2 n + 1 Ë 2 ¯ 2n - 1
2 È 2 2 cos 0 2 2 cos 0 ˘
= Í - 2n + 1 cos(2 np + p ) + 2 n + 1 + 2 n - 1 cos(2 np - p ) - 2 n - 1 ˙
2p Î ˚
2È 4 4 ˘
= Í -
2p Î 2 n + 1 2 n - 1 ˙˚
[Q cos(2n + 1)p = cos(2n - 1)p = -1,cos 0 = 1]
4 2 1
=-
p 4n - 1
2
1 2p
bn =
1 2p x
=
p Ú02 sin sin nx dx
2
2 2p È Ê 2 n - 1 ˆ Ê 2n + 1ˆ ˘
2p Ú0 Î ÁË 2 ˜¯
= Ícos x - cos Á
Ë 2 ˜¯ ˙˚
x dx
2p
2 2 Ê 2n - 1ˆ 2 Ê 2n + 1ˆ
= sin x- sin x
2p 2 n - 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯ 2 n + 1 ÁË 2 ˜¯ 0
= 0 [Q sin(2 n - 1)p = sin(2 n + 1)p = sin 0 = 0 ]
•
2 2 4 2 1
Hence, f ( x) =
p
-
p
Â 4n2 - 1 cos nx … (1)
n =1
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),

•
2 2 4 2 1
f (0 ) = 0 =
p
-
p
Â 4n2 - 1
n =1
1 • 1
=Â 2
2 n =1 4 n - 1
example 9
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = -1 0< x<p
=2 p < x < 2p
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x )dx
1 È p
(-1)dx + Ú 2dx ˘˙
2p
2p ÎÍ Ú0
=
p ˚
1 È p
- x 0 + 2 x p ˘˙
2p
=
2p ÎÍ ˚
1
=
2p
[(-p ) + (4p - 2p )]
1
=
2
1 2p
p Ú0
an = f ( x ) cos nx dx
= ÈÍ Ú (-1) cos nx dx + Ú 2 cos nx dx ˘˙

1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
1 È sin nx
p
sin nx
2p ˘
= Í- +2 ˙
pÍ n 0 n p ˙
Î ˚
= 0 [Q sin 2 np = sin np = sin 0 = 0 ]
1 2p
p Ú0
bn = f ( x )sin nx dx
= ÈÍ Ú ( -1)sin nx dx + Ú 2 sin nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
1 È cos nx 2 cos nx ˘
p 2p
= Í +- ˙
pÍ n 0 n p ˙
Î ˚
1 È cos np cos 0 2 cos 2 np 2 cos np ˘
= Í - - +
pÎ n n n n ˙˚
3 ÈÎQ cos 2 np = cos 0 = 1, cos np = ( -1)n ˘˚
= [( -1)n - 1]
np
• È ˘
Hence, f ( x ) = 1 + 3 Â Í (-1) - 1 ˙ sin nx
n
2 p n =1 ÍÎ n ˙˚
1 3Ê 2 2 ˆ
= + Á -2 sin x - sin 3 x - sin 5 x - L˜
2 pË 3 5 ¯
1 6Ê 1 1 ˆ
= - Á sin x + sin 3 x + sin 5 x + L˜
2 p Ë 3 5 ¯
example 10
2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) = x 0< x<p [Winter 2012]
=0 p < x < 2p
Solution
• •
n =1 n =1
1 2p
2p Ú0
a0 = f ( x ) dx
1 È p 2
0 ◊ dx ˘˙
2p
2p ÍÎ Ú0 Úp
= x dx +
˚
p
1 x3
=
2p 3 0
1 Êp 3ˆ
=
2p ÁË 3 ˜¯
p2
=
6
1 2p
p 0
= ÈÍ Ú x 2 cos nx dx + Ú 0 ◊ cos nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
p
1 2 Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ
= x Á - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á - 3 ˜
p Ë n ˜¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 Ê cos np ˆ
= 2p ˜ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
p ÁË n2 ¯
2 ÈÎQ cos np = (-1)n ˘˚
= 2 (-1)n
n
1 2p
p 0
= ÈÍ Ú x 2 sin nx dx + Ú 0 ◊ sin nx dx ˘˙
1 p 2p
pÎ 0 p ˚
p
1 2 Ê cos nx ˆ Ê sin nx ˆ Ê cos nx ˆ
= x Á- ˜ - 2x Á - 2 ˜ + 2 Á 3 ˜
p Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ Ë n ¯ 0
1 È 2 Ê cos np ˆ Ê cos np ˆ 2 cos 0 ˘

= Í-p ÁË ˜ + 2 ÁË ˜- ˙ [Q sin np = sin 0 = 0]
pÎ n ¯ n3 ¯ n3 ˚
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
grana.
¿Hay mas beldad que ver la
pradería
estrellada con flores de las
plantas,
que van mostrando el fruto y la
alegría?
Donde, con profundíssimas
gargantas,
las tiernas avecillas estudiosas
están de señalar cuales y
cuántas.
Allí veréis pastoras más
hermosas
(no con maestra mano
ataviadas),
que las damas en Cortes
populosas.
Allí veréis las fuentes no
tocadas
distilando, no agua al viso
humano,
mas el cristal de piedras
variadas.
Allí veréis el prado abierto y
llano,
donde los pastorcillos su
centella
descubren al Amor, furioso,
insano.
Este, de su pastora se
querella;
aquél de sí, por que miró la
suya;
el otro, más grossero, se loa
della.
No hay quien por defeto se
lo arguya,
ni quien de rico ponga
sobrecejo,
ni quien á los menores dexe y
huya.
En el prado se oye el
rabelejo,
la zampoña resuena en la
floresta,
en la majada juegan chueca ó
rejo.
Pues qué ¿venido el día de
la fiesta,
hay gusto igual que ver á los
pastores
haciendo á las pastoras su
requesta?
Uno presenta el ramo de las
flores,
y cuando llega, el rostro
demudado,
otro dice suavíssimos amores.
Uno llora, y se muestra
desamado;
otro ríe, y se muestra bien
querido;
otro calla, y se muestra
descuidado.
El uno baila, el otro está
tendido;
el uno lucha, el otro corre y
salta,
el otro motejado va corrido.
En esta dulce vida, ¿qué
nos falta?
y más á mí que trato los
pastores,
y cazo el bosque hondo y la
sierra alta,
Con arco, perchas, redes y
ventores,
ni basta al ave el vuelo
presuroso,
ni se me van los ciervos
corredores.
Este sabuesso era un
perezoso,
y ya es mejor que todos: halo
hecho
que, como mal usado, era
medroso.
Tiene buen espinazo y muy
buen pecho
y mejor boca: ¡oh pan bien
empleado!
toma, Melampo, y éntrete en
provecho.
Quiérome ya sentar, que
estoy cansado;
¡oh seco tronco, que otro
tiempo fuiste
fresno umbroso, de Ninfas
visitado!
Aquí verás el galardón que
hubiste,
pues te faltó la tierra, el agua,
el cielo,
después que este lugar
ennobleciste.
Assí passan los hombres en
el suelo;
después que han dado al
mundo hermosura,
viene la muerte con escuro
velo.
Ya me acuerdo de ver una
figura
que estaba en tu cogollo
dibujada,
de la que un tiempo me causó
tristura.
Estaba un día sola aquí
sentada;
¡cuán descuidado iba yo de
ella,
cuando la vi, no menos
descuidada!
Puse los ojos y la vida en
ella,
y queriendo decirla mis
dolores,
huyó de mí, como yo ahora
della.
Por cierto grande mal son
los amores,
pues al que en ellos es más
venturoso,
no le faltan sospechas y
temores.
Igual es vivir hombre en su
reposo.
¿Quién es aquel pastor tan
fatigado?
Debe de ser Florelo ó
Vulneroso.
La barba y el cabello
rebuxado,
la frente baxa, la color torcida.
¡Qué claras señas trae de
enamorado!
¿Es por ventura Fanio?
¡Qué perdida
tengo la vista! Fanio me
parece.
¡Oh Fanio, buena sea tu
venida!
FANIO
Amado Delio, el cielo que
te ofrece
tanta paz y sossiego, no se
canse,
que solo es bien aquel que
permanece.
DELIO
Aquesse mismo, Fanio mío,
amanse
el cuidado cruel que te
atormenta,
de suerte que tu corazón
descanse.
He desseado que me
diesses cuenta,
pues que la debes dar de tus
pesares
á quien contigo, como tú, lo
sienta.
Y quiero, Fanio, por lo que
tratares
perder la fe y el crédito
contigo,
cuando en poder ajeno lo
hallares.
Sabe que al que me ofrezco
por amigo,
la hacienda pospuesta y aun
la vida,
hasta el altar me hallará
consigo.
FANIO
Delio, tu voluntad no
merecida
no es menester mostrarla con
palabras,
pues en obras está tan
conocida.
Pero después que tus orejas
abras,
más lastimosas á escuchar mi
duelo
en un lenguaje de pastor de
cabras,
Ni á ti podrá servirte de
recelo,
pues ya tienes sobradas
prevenciones,
ni á mí de altivo en tanto
desconsuelo.
Y no son de manera mis
passiones
que se puedan contar tan de
camino,
que aunque sobra razón,
faltan razones.
DELIO
Conmigo te han sobrado de
contino,
entendiendo que la hay para
encubrirme
lo que por más que calles
adivino.
Y aunque me ves en porfiar
tan firme,
sabe que poco más que yo
barrunto
de tu importancia puedes
descubrirme.
Y pues me ves en todo tan á
punto
para mostrarme amigo
verdadero,
no me dilates lo que te
pregunto.
Cuéntame tus passiones,
compañero,
cata que un fuego fácil
encubierto
suele romper por el templado
acero.
FANIO
Oh, caro amigo mío, y cuán
más cierto
será hacer mis llagas muy
mayores,
queriéndote contar mi
desconcierto.
Porque siendo mis daños
por amores,
tú pretendes saber, contra
derecho,
más que la que ha causado
mis dolores.
Salga el nombre de Liria de
mí pecho
y toque á tus orejas con mi
daño,
ya que no puede ser por mí
provecho.
No me quexo de engaño ó
desengaño,
de ingratitud, de celos ni de
olvido,
quéxome de otro mal nuevo y
extraño.
Quéxome del Amor, que me
ha herido;
abrióme el corazón, cerró la
boca,
ató la lengua, desató el
sentido.
Y cuanto más la rabia al
alma toca,
la paciencia y firmeza van
creciendo
y la virtud de espíritu se
apoca.
De tal manera, que me veo
muriendo,
sin osarlo decir á quien podría
sola dar el remedio que
pretendo.
DELIO
Amigo Fanio, aquessa tu
porfía
tiene de desvarío una gran
parte,
aunque perdones mi
descortesía.
Díme, ¿por qué razón debes
guardarte
de descubrir tu llaga á quien la
hace?
¿ó cómo sin saberla ha de
curarte?
FANIO
Porque de Liria más me
satisface
que me mate su amor que su
ira y saña,
y en esta duda el buen callar
me aplace.
DELIO
No tengo á Liria yo por tan
extraña,
ni entiendo que hay mujer que
el ser querida
le pudiesse causar ira tamaña.
Cierto desdeño ó cierta
despedida,
cuál que torcer de rostro ó
cuál que enfado,
y cada cosa de éstas muy
fingida.
Aquesto yo lo creo, Fanio
amado;
empero el ser amada, no hay
ninguna
que no lo tenga por dichoso
hado.
Y si, como me cuentas, te
importuna
aquesse mal y tienes aparejo,
no calles más pesar de tu
fortuna.
Tú no te acuerdas del
proverbio viejo:
que no oye Dios al que se
hace mudo,
ni da ventura al que no ha
consejo.
FANIO
Pues dame tú la industria,
que soy rudo,
grossero y corto, y en un
mismo grado
mi razonar y mi remedio dudo.
Bien que llevando Liria su
ganado
por mi dehesa, junto con el
mío,
me preguntó si soy
enamorado.
Y el otro día estando junto al
río
llorando solo, en medio de la
siesta,
Liria llevaba al monte su
cabrío.
Y díxome: Pastor, ¿qué cosa
es ésta?
y yo turbado, sin osar miralla,
volvíle en un suspiro la
respuesta.
Mas ya estoy resumido de
buscalla,
y decirle por cifra lo que
siento,
al menos matárame el
enojalla.
De cualquier suerte acaba
mi tormento,
con muerte, si la enojo, ó con
la vida,
si mi amor y mi fe le dan
contento.
Veremos esta empresa
concluída,
venceré mi temor con mi
deseo,
la vitoria, ó ganada ó bien
perdida.
¿Oyes cantar? D. Si oyo. F.
A lo que creo,
Liria es aquélla. D. Eslo, F. Al
valle viene.
¡Ay, que te busco y tiemblo si
te veo!
Ascóndete de mí, que no
conviene,
si tengo de hablarle, que te
vea.
DELIO
Ascóndeme, pastor; Amor
ordene
que tu mal sienta y tus
cuidados crea.
LIRIA
El pecho generoso,
que tiene por incierto
serle possible, al más
enamorado
ser pagado, y quejoso
vivir estando muerto,
y verse en medio de la llama
helado;
cuán bienaventurado
le llamará el extraño,
y en cuánta desventura
juzgará al que procura
hacerse con sus manos este
daño,
y por su devaneo
á la razón esclava del Deseo.
Memoria clara y pura,
voluntad concertada,
consiente al alma el corazón
exento;
no viene su dulzura
con acíbar mezclada,
ni en medio del placer ama el
tormento
sano el entendimiento,
que deja el Amor luego
más que la nieve frío,
pero el franco albedrío
y el acuerdo enemigo, á
sangre y fuego;
y en tan dañosa guerra,
sin fe, sin ley, sin luz de cielo ó
tierra.
Promessas mentirosas,
mercedes mal libradas
son tu tesoro, Amor, aunque
no quieras;
las veras, peligrosas;
las burlas, muy pesadas;
huyan de mí tus burlas y tus
veras,
que sanes ó que hieras,
que des gloria ó tormento,
seas cruel ó humano,
eres al fin tirano,
y el mal es mal y el bien sin
fundamento;
no sepa á mi morada
yugo tan duro, carga tan
pesada.
Corran vientos suaves,
suene la fuente pura,
píntese el campo de diversas
flores,
canten las diestras aves,
nazca nueva verdura,
que estos son mis dulcíssimos
amores;
mis cuidados mayores
el ganadillo manso,
sin varios pensamientos
ó vanos cumplimientos
que me turben las horas del
descanso,
ni me place ni duele
que ajeno corazón se abrase ó
hiele.
FANIO
Por essa culpa, Fanio, ¿qué
merece
Liria? L. Lo que padece;
pues, penando,
quiere morir callando. F. Gran
engaño
recibes en mi daño. ¿Tú no
sientes
que las flechas ardientes
amorosas
vienen siempre forzosas? Si
de grado
tomara yo el cuidado, bien
hicieras
si me reprendieras y culparas.
LIRIA
Déxame, que á las claras te
condenas:
pudo Amor darte penas y
matarte,
y no debes quexarte, pues que
pudo;
de ti, que has sido mudo y
vergonzoso,
debes estar quexoso. ¿De qué
suerte
remediará tu suerte y pena
grave
quien no la ve ni sabe? F. ¡Ay,
Liria mía!
que yo bien lo diría, pero temo
que el fuego en que me
quemo se acreciente.
LIRIA
Pues, ¿tan poquito siente de
piadosa
quien tu pena furiosa
ensoberbece?
FANIO
Mas antes me parece, y aun
lo creo,
que tan divino arreo no es
posible
en condición terrible estar
fundado;
pero considerado aunque esto
sea,
no es justo que yo vea mi
bajeza,
y aquella gentileza soberana,
y que sufra de gana mis
dolores
sin pretender favores. L.
Grande parte
ha de ser humillarte, á lo que
creo,
para que tu deseo se mitigue,
porque Amor más persigue al
más hinchado,
que está muy confiado que
merece,
que al otro que padece, y de
contino
se cuenta por indino; pero
cierto,
tú no guardas concierto en lo
que haces:
¿no se sabe que paces las
dehessas,
con mil ovejas gruessas
abundosas
y mil cabras golosas y cien
vacas?
¿No se sabe que aplacas los
estíos
y refrenas los fríos con tu
apero,
y tienes un vaquero y diez
zagales?
Todos estos parrales muy
podados,
que tienes olvidados, ¿no son
tuyos?
Pues estos huertos, ¿cuyos te
parecen?
Todo el fruto te ofrecen; pues
si digo
del cielo, ¿cuán amigo se te
muestra,
tecuánto la maestra alma
Natura
y dió de hermosura, fuerza y
maña?
¿Hay ave ó alimaña que no
matas?
¿Hay pastor que no abatas en
el prado?
¿Hate alguno dejado en la
carrera?
Pues en la lucha fiero ó en el
canto,
¿hay quién con otro tanto se
te iguale?
Pues esso todo vale en los
amores,
porque de los dolores no se
sabe
si es su accidente grave ó si
es liviano.
Todo lo tienes llano. F. ¿Qué
aprovecha
tener la casa hecha y
abastada,
si en la ánima cuitada no hay
reposo?
LIRIA
Vivir tú doloroso, ¿qué te
vale,
si aquella de quien sale no lo
entiende?
Tu cortedad defiende tu
remedio.
FANIO
¿Parécete buen medio que lo
diga?
LIRIA
Antes es ya fatiga amonestarte.
FANIO
Pues, ¿tienes de enojarte si lo
digo?
LIRIA
Fanio, ¿hablas conmigo ó
desvarías?
¿Pensabas que tenías y
mirabas
presente á quien amabas? F.
Sí pensaba
y en nada me engañaba. L. No
te entiendo,
aunque bien comprehendo
que el amante
tiene siempre delante á la que
ama,
y allí le habla y llama en sus
passiones.
FANIO
No glosses mis razones. L. Pues,
¿qué quieres?
FANIO
Hacer lo que quisieres,
aunque quiero
preguntarte primero: ¿si mis
males
y congojas mortales me
vinieran
por ti y de ti nacieran, y el
cuidado
te fuera declarado, ¿te
enojaras?
LIRIA
Si no lo preguntaras, te
prometo
que fueras más discreto. Tú
bien sientes
los rostros diferentes de
natura
en una compostura de
facciones;
pues, en las condiciones, es al
tanto,
aunque no debe tanto ser
piadosa,
á mi ver, la hermosa que la
fea,
que en serlo hermosea su
fiereza.
FANIO
¡Ay, cuánta es tu belleza! L.
Assí que digo,
que no debes conmigo
assegurarte,
pues sé certificarte que en tal
caso,
aquello que yo passo por
contento
puede ser descontento á tu
pastora,
y no imagino agora por qué
vía
con la voluntad mía quiés
regirte.
FANIO
Porque puedo decirte que,
en belleza,
en gracia y gentileza, eres
trassunto,
sin discrepar un punto, á quien
me pena.
LIRIA
¿Es por dicha Silena tu
parienta?
Si es ella, no se sienta entre la
gente,
que eres tan su pariente como
mío;
pueda más tu albedrío que tu
estrella.
FANIO
¡Ay, Liria, que no es ella!
¿Y aún te excusas
y de decir rehusas el sujeto
que en semejante aprieto
mostrarías?
LIRIA
Horas me tomarías si lo
digo,
que como fiel amigo te
tratasse;
y horas que me enojasse, que
aun no siento
mi propio movimiento. F.
Dessa suerte
más me vale la muerte y
encubrillo,
que al tiempo de decillo verla
airada.
LIRIA
Bien puede ser quitada tu
congoxa,
si aquella que te enoja me
mostrasses
y en mis manos fiasses tu
remedio.

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Advanced Engineering Mathematics

(Gujarat Technological University 2018)

Ravish R Singh is presently Academic Advisor at Thakur Educational

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Offices

Cover Designer: APS Compugraphics

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Soumya and Siddharth

3. Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications 3.1–3.266

6. Partial Differential Equations and Applications 6.1–6.143

Module 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Module 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications

Module 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Module 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Module 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications

1.2 Gamma FunctIon

The gamma function can also be expressed as

Properties of the Gamma Function

1.3 Beta FunctIon

Properties of the Beta Function

1.4 Bessel FunctIon

1.5 error FunctIon and comPlementary

The error function of x is defined by

where x may be a real or complex variable. 0.5

The complementary error function of x is 0.25

Properties of the error Function

1.6 HeavIsIde’s unIt steP FunctIon

Properties of the unit step Function

1.7 Pulse oF unIt HeIGHt and duratIon FunctIon

1.8 sInusoIdal Pulse FunctIon

[Winter 2012; Summer 2014]

If a = 0, the rectangle function reduces to a pulse of unit height and duration b

1.10 Gate FunctIon

The gate function (Fig. 1.8) is defined by

1.11 dIrac’s delta FunctIon

Properties of dirac’s delta Function

The signum function (Fig. 1.11) is defined by f(t)

In terms of unit step function, the signum function can –1

1.13 sawtootH wave FunctIon

1.15 HalF-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

1.16 Full-wave rectIFIed sInusoIdal FunctIon

The square-wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.16)

multiple choice questions

5. The value of ÊÁ 1 ˆ˜ is [Winter 2016]

(a) 2 p (b) 2 p (c) 2p (d) 2p

(c) u(t ) = - 1 t < 0 (d) u(t ) = 0 t<0

2.2 PerIodIc FunctIons

2.3 FourIer serIes

convergence of the Fourier series (dirichlet’s conditions)

2.4 trIgonometrIc FourIer serIes

x One sine component

x Addition of two sine

x Addition of three sine

Fig. 2.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components

2.5 FourIer serIes oF FunctIons oF Any PerIod

Corollary 2 When c = –p and 2l = 2p