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Electrical Machine
Design
Electrical Machine
Design
V. Rajini
V. S. Nagarajan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai
Copyright © 2018 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128, for-
merly known as TutorVista Global Pvt. Ltd, licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia.
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ISBN 978-93-325-8557-7
eISBN 9789353063689
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Dedicated to Our Parents
—V. Rajini and V. S. Nagarajan
Contents
Forewordxv
Preface xvii
About the Authorsxix
1. Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines 1.1

1.1 Principles of Design 1.1
1.2 Factors for Consideration 1.1
1.3 Classification of Design Problem 1.2
1.3.1 Need for Computer-aided Design 1.3
1.4 Specifications and Standards 1.3
1.5 Constraints of Design 1.5
1.6 Dimensions and Rating of Machines 1.8
1.7 Output Equation 1.8
1.7.1 DC Machine 1.8
1.7.2 AC Machine 1.9
1.8 Materials for Electrical Machines 1.11
1.8.1 Conducting Materials 1.11
1.8.2 Resistive Materials 1.15
1.8.3 Magnetic Materials 1.16
1.8.4 Insulation Materials 1.21
1.9 Heat Dissipation Modes 1.25
1.10 Types of Cooling (Ventilation) 1.29
1.10.1 Cooling of Turbo Alternators 1.38
1.11 Types of Enclosure 1.42
1.12 Quantity of Coolant 1.44
1.13 Types of Duties and Ratings 1.47
1.14 Determination of Temperature Rise and Fall 1.55
Review Questions 1.68
Multiple-choice Questions 1.68
Short Type Questions 1.74
Long Type Questions 1.79
Problems 1.80
2. Design of Magnetic Circuits 2.1

2.1 Introduction 2.1
2.1.1 Analysis of Series Composite Magnetic Circuit 2.2
x Contents
2.1.2 Analysis of Parallel Composite Magnetic Circuits 2.4

2.1.3 Comparison Between Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit 2.6
2.2 Determination of Reluctance and MMF of Air Gap 2.7
2.2.1 Contraction of Air Gap Area Per Pole (Effective Air Gap Area) 2.13
2.2.2 Effect of Pole Saliency 2.14
2.3 Determination of MMF of Teeth 2.22
2.4 Real Flux Density and Apparent Flux Density 2.32
2.5 Iron Loss Calculation 2.36
2.5.1 Hysteresis Loss 2.36
2.5.2 Eddy Current Loss 2.37
2.5.3 Total Iron or Core Loss 2.40
2.5.4 Pulsation Loss 2.40
2.6 Magnetic Leakage 2.43
2.7 Estimation of Specific Permeance and Leakage Reactance 2.47
2.7.1 Parallel-sided Slot 2.49
2.7.2 Parallel-sided Slot with Double Layer Windings 2.51
2.7.3 Tapered Slot 2.53
2.7.4 Circular Slot 2.55
2.7.5 T Bar Slot (Induction Motor) 2.58
2.8 Magnetic Pull 2.59
2.8.1 Radial Magnetic Forces 2.61
2.8.2 Radial Magnetic Forces and Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.62
2.8.3 Determination of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.65
2.8.4 Significance and Minimization of Unbalanced Magnetic Pull 2.68
Problems 2.78
3. Design of Transformer 3.1

3.1.1 Based on Voltage Ratio 3.2
3.1.2 Based on Construction 3.2
3.1.3 Based on Application 3.5
3.1.4 Based on Number of Phases 3.6
3.2 Specifications of a Transformer 3.8
3.3 Design of Transformer 3.8
3.3.1 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer 3.8
3.3.2 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.9
3.3.3 Output Equation of Single-phase Transformer (Shell-type) 3.11
3.3.4 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer 3.12
Contents xi
3.3.5 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.12

3.3.6 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Shell-type) 3.14
3.4 Volt Per Turn of Winding 3.16
3.5 Choice of Flux Density 3.17
3.6 Choice of Current Density 3.18
3.7 Design of Core 3.18
3.7.1 Square Core 3.20
3.7.2 Stepped Core 3.21
3.8 Design of Yoke 3.24
3.9 Window and Core Proportions 3.24
3.10 Overall Dimensions 3.24
3.10.1 Single-phase Core-type Transformer 3.24
3.10.2 Three-phase Core-type Transformer 3.25
3.10.3 Single-phase Shell-type Transformer 3.25
3.10.4 Three-phase Shell-type Transformer 3.27
3.11 Design of Windings 3.28
3.11.1 Type and Choice of Windings 3.29
3.12 Resistance Calculation 3.46
3.13 Reactance Calculation 3.47
3.13.1 Leakage Reactance of a Core-type Transformer with
Concentric LV and HV Coils of Equal Height or Length 3.48
3.14 Flowchart for Overall Design of Transformer 3.52
3.15 No Load Current of a Transformer 3.60
3.15.1 Single-phase Transformer 3.62
3.15.2 Three-phase Transformer 3.62
3.15.3 Magnetizing Volt – Ampere and Alternate Expression
for Magnetizing Current 3.63
3.16 Transformer Losses 3.67
3.17 Effects of Change in Frequency in Parameters of the Transformer 3.68
3.18 Optimum Design 3.69
3.19 Cooling of Transformer 3.72
3.20 Temperature Rise and Design of Cooling System 3.75
3.21 Temperature Rise in Plain-walled Tank 3.75
3.22 Temperature Rise in Tank with Tubes 3.75
3.23 Design of Tank with Tubes 3.76
3.23.1 Flow Chart for Design of Cooling System 3.77
3.24 Mechanical Forces 3.86
3.25 Computer-aided Design of Transformer 3.87
Problems 3.125
xii Contents
4. Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.1

4.2 Construction 4.1
4.3 Specifications 4.3
4.4 Output Equation of 3φ Induction Motor 4.4
4.5 Choice of Specific Loadings 4.6
4.5.1 Choice of Specific Magnetic Loading,‘Bav’4.6
4.5.2 Choice of Specific Electric Loading, ‘ac’4.8
4.6 Calculation of Main Dimensions (Separation of D and L)4.8
4.7 Design of Stator of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.9
4.8 Calculation of Length of Air Gap 4.28
4.9 Design of Rotor of 3φ Induction Motor 4.29
4.9.1 Design of Squirrel Cage Rotor 4.30
4.9.2 Design of Wound or Slip-ring Rotor 4.41
4.10 Estimation of Operating Characteristics 4.47
4.10.1 Core Loss Component 4.47
4.10.2 Magnetizing Component 4.47
4.11 Harmonic Torques 4.49
4.11.1 Loss Component 4.52
4.12 Short Circuit Current 4.52
4.12.1 Stator Resistance 4.53
4.12.2 Rotor Resistance 4.53
4.13 Circle Diagram 4.54
4.14 Dispersion Coefficient 4.56
4.15 Computer-aided Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.66
Problems 4.95
5. Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.1

5.2.1 Split Phase Motors 5.1
5.2.2 Shaded Pole Motors 5.3
5.2.3 Repulsion Motors 5.3
5.3 Design Considerations 5.3
5.5 Constructional Features 5.4
5.6 Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.5
5.6.1 Output Equation 5.5
Contents xiii
5.6.2 Choice of Specific Loadings 5.7

5.6.3 Separation of D and L 5.7
5.6.4 Design of Stator 5.8
5.6.5 Design of Rotor 5.10
5.6.6 Magnetic Circuit Calculations 5.11
5.6.7 Calculation of Resistance and Leakage Reactance 5.12
5.7 Performance Calculation 5.13
5.7.1 Equivalent Circuit Method 5.13
5.7.2 Analytical Method (Veinott’s Method) 5.14
6. Design of Synchronous Machine 6.1

6.2 Types of Synchronous Machine 6.1
6.2.1 Types of Synchronous Generators 6.2
6.3 Constructional Aspects of Synchronous Machines 6.2
6.4 Construction of Hydro Generators 6.4
6.5 Construction of Turbo Generator 6.5
6.6 Synchronous Motor 6.6
6.9 Choice of Specific Loadings 6.7
6.9.1 Choice of Bav (Specific Magnetic Loading) 6.7
6.9.2 Choice of ac (Specific Electric Loading) 6.8
6.10 Design of Salient Pole Machine 6.8
6.10.1 Main Dimensions 6.8
6.10.2 Types of Poles 6.8
6.11 Design of Turbo Generator 6.50
6.12 Computer-aided Design of Three-phase Synchronous Machine 6.54
Problems 6.73
7. DC Machine 7.1
7.2.1 Field or Excitation System 7.1
7.2.2 Rotor 7.3
xiv Contents
7.2.3 Specifications of DC Machine 7.4

7.3.1 Estimation of Power, Pa7.5
7.4 Choice of Specific Loadings of DC Machine 7.6
7.4.1 Choice of Specific Magnetic Loading (Bav)7.6
7.4.2 Choice of Specific Electric Loading (ac)7.7
7.5 Choice of Number of Poles 7.9
7.5.1 Guidelines for the Selection of Poles 7.14
7.6 Limitations of D and L 7.14
7.6.1 Limiting Values of Core Length (L)7.15
7.6.2 Limiting Value of Armature Diameter (D)7.16
7.7 Separation of D and L 7.16
7.8 Estimation of Length of Air Gap 7.26
7.8.1 Factors Affecting Air Gap Length 7.26
7.8.2 Estimation of lg 7.26
7.9 Design of Armature 7.27
7.10 Design of Commutator and Brushes 7.34
7.10.1 Brush Dimensions 7.34
7.10.2 Commutator Losses and Temperature Rise 7.35
7.11 Design of Field System of DC Machine 7.51
7.11.1 Design of Pole 7.51
7.11.2 Design of Shunt Field Winding 7.54
7.11.3 Design of Series Field Winding 7.56
7.12 Design of Interpoles 7.62
7.13 Computer-aided Design of DC Machine 7.65
Problems 7.89
8. Computer-aided Design and Analysis of Electric Motors 8.1

8.2 Salient Pole Synchronous Motor 8.2
8.3 Induction Motor 8.19
8.4 Separately Excited DC Motor 8.30
IndexI.1
Foreword
It gives me great pleasure to write the foreword to the book entitled, “Electrical Machine
Design”.
Electrical machines play a vital role in domestic and industrial fronts. Hence, it is
essential that students of electrical engineering have a strong grounding in electrical
machines. Conventional courses in electrical machines are not adequate for the purpose
of understanding as they throw light on the construction, principle, characteristics and
testing. A deeper understanding is possible only when they study the design aspects and
their influence on the performance of the machines. It is thus necessary to have a course
on electrical machine design, suitable for study by undergraduate students of electrical
engineering.
This book is designed to meet the needs of a textbook for a course in electrical machine
design. It gives a comprehensive design aspects of DC and AC machines with an appropriate
introduction to basic design considerations and the magnetic circuits involved. Introduction
to the design and analysis of the machines using the finite element analysis is also included
as one chapter, to enable the readers to have a much deeper understanding. A design process
always involves a long iterative process and a designer is required to take decisions in
conflicting situations. The design procedure of all the machines is given as simple flowcharts
for the reader to understand the iterative nature of design process. In addition to the worked
examples, most chapters include number of problems designed to test the grasp of the
subject. The readers will also appreciate the pedagogical practices followed in this book.
This book is the outcome of the long experience of the authors in teaching electrical
machines and allied courses. The authors have made a commendable effort to present the
contents in a clear and lucid form.
I hope this book will be well received by students, teachers and practicing engineers.
Dr V. Kamaraj
Professor and Head
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SSN College of Engineering
Chennai
Preface
Electric machines have become a part and parcel of our day-to-day lives. They play an
inevitable role, right from a small toy to an electric power plant. Hence, the knowledge
of their operating characteristics and performance is essential to Electrical Engineering
graduates. Also, it is important for them to learn the design of these machines considering
various technical and economical aspects. Hence, this book is intended to serve as a textbook
for those who are interested in learning the design of electrical machines.
The target audience also include academicians, students of B.E./B.Tech. (Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering and Instrumentation
and Control Engineering) and industrial employees.
Flow chart based approach has been employed for problem solving. A large number of
examples with increasing order of difficulty have been incorporated with a step-by-step
procedure for solving. The examples cover university questions of all Indian universities.
Matlab and C programs have been provided for computer-aided design of different
electrical machines. Finite element simulations using MotorSolve software will provide
a new perspective in-depth understanding of concepts. Multiple-choice questions with
answers covering syllabus of GATE and UPSC exams also find a place in this book. Two
mark questions have been provided with answers, which will help the readers enhance the
understanding of the subject.
This book is divided into 8 chapters. Chapter 1 deals with basic design considerations
of electrical machines, which is inclusive of constraints, standards, choice of materials and
cooling requirements. Design of magnetic circuits involving different types of slots and
magnetic pull effects are dealt in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 covers the design of transformer
encompassing core, yoke, window, winding and cooling design requirements. Concepts
related to stator and rotor design of three-phase induction motor are covered in Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 provides an insight into the design of single-phase induction motor. Topics related
to construction, pole design and design of turbo machines under synchronous machines are
discussed in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 discusses about the design of DC machine comprising
the aspects of field winding, commutator and brush arrangement and interpole design.
The computer-aided design of electrical machines using finite element analysis software,
MotorSolve, is detailed in Chapter 8.
Acknowledgements
This book consumed huge amount of work, patience and dedication. Still, implementation
would not have been possible if we did not have the support of many individuals
and organizations. Therefore, we would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all. We
would like to sincerely thank our Principal, Dr S. Salivahanan, and the Management of
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai, for their constant encouragement and providing
necessary facilities for completing this project. We are grateful to our HOD, Dr V. Kamaraj,
for his encouragement in bringing out this book, our colleagues Dr R. Arumugam and
Dr M. Balaji, for obtaining and making the infolytica softwares available for use in
xviii Preface
Chapter 8 of this book and Dr R. Deepalaxmi, for helping us in reviewing certain chapters
of this book. We are also thankful to our students, especially S. Sivaramakrishnan, R. Rahul,
R. Gayathri, C. Ramaseshan, B. Shiva Shankar, M. Lohit, Shreyas Srivatchan, P. Praneeth,
M. Karthik, S. Narendran, R. Bharath Kumar, R. Vedha Vyass, R. Manovenkatesh,
N. Ajithbalaji, S. Krishnamurthy, S. Joselin Jebalamalar, R. Kavitha and M. Premkarthik
who had helped us in matlab and C coding, creation of figures, content enhancement,
proof correction and review.
We are indebted to Sojan Jose, R. Dheepika and M. Balakrishnan of Pearson India
Education Services Pvt. Ltd, Chennai, for bringing out this book successfully in a short span
of time.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our family for the continuous support,
patience and motivation. A heartfelt thanks to our family members, R. Harikrishnan,
H. Harshini, H. Karunya, V. Nagalakshmi, L. Santhanakrishnan, Dr L. V. Chandramohan,
V. Sureshkumar, T. S. Sasikaladevi, family friends, S. Premalatha, Secretary & Correspondent,
Mahatma Montessori Schools, Madurai, R. Panneerselvam, President, Mahatma Montessori
Schools, Madurai, for inspiring and encouraging us in writing this book.
We would like to dedicate this book to parents Shri. G. Veeraraghavalu and V. Saroja,
grand parents, L. Venkatesan, T. S. Swaminathan and S. Vardhini without whom none of
our success would have been possible. We would also like to dedicate this book to Professor
C. Palani, Annamalai University for laying the foundation for Electrical Machines and
Prof. Raman Nair, Annamalai University for making us believe anything is possible.
We will appreciate any constructive suggestions and feedbacks from the readers for
further improvement of this book.
V. Rajini
V. S. Nagarajan
About the Authors
V. Rajini has been working as a Professor in the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SSN College of Engineering.
She has 22 years of teaching and research experience. She was
graduated from Annamalai University in 1992 and subsequently
obtained her Ph.D. in High Voltage Engineering from Anna
University in 2008. She has published over 90 research publications
in referred journals. She has completed various projects funded by
SSN Trust and AICTE and MNRE. She is currently working on the
fields of Insulating Materials, High Voltage Applications in Process
Technologies, Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Power Electronics for HV
Applications, Solar Photovoltaic and Wind Energy Systems.
She has received Best paper awards in various conferences,
has also received the Best teacher awards. Ms Rajini is the recipient of CTS – SSN Best
Faculty Award – 2011 and distinguished scientist award – 2016 by VIRA foundation for her
contributions in the field of high voltage engineering. She is a senior member of IEEE and
Life member of ISTE.
V. S. Nagarajan has been working as an Assistant Professor in the

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering since June
2014. He did his B.E. (EEE) in SSN College of Engineering and was
ranked 2nd in the college and 21st in the Anna University. After
his graduation, he joined CTS as Programmer Analyst and worked
there for about a year. Later, he did his Masters in Power Electronics
and Drives in SSN College of Engineering scoring a CGPA of 9.34
out of 10 and was ranked 2nd in the college and 4th in the Anna
University. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. in the field of Electrical
Machine Design and Control under Anna University. He was the
recipient of merit scholarship both for B.E. and M.E. and also the
merit scholarship by Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Govt. of India (For
GATE score). He has been awarded with four silver medals and one gold medal for being the
topper of the department in various semester examinations. He has also been awarded with
“The Chairman’s Silver Medal” and “College Silver Medal” for securing Anna University
ranks in B.E. and M.E., respectively. He has published six papers in National/International
Journals and Conferences.
1
Basic Design
Considerations of
Electrical Machines
1.1 Principles of Design
An electric machine is an electromechanical device that comprises the stationary and moving
parts combined together to generate, transform or utilize the mechanical/electrical energy.
Electric machines are used in applications like transportation, aerospace, defence and industrial
automation industries. Electric motor-driven systems that drive pumps, fan, blower systems and
air compression have become common in industries. Good engineering design is the heart of all
such applications. Engineering design is the application of science, technology and invention to
produce machines to perform specified tasks with optimum economy and efficiency.
All the machines are made up of elements or parts and units. Each element is a separate
part of the machine and it may have to be designed separately and in assembly. Each element
in turn can be a complete part or made up of several small pieces which are joined together
by riveting, welding, etc. Several machine parts are assembled together to form what we
call as complete machine. This physical realization of a complete machine has to meet the
required performance conditions at optimum economy and efficiency.
Hence, the objective of a design is to obtain the complete dimensions of all the parts of
the machine. It must be carried out to meet the specifications using the available materials,
at optimal cost, size and weight without compromising the performance and durability.
1.2 Factors for Consideration

The three key factors of design are given below:
1. Economy
2. Durability
3. Compliance with the specifications and standards
1.2 Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines
A design process involves lot of engineering calculations done in an iterative manner.
When designing
A design machine,
process one
involves lotcannot apply rigid
of engineering rules to done
calculations get the best
in an design manner.
iterative for the
machine at the lowest possible cost. A designer may have
When designing machine, one cannot apply rigid rules to get the best design for to take decisions under
the
conflicting requirements. For example, designing a machine to meet out
machine at the lowest possible cost. A designer may have to take decisions under conflictingall the three key
factors is highly
requirements. impossible.
For example, For example,
designing a highly durable
a machine to meetmachine would
out all the threeobviously make
key factors is
use of high-quality materials, by increasing the cost of the machine.
highly impossible. For example, a highly durable machine would obviously make use of Hence, compromise
between durability
high-quality andbyeconomy
materials, increasing is the
required
cost ofdepending
the machine. upon the compromise
Hence, application, between
besides
meeting the specifications. Compromise is also required between
durability and economy is required depending upon the application, besides meeting the ideal design and thea
design which will comply with the manufacturing conditions, environmental
specifications. Compromise is also required between the ideal design and a design which conditions,
convenience
will comply with in production, transport,
the manufacturing maintenance,
conditions, safety, reliability
environmental conditions,and customer’s
convenience in
need. One should also understand the limitations of design. The designer’s
production, transport, maintenance, safety, reliability and customer’s need. One should primary
also
responsibility
understand theislimitations
to allot suitable space
of design. for frame, primary
The designer’s core, airgap, winding,is insulating
responsibility and
to allot suitable
cooling medium in the machine. He/She should also make appropriate
space for frame, core, airgap, winding, insulating and cooling medium in the machine. He/ choice of electric,
magnetic,
She shouldinsulating
also makematerials subject
appropriate choice toofavailability, characteristics
electric, magnetic, andmaterials
insulating cost consistent
subject
with the specifications.
to availability, characteristics and cost consistent with the specifications.
1.3 Classification
1.3 classification of
of Design
Design Problem
Problem
A
A machine
machine has
has field
field and
and armature
armature winding
winding supported
supported byby stator
stator and
and rotor.
rotor. It
It also
also has
has
dielectric
dielectric materials for insulating the live parts, cooling system and mechanical parts for
materials for insulating the live parts, cooling system and mechanical parts for
support.
support. Hence,
Hence, the
the basic
basic components
components ofof design
design are
are shown
shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.1.
1.1.
Magnetic
circuit
Mechanical Electric
system circuit
Basic
components
of design
Thermal Dielectric
system system
fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.1 || Basic
Basic components
components of
of design
design of
of electric
electric machine
machine
1.
1. Magnetic design
Magnetic design or
or magnetic
magnetic circuit
circuit design
design
The design of magnetic circuit must establish
The design of magnetic circuit must establish thethe required
required flux
flux with
with minimal
minimal ampere
ampere
turns. It should also produce less core loss.
turns. It should also produce less core loss.
2. Electric circuit design
Specifications and Standards 1.3
2. Electric circuit design

This deals with the design of armature and field windings with suitable winding
arrangement such that the required emf is produced. The copper loss in these
windings should also be less.
3. Dielectric system design
This deals with the design of insulation required to isolate various parts operating at
different potential so that the current is confined to the required paths.
4. Thermal system design
The design of thermal system includes the design of cooling system, ventilating
ducts, etc., so that the heat generated in the machine due to losses is dissipated and
safe operation of the machine at the specified temperature is ensured.
5. Mechanical system design
This involves the design of frame, shaft and bearings. The design should be robust.
1.3.1 Need for Computer-aided Design

The design process involves a number of assumptions and constraints and so, the solution
can be obtained only by iterative methods. Computer plays a vital role in finding the solution.
The Finite Element Method (FEM) can be used to study the effect of a single parameter on
the dynamical performance of the machine. Also, some tests, which are not even feasible
in laboratory setup, can virtually be performed by FEM. Hence, the design problems using
FEM are done in Chapter 8 and they are of different nature from the design worked out in
detail in respect of any machine. However, these example problems provide adequate basic
skills required for design.
1.4 Specifications and Standards

Standardization of electrical machines manufactured by several industrial plants facilitates
in stream-lining the production line and acquiring easier replacements and spares for the
consumer. These benchmark specifications, typically acknowledged along with their year of
issue, are continually amended as per the modern requirements.
The Indian Standard (IS) specifications are laid down by the Indian Standard Institution
(ISI) in conformation with the international norms stipulated by International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). As per ISI, the name plate of any electrical machine should bear
the succeeding details:
•• kW/kVA rating of machine

•• Rated voltage of machine (or voltage ratio in transformers)
•• Full-load current
•• Number of phases, if any
•• Operating frequency/rated speed
•• Type of connection (wye/delta in AC machine) or Field excitation (shunt/series/
compound in DC machine)
•• Class of insulation provided
•• Type of enclosure of the machine
•• Frame size of machine
•• Manufacturer’s name and serial number of the product
Some of the standards relating to electrical machines published by IS are enlisted as

follows.
(a) For rotating electrical machines:
IS No. Year Title specification

900 1965 Code of practice for installation and maintenance of 1φ and 3φ induction
motors
2254 1965 Dimensions of vertical shaft motors for pump applications
3682 1966 Flame-proof AC motors utilized in mines
4029 1967 Guidelines for testing 3φ induction motors
4691 1968 Degrees of protection provided by enclosures for rotating electrical
machines
4722 1968 Guidelines for testing of DC motors
4728 1968 Terminal marking for rotating electrical machines
4729 1968 Measurement and evaluation of vibration of rotating electrical machines
4889 1968 Methods of determination of efficiency of rotating electrical machines
6362 1971 Description of methods of cooling for rotating electrical machines
1885 1973 Electro technical vocabulary – Rotating machines
(part 35)
7132 1973 Guidelines for testing synchronous machines
1231 1974 Dimensions of 3φ foot-mounted induction motors
7572 1974 Guidelines for testing 1φ AC and universal motors
7306 1974 Methods for determining synchronous machine parameters from tests
7538 1975 Specifications for 3φ squirrel cage induction motor for centrifugal pumps
in agricultural industry applications
7816 1975 Guidelines for testing insulation resistance of rotating machines
325 1978 General specifications for 3φ induction motors
8789 1978 Values of performance characteristics for 3φ induction motors
5422 1996 Specification for high power turbo-generators
(b) For transformers:
IS No. Part Year Title specification

3639 – 1966 Fittings and accessories for power transformers
5142 – 1969 Guidelines for continuously variable voltage autotransformers
1180 – 1972 Specification of 3φ distribution transformers with a rating till 100
KVA, 11 KV
(Continued)
Constraints of Design 1.5
Table | (Continued)
6600 – 1972 Guidelines for loading of oil immersed transformers
1885 28 1973 Electro technical vocabulary of transformers
2026 1 1977 Power transformers: General specifications
2026 2 1977 Power transformers: Temperature rise specifications
2026 3 1977 Power transformers: Insulation levels and dielectric test
specifications
2026 4 1977 Power transformers: Terminal markings, circuit tapping and
connections
(c) Supplementary general specifications of electrical machines:

1271 – 1958 Classification of insulating materials and components utilized in
machines as per their thermal stability in operation
4800 1 1968 Specifications of enamelled round wires
4685 1 1968 Specifications of varnish glass fibre covered copper conductors
6160 – 1971 General specifications of rectangular conductors employed in
rotating machines
7404 1 1974 Specifications of round paper covered copper conductors
7404 2 1974 Specifications of rectangular paper covered copper conductors
12063 – 1987 Classification of degree of protection provided by the enclosures
in machines
1.5 Constraints of Design

The limitations imposed on the design of electrical machines are listed in Fig. 1.2. These
constraints are due to the dependability of the performance of machine on various factors
and do not include limitations in the availability of material and other facilities required for
manufacturing.
Efficiency
•• Total efficiency of a machine indirectly influences its capital and running costs.
•• When efficiency is high, the power losses are low and hence the running costs will
be less.
•• But, to limit the electric and magnetic losses, the specific electric and magnetic
loadings ought to be as low as possible.
•• This in turn formulates a need for a machine with an excessively large active material
(such as iron for magnetic parts, copper and aluminium for winding conductors),
which results in an increased initial investment (capital) cost.
•• Thus, machines with enhanced efficiency will have substantially low running cost at
the expense of higher capital cost.
1.6
1.6 Basic
BasicDesign
DesignConsiderations
Considerationsof
ofElectrical
ElectricalMachines
Machines
Commutation Efficiency
Electromagnetic Temperature
saturation rise
Power factor Design limitations Insulation
Stress on Mechanical Consumer

bearings components Specifications
specifications
Shaft Standard
limitations Air gap
specifications
fig.1.2
Fig. 1.2 || Limitations
Limitationsimposed
imposedon
onthe
thedesign
designof
ofelectrical
electricalmachines
machines
Temperaturerise
Temperature rise
••• Temperature
Temperaturerise riseisiscaused
causedin inan
anelectrical
electricalmachine
machinedue duetotothe
theheat
heatgenerated
generatedby bythethe
flowof
flow ofelectric
electriccurrent
currentin inconductors
conductorsand andflux
fluxlinking
linkingthetheiron
ironparts.
parts.
••• Elaborate
Elaborate cooling cooling arrangements
arrangements are are to
to be
be made
made ifif the
the temperature
temperature rise
rise isis excessive.
excessive.
Thisincreases
This increasesthe thecapital
capitalcost
costof
ofthe
themachine.
machine.
••• Also,
Also, the the type
type ofof insulation
insulation provided
provided largely
largely affects
affects the
the machine’s
machine’s operating
operating lifelife as
as
eachof
each ofthe
theinsulating
insulatingmaterials
materialsusedusedhas hasaalimiting
limitingtemperature
temperaturelimit.
limit.
••• IfIfoperated
operatedabove abovethisthislimit,
limit,the
thelongevity
longevityof ofinsulating
insulatingmaterial
materialreduces
reducesconsiderably,
considerably,
therebydeteriorating
thereby deterioratingthe themachine’s
machine’slifetime
lifetimeandandcost-effectiveness.
cost-effectiveness.
••• ItIt isis therefore
therefore required
required to to provide
provide appropriate
appropriate cooling
cooling andand ventilation
ventilation methods,
methods, to to
maintainthe
maintain thetemperature
temperaturerise risewithin
withinthe thepermissible
permissiblelimits.
limits.
Insulation
Insulation
The insulating materials used in a machine must endure the following stresses:
The insulating materials used in a machine must endure the following stresses:
• Electrical stress – Inflicted by the continually varying high operating voltage
•• Electrical stress – Inflicted by the continually varying high operating voltage
• Mechanical stress – Due to the flow of short circuit currents in secondary windings as
•• Mechanical stress – Due to the flow of short circuit currents in secondary windings as
they induce large radial and axial forces as in the case of transformers
they induce large radial and axial forces as in the case of transformers
Constraints of Design 1.7
•• Thermal stress – Caused by the heat developed (due to power losses) in the machine
components
•• The type of insulation to be fitted is determined principally by the maximum operating
temperature of the machine components to avoid any thermal breakdown.
•• Furthermore, the size of insulation is influenced by the maximum voltage stress
(electrical stress) and the size of conductors used (mechanical stress).
Power factor
•• For the same power rating of a machine, a poor factor leads to larger values of current
(as they are inversely proportional).
•• Hence, the conductor size (and cost) increases to accommodate this increased current
flow.
•• Conversely, for the power factor to be kept high (for reduced current levels and stress),
■■ the specific magnetic loading should be less, i.e. the volume of active material has
to be increased
■■ the air gap should be as small as mechanically possible which in turn increases the
fabrication cost of rotors
•• Eventually, the size and capital cost increase anyhow and power factor is used rather
as a limiting factor influencing the air gap length, winding conductor size and flux
density and saturation in the core.
•• The effect of power factor is a key consideration in the design of induction motors.
Electromagnetic saturation
•• Since ferro-magnetic materials are used as stator/rotor cores, their saturation level
determines the maximum allowable flux density.
•• A high value of flux density is achieved by reducing the air gap, but it results in
saturation of the core, thereby depleting the power factor and also causes an increased
excitation resulting in higher cost for the field system.
Mechanical components
The physical dimensions and shape of the mechanical components deeply influence the
limits of parameters of electrical machine such as critical speed, power factor, etc.
The three primarily influential mechanical portions are as follows:
•• Air gap: It must be kept as low as mechanically possible to have a high power factor
and flux density.
•• Central rotor shaft: Longer shaft lengths lead to excessive Unbalanced Magnetic Pull
(UMP) when deflected and disrupt the running mechanism. Thus, rotor shaft must be
short and rigid to downplay any deflection in running conditions and void the effect
of UMP, if any. In large machines, the shaft size is determined by the critical speed
which in turn depends on shaft deflection.
•• Bearings and rotating parts: Typically, they are subjected to external loads, inertial
forces, rotor weights caused by unbalanced rotors and forces due to UMP. Thus, these
factors play a vital part in the selection of bearing types in machines along with the
mounting used (vertical/horizontal).
Commutation
•• In DC machines where commutation is involved, commutating difficulties (production
of sparks) and drawbacks increase directly with the output power (Po).
•• Thus, commutation acts as a limiting factor and presently the maximum power
output that can be efficiently obtained from a single DC machine is 10 MW.
Specifications
Some restrictions are imposed on the manufacturer to produce electrical machines such as
(i) Consumer specifications: Different applications such as pumps, cranes, fans,
automobiles have different requirements for electric machines (constant torque/
power or constant speed or constant load) which have to be met by the manufacturer,
along with the economic, maintenance and serviceability constraints.
(ii) Standard specifications: These benchmark specifications (duly explained later),
concerning safety measures, voltage ratings and torque requirements are stipulated
by ISO and ought to be fulfilled by the manufacturer before commercializing their
machines.
1.6 Dimensions and Rating of Machines

The power rating of a rotating machine is related to its main dimensions, namely the
armature diameter and armature length. A few general equations developed are applicable
to all types of rotating machines like DC, induction and synchronous machines. However,
it must be mentioned that the design process of different machines cannot be demonstrated
with a set of few general equations.
1.7 Output Equation

The output equation for DC and AC machines is derived in the following sections. The
output equation relates the main dimensions of any rotating machine to its power rating.
1.7.1 DC Machine
In general, the output power developed by a DC machine is given by
Po = EI a (1.1)
From machine design point of view, it is required to express the above equation in terms
of main dimensions [diameter, D and length, L], specific electric and magnetic loading and
speed of operation. Hence, the following steps are followed to obtain the output equation in
relation with the above stated parameters.
We know that,
Emf induced in armature of DC machine is given by
φ pZN φ pZn  N 
E= = ∵ = n (1.2)
60 A A  60 
Output Equation 1.9
where φ – flux, p – number of poles, Z – number of armature conductors, N – speed in r.p.m,

n – speed in r.p.s, A – number of parallel paths in which conductors are connected.
Also, current in each conductor is given by
Ia
Iz = ⇒ I a = I z A (1.3)
A
where Ia – Total armature current.
Substituting Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3) in Eq. (1.1), we get
φ pZn
Po = ×Iz A
A
= φ pZnI z
Rewriting the above equation, we get
Po = pφ × I z Z × n (1.4)
From the above equation, the terms ‘ pφ ’ and ‘ I z Z ’ can be related to specific magnetic,
which is defined as average flux density over the air gap of an electric machine and specific
electric loading, which is defined as total number of armature ampere conductors per metre
of armature periphery at the air gap of an electric machine by
pφ
Specific magnetic loading, Bav =
πDL
⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.5)
And
Iz Z
Specific electric loading, ac =
πD
⇒ I z Z = ac ×πD (1.6)

Po = Bav × πDL× ac × πD× n

= π 2 Bav ac × D2 Ln
⇒ Po = Co D2 Ln (1.7)
where Co = π 2 Bav ac and is called the output coefficient. Equation (1.7) is the output
equation of DC machine.
1.7.2 AC Machine
In general, the output power developed by a three-phase AC machine is given by
Q = 3Eph I ph (1.8)
From machine design point of view, it is required to express the above equation in terms
of main dimensions [diameter, D and length, L], specific electric and magnetic loading and
speed of operation. Hence, the following steps are followed to obtain the output equation in
relation with the above stated parameters.
We know that,
Emf induced per phase of three-phase AC machine is given by
Eph = 4.44 f φTph K ws (1.9)
where f – frequency, φ – flux, Tph – total number of turns per phase, Kws – winding factor.
pN
Also, frequency, f=
120
pN p N p  N
= = × = × ns  ∵ ns =  (1.10)
2× 60 2 60 2  60 
where ns – Synchronous speed in rps.
Current in each conductor is given by
I ph
Iz = ⇒ I ph = I z A (1.11)
A
Total number of conductors, Z = Number of phases × 2Tph
= 3 × 2 Tph = 6Tph 1.12)
Consider number of parallel paths, A = 1, Eq. (1.11) becomes
I ph = I z (1.13)
Q = 3 × 4.44 f φTph K ws × I z
Substituting Eq. (1.10) in the above equation, we get

p
Q = 3 × 4.44 × ns ×φTph K ws I z
2
= 6.66 pnsφTph K ws I z
Rerranging the terms in the above equation, we get
Q = 6.66 pφI z Tph K ws ns
( )
= 1.11pφI z 6Tph K ws ns
= 1.11pφI z ZK ws ns  ∵ Z = 6Tph  (1.14)

 
Materials for Electrical Machines 1.11
From the above equation, the terms ‘ pφ ’ and ‘ I z Z ’ can be related to specific magnetic and
specific electric loading by
pφ
Specific magnetic loading, Bav =
πDL
⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.15)

And
Iz Z
Specific electric loading, ac =
πD
⇒ I z z = ac ×πD (1.16)

Q = 1.11× Bav × πDL × ac × πD× K ws ns
= 1.11× π 2 Bav ac × D2 L× K ws ns

= 1.11π 2 Bav ac K ws × D2 Lns
= 11Bav acK ws × D2 Lns [∵ 1.11π 2  11]
⇒ Q = Co D2 Lns (1.17)
where Co = π 2 Bav acK ws and is called the output coefficient. Equation (1.17) is the output
equation of AC machine.
1.8 Materials for Electrical Machines

An electric machine is made of various types of materials represented in Fig. 1.3. The choice
of materials depends upon its availability, property and its suitability for specific application.
1.8.1 Conducting Materials

It is essential to analyze the aspects of electrical conducting materials used invariably in
stator/rotor core, stampings, windings, coils and transmission of electrical energy.
The key requisites of good conducting materials include:
✓ High conductivity
✓ Very low temperature coefficient of resistance (or low resistivity)
✓ Malleability and ductility that is essential for windings and stampings
✓ Adequate tensile strength to prevent wear and tear of machine with a certain degree
of flexibility
✓ Ability to withstand bimetallic corrosion, dealloying
Parameters such as resistivity, density, specific weight, tensile strength, resistance

temperature coefficient and co-efficient of thermal expansion are compared to select the
most optimal material to be used in electrical machines.
1.12
1.12 Basic
Basic Design
Design Considerations
Considerations of
of Electrical
Electrical Machines
Machines
Magnetic
Insulator
Conductive
and
resistive
Materials for electric machine
fig. 1.3
Fig. 1.3 || Constituent
Constituent materials
materials of
of an
an electric
electric machine
machine
Of the
Of the existing
existing materials,
materials, aluminium,
aluminium, silver,
silver, copper
copper andand its
its certain
certain alloys
alloys are
are good
good
conductors of
conductors of electricity.
electricity. Silver,
Silver, despite
despite having
having thethe highest
highest conductivity,
conductivity, isis never
never used
used in
in
fabrication due
fabrication due to
to its
its expensive
expensive nature.
nature. Aluminium
Aluminium is is increasingly
increasingly being
being used
used in
in low
low power
power
applications, yet
applications, yet suffers
suffers from
from high
high resistivity
resistivity as
as it
it will
will be
be duly
duly explained.
explained. Hence,
Hence, copper
copper is
is
predominantly used
predominantly used inin making
making electrical
electrical machines
machines along
along with
with its
its alloys
alloys and
and aluminium.
aluminium.
➣
➢ Copper
Copper
The reddish
The reddish looking
looking copper
copper isis extracted
extracted in
in the
the hard-drawn
hard-drawn form,
form, which
which becomes
becomes soft
soft
after annealing process. It involves heating at a temperature of around
after annealing process. It involves heating at a temperature of around 500–600°C 500–600°C
and then
and then cooling
cooling toto obtain
obtain annealed
annealed copper
copper with
with slightly
slightly less
less resistivity.
resistivity.
Copper exhibits:
Copper exhibits:
• Good tensile strength
•• Good tensile strength
• Lowest electrical resistivity among metals (excluding the uneconomical silver)
•• Lowest electrical resistivity among metals (excluding the uneconomical silver)
• Ductility or machinability
•• Ductility or machinability
• On exposure to atmosphere it forms copper oxide which acts as a protective layer and
•• On exposure to atmosphere it forms copper oxide which acts as a protective layer and
hence it is highly immune from oxidation and corrosion
hence it is highly immune from oxidation and corrosion
• Can be easily maneuvered to make coils, windings, soldered joints, castings, bus-
•• Can be easily maneuvered to make coils, windings, soldered joints, castings, bus-
bars, high voltage underground cables and overhead conductors
bars, high voltage underground cables and overhead conductors
• However, when copper is alloyed with silicon, manganese, phosphorus, chromium,
However, when copper
the resulting materialishas
alloyed
betterwith silicon, manganese,
mechanical phosphorus,
properties than copper yetchromium,
suffers from thea
resulting
risematerial has better
in resistivity mechanical
and hence properties
use of copper than
alloys copper yet suffers from a rise in
is limited.
resistivity and hence use of copper alloys is limited.
➣ Alloys of copper
➢ Alloys
Bronze:of This
copperalloy of copper (85–90%) comprising tin, manganese, aluminium
Bronze: among This
otheralloy
metals is prepared
of copper in several
(85–90%) compositions.
comprising Thesealuminium
tin, manganese, ‘bronzes’ possess
among
enhanced
other metalsmechanical
is preparedstrength thancompositions.
in several copper at theThese
price of increased
‘bronzes’ resistivity.
possess It is
enhanced
mechanical strength than copper at the price of increased resistivity. It is extensively used
as the alloy ‘Phosphor Bronze’ and in Bearings due to its excellent friction properties.
Brass: It is principally an alloy of copper (55–75%) and zinc (30–50%). Like bronze they
exhibit an enhanced mechanical strength as well with an increase in resistivity. Brass
has higher malleability and relatively low melting point than bronze and is hence
easily cast. Aluminium makes brass more corrosion-resistant due to the formation of
Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) layer on its surface. The Copper–Zinc proportions can be
varied to produce alpha brass, beta brass, gamma brass, white brass, etc. with varied
properties and applications.
Copper–silver alloy: This alloy contains about 99.1% Cu and 0.06% Ag with a
resistivity (1.18 × 10−8 ohm-m) marginally higher than Cu. It is primarily used in
turbo-alternators due to its resistance against distortion under load (creep) and
thermal shortening.
Copper beryllium: A ductile, weldable, high strength alloy is obtained when a
copper alloy is blended with 0.5–3% beryllium. It has superior metal working, non-
magnetic and non-sparking traits. This Copper Beryllium (CuBe) is used in current
carrying springs, brush holders, sliding contacts and knife switch blades.
Copper cadmium: This high copper alloy consisting of 0.1–1.5% cadmium, with
a higher tensile strength than copper, is used to produce stiffer contact wires,
connectors, commutator segments and high strength transmission lines. Cadmium
copper is also used for cage windings as it can be flame brazed without deterioration
due to its heat-resistant property.
Copper chromium: When copper alloys are fused with 0.6–1.2% chromium, they gain
considerable mechanical strength, electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance,
as chromium improves the chemical properties of the protective oxide film. It is
chiefly utilized in making cable connectors, circuit breaker parts, spot welding tips
and electrical conductors, which require improved tensile strength.
➢ Aluminium
Aluminium is the next abundantly available good electrical conductor after copper
on earth. It can also serve as a plausible alternative upon the extinction of copper
resources in the coming years due to the scarcity of existing copper deposits. It is
prepared in hard drawn or annealed form.
Its properties are listed as follows:
•• Being approximately 3.3 times lighter and inexpensive than copper
•• Sufficiently malleable into thin sheets
Despite these aspects, aluminium must be cautiously used in electrical machines as below:
(a) It has a considerably high resistivity (around 1.62 times than that of copper)
(b) Inadequate mechanical strength leading to poor ductility, thereby limiting its
usability
These shortcomings can be downplayed by using alloys of aluminium with cooper
and zinc in small proportions to improve its mechanical strength albeit with an increase in
specific weight. Aluminium finds applications in varied fields such as:
•• It is principally used in the aviation industry on account of its extremely light weight.
•• Aluminium Conductor Steel-Reinforced (ACSR) cables with pure Aluminium (as
high as 99.5%) are used in overhead transmission lines on account of its excellent
conductivity, low weight and cost.
•• They are used in bus-bar conductors over copper due to their inexpensiveness.
•• Aluminium conductors decrease the overall cost when used in small transformers, but
in large transformers they substantially increase the size (increase in cross-sectional
area of coils to compensate for the amplified resistivity of aluminium over copper)
and hence the overall cost.
➢ Iron and its alloys
Cast iron is used to fabricate the starters of large motors and steel, which predominantly
contains iron along with manganese, nickel, chromium and aluminium, is used for
making starter rheostats where an optimal trade-off between specific weight and
tensile strength, heat dissipation is required.
➢ Carbon materials
In alternators, electric motors and turbo-generators, where current flows between
stationary wires and rotating coils, an electric brush made of graphite/carbon
powder, with a conductivity marginally less than above metals and alloys is utilized
owing to their smooth surface. Carbon brushes are heat treated along with copper
powder to improve their conductivity and reduce their hardness to prevent wearing
down of commutator parts.
➢ Superconducting materials
The resistance of certain positive temperature coefficient materials reduces
concurrently with temperature and virtually attains a zero value at a temperature
(of the order of 0–100 K) known as transition temperature and these materials are
identified as superconductors.
The following inferences from the study of these materials are strange but true:
•• Good conductors of electricity at room temperatures (copper, aluminium, silver, etc.)
do not exhibit superconducting properties.
•• Very poor conductors of electricity at room temperature attain exceptionally good
superconducting properties.
•• Superconductivity disappears on applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field as well
as on increasing the temperature above transition temperature.
These unique futuristic materials evidently have a wide scope in electric machines such as:
•• In transformers and power distribution, where they can be used as windings, coils or
transmission lines with virtually zero I2R losses.
•• In large turbo-generators (above 1000 MW), as cost-effective rotor windings to cut
down on copper losses and attain unprecedented levels of efficiency.
Nevertheless, these pricey superconductors suffer from their own setbacks as the cost of
development and of refrigeration plant is immensely high. They can be practically employed
only in machines with higher power rating as above where the effects of copper losses are
pronounced and cannot serve as a viable alternative to copper unless they can be designed
and produced in an inexpensive or a cost-effective way.
1.8.2 Resistive Materials

Electrical components such as motor starters/regulators, furnaces, rheostats, etc., which are
invariably used in machineries, require conducting materials of high resistance. Such highly
resistive conductors have conventionally been categorized into three types:
(a) Conductors in heating devices
(b) Conductors used in instrumentation
(c) Rheostats and resistors
Conductors in heating devices

Electric furnaces, heat exchangers, loading rheostats solicit a corrosion-resistant, high
melting point and a mechanically strong conductor for their operation. Such materials
include the following:
•• Platinum, a non-corrosive pricey metal with a melting point of 1768oC, can be
conveniently employed in laboratory electric furnaces.
•• For practical purposes, Nichrome, an alloy of chromium, nickel and iron, is extensively
used on account of its good machinability (can be round wired, cold drawn or hot
rolled) and a considerable melting point (about 1400oC). Due to the presence of
chromium, it forms a superficial layer of a dense, high melting point oxide, which
makes it highly resistant to corrosion.
Conductors used in instrumentation

The three paramount requisites of any conductors, when used in instruments and equipment
for calibration are as follows:
•• Highly tolerant or marginal tendency to age, i.e. a fairly consistent value of resistance
over a period of time to maintain the instrument’s precision.
•• Low temperature coefficient of resistance – to maintain a constant value of resistance
over a range of temperatures (high resistance temperature coefficient materials are
also employed by thermal instruments measuring temperature).
•• Minimal thermo-electro motive force due to contact of material with copper to reduce
the possibility of errors during measurement.
Manganin, an alloy of copper (86%), manganese (12%) and nickel (2%), developed by
Edward Weston as an alternative to constantan, is predominantly utilized in these devices.
Addition of Nickel serves to reduce the thermal emf to about 1 µV/oC.
Rheostats and resistors

These ubiquitously exploited components have a peculiar need for materials with the
following:
•• Substantially low cost (except special-purpose resistors), as they are extensively used
•• Mediocre or high temperature coefficient of resistance – this substantially reduces the
fabrication cost as these low-grade resistors are permitted to have variable resistance
values
•• Wide range of operating temperature
•• High thermo-emf to withstand high voltage, if any, applied on them
Constantan, consisting of Cu (55%) and Ni (45%), is primarily used along with meager
Constantan, consisting of Cu (55%) and Ni (45%), is primarily used along with meager
quantities of iron, manganese in the fabrication of resistors. Besides a negligible temperature
quantities of iron, manganese in the fabrication of resistors. Besides a negligible temperature
coefficient of resistance, it has a good thermo-emf of 39 µV/ooC with respect to copper.
coefficient of resistance, it has a good thermo-emf of 39 µV/ C with respect to copper.
1.8.3 Magnetic Materials
1.8.3 Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are an integral part of any electric machine, used in electro-mechanical/
Magnetic materials are an integral part of any electric machine, used in electro-mechanical/
magnetic energy conversion. They also provide structural strength to the electric machine.
magnetic energy conversion. They also provide structural strength to the electric machine.
Magnetic materials are classified based on the relative permeability (µn) or magnetic
Magnetic materials are classified based on the relative permeability (µn) or magnetic
susceptibility (Xm) into three broad categories as shown in Fig. 1.4.
susceptibility (Xm) into three broad categories as shown in Fig. 1.4.
Ferro
magnetic
Magnetic
materials based
on permeability
Para Dia
magnetic magnetic
fig. 1.4 | Classification of magnetic materials based on permeability

Fig.
Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials
The relative permeability is largely greater than one (µ >> 1), i.e., very large positive
The relative permeability is largely greater than one (µnn >> 1), i.e., very large positive
susceptibility, e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt, alnico. Magnetization of these materials is easy and
susceptibility, e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt, alnico. Magnetization of these materials is easy and
retain considerable amount of it when removed from magnetic field. They are affected by
retain considerable amount of it when removed from magnetic field. They are affected by high
AQ1 high temperatures. When they are used above ‘Curie temperature’, the critical temperature
temperatures. They lose the magnetic properties when used above ‘Curie Temperature’, which
above which it loses magnetic properties. They have nonlinear B-H curve.
is the critical temperature affecting the magnetic properties. They have nonlinear B-H curve.
Ferromagnetic materials are of great significance in contribution towards manufacturing
Ferromagnetic materials are of great significance in contribution towards manufacturing
of electric machines.
of electric machines.
Diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
The relative permeability is less than or equal to one (µ ≤ 1), i.e., very small negative
The relative permeability is less than or equal to one (µnn ≤ 1), i.e., very small negative
susceptibility, e.g., copper, silver, gold.
susceptibility, e.g., copper, silver, gold.
Paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
The relative permeability
The relative permeability is is slightly
slightly greater
greater than
than or
or equal
equal to
to one
one (µ ≥ 1),
(µn ≥ 1), i.e.
i.e. very
very small
small
n
positive susceptibility, e.g., air, platinum, tungsten. Paramagnetic materials are temperature
positive susceptibility, e.g., air, platinum, tungsten. Paramagnetic materials are temperature
dependent.
dependent.
Note: Diamagnetic and
Note: Diamagnetic and paramagnetic
paramagnetic materials
materials have
have linear
linear B-H characteristics and
B-H characteristics and are
are
largely non-magnetic.
largely non-magnetic.
Materials for
Materials for Electrical
Electrical Machines 1.17
Machines 1.17
Apart from
Apart from the
the classification
classification shown
shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.4,
1.4, magnetic
magnetic materials
materials are
are classified
classified based
based on
on
the nature of hysteresis loop as shown in Fig. 1.5.
the nature of hysteresis loop as shown in Fig. 1.5.
Magnetic materials
based on hysteresis loop
Hard magnetic Soft magnetic
Electrical sheet Special purpose

Solid core
steel alloy
Iron, silicon and Grain oriented Mumetal

low carbon steel
Non grain
Cast steel Perminvar
oriented
Cast iron Permendur
High nickel
Gray cast iron permalloy
Low nickel
Ferro cobalt
permalloy
Soft steel
fig.
Fig. 1.5
1.5 || Classification
Classification of
of magnetic
magnetic materials
materials based
based on
on hysteresis
hysteresis loop
loop
Hard magnetic materials

Hardtype
This magnetic materials
of magnetic materials have broad hysteresis loop, indicating wider range of
This type
operation. of magnetic materials have broad hysteresis loop, indicating wider range of
operation.
Soft magnetic materials
Soft magnetic materials
This type of magnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loop, indicating ease of magnetization
This type of magnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loop, indicating ease of magnetization
and demagnetization.
and demagnetization.
The hysteresis loop of soft and hard magnetic materials is represented in Fig. 1.6.
The hysteresis loop of soft and hard magnetic materials is represented in Fig. 1.6.
1.18
1.18 Basic
BasicDesign
DesignConsiderations
Considerationsof
ofElectrical
ElectricalMachines
Machines
Hard magnetic
material
Soft magnetic
material
–H H
–B
fig.1.6
Fig. 1.6 || Hysteresis
Hysteresisloops
loopsof
ofsoft
softand
andhard
hardmagnetic
magneticmaterial
material
Further,classification
Further, classificationof
ofsoft
softmagnetic
magneticmaterials
materialsasasshown
shownin inFig.
Fig.1.5
1.5isisdetailed
detailedasasfollows.
follows.
Solidcore
Solid corematerials
materials
This type of magneticmaterials
This type of magnetic materialsisismade
madewithwithmaterials
materialslisted
listedin
inTable
Table1.1
1.1ininorder
ordertotoexhibit
exhibit
high permeability with lesser losses than iron in low flux density. These materials
high permeability with lesser losses than iron in low flux density. These materials find its find its
applications in machines such as relays, field portion of DC machines and DC electromagnets.
applications in machines such as relays, field portion of DC machines and DC electromagnets.
Thesematerials
These materialsare
arerequired
requiredto toexhibit
exhibithigh
highpermeability
permeabilityat athigh
highflux
fluxdensities.
densities.
Table 1.1 || Solid

table1.1 Solidcore
corematerials
materialsand
andits
itskey
keyfeatures
features
solidcore
Solid corematerial
material Keyfeatures
Key features
Ironand
Iron andsilicon
silicon • Iron
• Iron isis used
used in in most
most of of the
the machine
machine parts
parts inin varied
varied quantities
quantities from
from
steel
steel cores to pole shoes in combination with silicon,
cores to pole shoes in combination with silicon, oxygen, etc. oxygen, etc.
• Silicon
• Siliconsteel
steelconsisting
consistingofof (1.1–4%
(1.1–4% of of Silicon)
Silicon) is cut
is cut using
using Electric
Electric
DischargeMachining
Discharge Machiningprocessprocess toto make
make laminations,
laminations, which
which when
when stacked
stacked form
together together form the laminated
the laminated cores of transformers,
cores of transformers, stator/rotorstator/
cores.
rotor cores.
Cast/high carbon • It contains sulphur (0.05%), phosphorus (0.08%), silicon (0.2%),
Cast/high carbon
steel • manganese
It contains sulphur (0.05%),
(2.5%), carbon phosphorus
(5.5%) apart from (0.08%),
steel.silicon (0.2%),
steel • It finds its applications in stationary machinesteel.
manganese (2.5%), carbon (5.5%) apart from parts subjected
• to
It finds
steadyitsfluxapplications
and large in stationarystresses,
mechanical machinedue parts subjected
to its superior
to steady flux and large mechanical
mechanical properties than cast iron. stresses, due to its superior
mechanical properties than cast iron.
Cast iron • It consists of silicon (2%), carbon (3%), apart from pig iron.
Cast iron • The
• It consists
yokes of of DC
silicon (2%), carbon
machines, which(3%),
requireapart from pig iron.
inexpensive materials,
• make
The yokes
use ofofCast-Iron
DC machines,despite which
theirrequire inexpensive
poor magnetic materials,
properties and
make use of
increased weight. Cast-Iron despite their poor magnetic properties and
increased weight.
Grey cast iron • It contains sulphur (0.15%), phosphorus (0.15–0.5%), silicon (2–2.7%),
Grey cast iron • graphite–carbon
It contains sulphur (0.15%),apart
(2.7–3.6%) phosphorus
from iron. (0.15–0.5%), silicon (2–2.7%),
graphite–carbon (2.7–3.6%) apart from iron.
• On account of its high thermal conductivity and specific heat
• capacity,
On account it isofutilized
its hightothermal conductivity
make coolant tubes andandtank
specific heat
walls of the
capacity,
electric it is utilized to make coolant tubes and tank walls of the
machine.
electric machine.
(Continued)
(Cont'd)
Table 1.1 | (Continued)

Solid core material Key features
Ferro cobalt • Iron is alloyed with cobalt (around 50%), chromium (19%), along
with molybdenum and niobium to obtain this super-alloy.
• Owing to its very high permeability and saturation flux, this
expensive alloy is judiciously used in pole pieces, where high flux
density is required.
Soft steel or Mild • Its composition contains sulphur (0.03%), phosphorous (0.04%),
steel or low carbon carbon (0.17%), silicon (0.4%), manganese (0.8%) apart from steel.
steel • It is suitable for lightly stressed components such as rotor shafts,
switch gears, bolts, studs, etc.
Electrical sheet steel

Electrical sheet steel is a special type of steel custom-made to possess specific magnetic
properties such as small hysteresis area (resulting in low power loss per cycle), low core loss
and high permeability. It is manufactured by adding silicon (up to 5%) to steel. It is utilized
in fabrication of transformers and rotating electric machines, owing to its ability to overcome
the problem of ‘ageing’. Ageing is a process that deteriorates the magnetic performance of an
electrical machine due to presence of carbon and other impurities in conventional electrical
steel, which was used in earlier years of electric machine manufacturing. The presence of
silicon in electrical sheet steel leads to
•• Reduced hysteresis loss

•• Increased electrical resistivity of iron thereby reduction in iron loss due to eddy
currents
•• At a high flux density, permeability is reduced and permeability is increased at other
low to moderate values of flux density
•• It also has lower saturation
But alloying steel with silicon enhances its tensile strength, while reducing its inherent
ductility, thereby making it brittle. This makes machining silicon-steel a relatively arduous
task.
There are two types of electrical sheet steel, depending upon the orientation of grains or
crystallites, in a polycrystalline material (i.e., electrical sheet steel), namely
•• Cold Rolled Non Grain Oriented (CRNGO or CRNO) Steel
•• Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) Steel, which are detailed in Table 1.2
Special-purpose alloys
This type of magnetic materials are made using a mix of iron, nickel, molybdenum, chromium
in order to exhibit high permeability with lesser losses than iron in low flux density. These
materials find its applications in machines such as current and potential transformer
(instrument transformer) which require high flux density in weak magnetic fields. These
alloys are also required to exhibit high initial and maximum permeability. The significant
special-purpose alloys and their key features are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.2 | Electrical sheet steel types and features

Electrical sheet steel Key features
Cold Rolled Non Grain • This type of steel is rolled in random directions such that the
Oriented (CRNGO or grains are elongated along different directions.
CRNO) Steel or dynamo • CRNGO can respond to flux changes in all directions (i.e., its
grade electrical steel properties are isotropic).
• It is used in rotating electric machines, where the magnetic
field is not fixed in single direction.
• It is cheaper.
• It contains very less percentage of silicon as compared to
CRGO type steel.
Cold Rolled Grain • T his type of steel is rolled in one direction such that the grains
Oriented (CRGO) Steel elongate along one direction.
or transformer grade • CRGO needs precise alignment due to its anisotropy (the
electrical steel properties that are different along different directions are
anisotropic properties).
• It is used in transformers, turbo alternators with high rating,
because magnetic field is changing in only one direction.
• It is costlier.
• It contains 4–5% silicon.
Table 1.3 | Special-purpose alloys and their key features

Special-purpose alloy Key features
Mumetal • It consists of copper to a certain extent apart from being a
nickel–iron soft magnetic alloy.
• It is used in applications that require lower eddy current
losses, hence possesses high electrical resistance, but with an
additional disadvantage of having low permeability.
Perminvar • It consists of iron, nickel and cobalt.
• It finds its applications in current transformer and chokes.
• In this alloy, permeability is independent of magnetic field
strength.
• Even though it has many advantages, the alloy is costly and
difficult to manufacture.
Permendur • It is formed from iron (49%), cobalt (49%) and vanadium (2%).
• It finds its applications in oscillographs, microphones and
electromagnets.
High nickel permalloy • It contains nickel (80%), molybdenum along with chromium,
copper to ensure high initial and maximum permeability with
high resistivity.
• Its applications include control equipment, current
transformer, magnetic amplifiers.
(Continued)

Special-purpose alloy Key features
Low nickel permalloy • It contains nickel (38–50%), manganese, chromium and silicon.
• It has lower permeability and high resistivity.
• Its applications include communication equipment, induction
chokes, coils and transformer cores.
Apart from the classification discussed earlier, magnetic materials can also be classified
based on type of flux passing through it into
•• S teady flux type
•• Pulsating flux type
Steady flux type
These materials need to have high permeability, i.e. the material ought to have high
induction density at low ampere turns. This results in the reduction of cross-sectional
area and eventually weight of the core. They are predominantly used in the yokes and
cores of DC machines, relays and castings. Some commonly used materials are given as
follows:
(a) Castings: The yokes of DC machines, which require inexpensive materials, are made
of Cast-Iron despite their poor magnetic properties and increased weight, while
Cast-Steel is employed in those parts which require superior magnetic qualities and
are not subject to high mechanical stresses.
(b) Steel forgings: They are extensively used in the rotors of high power turbo-
generators, owing to their enhanced mechanical strength and machinability.
Pulsating flux type
For the magnetic materials to allow pulsating flux to pass through, they ought to be laminated
to minimize the large eddy current losses. These materials have to be so designed that the
specific core loss (or loss co-efficient) is less. Sheet steel, already discussed in the previous
section, is used under this category.
1.8.4 Insulation Materials

The key requisites of good insulating materials include:
•• Mechanical strength
•• Temperature
•• Confine electric current in definitive regions
•• Low dissipation factor (loss target), high resistance, low permittivity, free from

moisture and ionic contamination
•• High dielectric strength, even at high temperatures
•• Low dielectric hysteresis
•• High thermal stability
•• Ability to withstand moisture, vibration, abrasion and bending
•• Should withstand high temperatures, chemical attack
•• Dielectric loss angle (low)
1.22
1.22 Basic
Basic Design
Design Considerations
Considerations of
of Electrical
Electrical Machines
Machines
•
•• Liquid
L iquid –– no
no evaporation
evaporation or
or volatilization.
volatilization.
•
•• SSolid
olid –– high
high melting or softening point
melting or softening point
•
•• N Noo deterioration
deterioration even
even with
with repeated
repeated heat
heat cycle
cycle
•
•• G ood machinability for mass production
Good machinability for mass production
•
•• G ood thermal
Good thermal conductivity
conductivity
Insulators
Insulators are
are non-metallic
non-metallic materials
materials which
which are
are used
used in in electric
electric machines
machines to
to provide
provide
insulation
insulation (thermal insulation, galvanic separation, etc.) between live parts. They can
(thermal insulation, galvanic separation, etc.) between live parts. They can be
be
organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, homogeneous or heterogeneous in composition.
organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, homogeneous or heterogeneous in composition.
These
These materials
materials exhibiting
exhibiting manifold
manifold properties
properties can
can be
be segregated
segregated as as shown
shown in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.7.
1.7.
Insulation
resistance,
dielectric
strength
Electrical
Machinability,
Appearance, mouldability,
color and viscosity,
crsytallinity solubility and
Visual Mechanical porosity
Properties of
insulating
materials
Chemical Thermal
Thermal
conductivity,
Chemical resistance,
resistance and volatility, flash
hygroscopicity point, melting
point
fig. 1.7
Fig. 1.7 || Properties
Properties of
of insulating
insulating materials
materials
These properties
These properties differ
differ depending
depending upon
upon where
where thethe insulating
insulating materials
materials are
are employed
employed in in
the machine. Insulation materials are classified into seven types based on their
the machine. Insulation materials are classified into seven types based on their operating operating
temperature range
temperature range and
and thermal
thermal stability
stability as
as shown
shown in in Table
Table 1.4.
1.4. The
The temperature
temperature upup to
to which
which
these materials can be safely operated upon is listed along with the typically used materials
these materials can be safely operated upon is listed along with the typically used materials
from each
from each class
class in
in Table
Table 1.4.
1.4. These
These specifications
specifications areare standardized
standardized and
and governed
governed by by the
the
Indian Standard (IS) publication, IS 1271 (year 1958).
Indian Standard (IS) publication, IS 1271 (year 1958).
Table 1.4 | Classification of insulating material

Type of insulation Temperature Materials
class
Y or Class ‘0’ 90°C Cotton, silk, paper, cellulose, wood – all without
impregnation or immersion in oil
A 105°C Cotton, silk, paper with impregnation or coating when
dipped in oil (dielectric liquid), laminated wood, varnished
paper and cellulose esters
E 120°C Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper laminated with
formaldehyde bonding
B 130°C Mica, glass fibre, asbestos with bonding substances, built
up mica along with silicon resins and asbestos laminates
F 155°C Mica, glass fibre, asbestos with bonding substances of
higher thermal stability than class B insulation
H 180°C Asbestos, glass fibre, built up mica combined with silicon
resins
C > 180°C Ceramics, mica, glass, quartz (either without bonding
materials or with silicon resins of higher thermal stability
than class F insulation) and porcelain
A further classification of insulating materials that are commonly employed in modern

electric machines, based on their chemical structure, physical properties and state is given
in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 | Classification of insulating materials based on their chemical structure, physical properties
and state
Insulating material Key features
Asbestos • M echanically weak, even when combined with cotton fibres
• When combined with synthetic resin, it has good mechanical
strength and thermal resistivity
• Have been manufactured in the form of wires and strip coverings,
providing high resilience and abrasion resistance
Askarels • I t is non-flammable synthetic liquid, gets converted into non-
explosive gas on decomposing with an electric arc
• Typical type used is hexachlorodiphenyl trichlorovenzine (60/40
mixture), having good viscosity, thermal stability and low pour
point
Black tape (friction • I t is formed when cotton tape is applied in either one or both sides
tape) with bituminous compound, which is adhesive and insulating
• Typical usage is in replacement of protective braid of cables and as
finishing tape over rubber
(Continued)

Insulating material Key features
Composite materials • I t is formed by mixing or overlapping one or more insulating
materials, to overcome the lack in any of physical/thermal/
electrical characteristics
• Examples include polyesterin resin, asbestos paper, asbestos
polyethylene fibre
Cotton fibre/tape • I t is woven from acetylates cotton, which has high resistance to heat
and are less hygroscopic in nature than regular cotton
• It is fibrous, absorbing moisture, which requires careful
impregnation
• It is used in wrapping of armature and field coils
Epoxide • U sed in laminations as adhesive and in varnishing
thermosetting resins • Used in encapsulating of small transformers
• Used in casting and potting of laminations
Fibrous glass tape • I t has a good space factor, with high resistivity, thermal
conductivity and tensile strength, generally used as class B
insulation
• It is susceptible to abrasive damage
• It is used in windings of induction machines and field coils of DC
machines
Mica • I t has high resistance to heat, dielectric strength
• It is brittle to be used alone, and hence used with varnish, shellac,
bitumen, silicon, resin or with polyester or synthetic bending
• Silicon blended with mica is used in class B insulation, whereas
silicon bonded with mica is used in class H insulation
Micanite sheet • I t consists of wrapped mica splitting, dried in air along with paper/
(Micafolium) cloth/glass for support and bonding
• Air is removed by moulding into conductors, rolling, compressing
between heating the plates, solidifying the mica
• It is used in armature slots and coils of DC machines
Nylon and Terylene • T
hey possess considerably high tensile strength and enhanced
dielectric properties – with a breakdown voltage of 80 kV/mm for
varnished paper
Petroleum based • I t has good dielectric strength, when they are not contaminated and
mineral oils devoid of moisture
• It has good chemical stability, viscosity, expansion coefficient and is
resistant to sludging caused by oxidation
Polyamides (nylon • I t has high mechanical strength, space factor
tapes) • It has high resistance to temperature
• It has good abrasive resistance, could withstand wear and tear
(Continued)
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1. Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines 1.1

2. Design of Magnetic Circuits 2.1

2.1.2 Analysis of Parallel Composite Magnetic Circuits 2.4

3. Design of Transformer 3.1

3.3.5 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.12

4. Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.1

5. Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.1

5.6.2 Choice of Specific Loadings 5.7

6. Design of Synchronous Machine 6.1

7.2.3 Specifications of DC Machine 7.4

8. Computer-aided Design and Analysis of Electric Motors 8.1

V. S. Nagarajan has been working as an Assistant Professor in the

1.2 Factors for Consideration

2. Electric circuit design

1.3.1 Need for Computer-aided Design

1.4 Specifications and Standards

•• kW/kVA rating of machine

Some of the standards relating to electrical machines published by IS are enlisted as

IS No. Year Title specification

(b) For transformers:

IS No. Part Year Title specification

(c) Supplementary general specifications of electrical machines:

IS No. Part Year Title specification

1.5 Constraints of Design

Power factor Design limitations Insulation

Stress on Mechanical Consumer

1.6 Dimensions and Rating of Machines

1.7 Output Equation

where φ – flux, p – number of poles, Z – number of armature conductors, N – speed in r.p.m,

⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.5)

Substituting Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) in Eq. (1.4), we get

Eph = 4.44 f φTph K ws (1.9)

= 3 × 2 Tph = 6Tph 1.12)

Consider number of parallel paths, A = 1, Eq. (1.11) becomes

Substituting Eqs. (1.9) and (1.13) in Eq. (1.8), we get

Substituting Eq. (1.10) in the above equation, we get

Rerranging the terms in the above equation, we get

Q = 6.66 pφI z Tph K ws ns

= 1.11pφI z ZK ws ns  ∵ Z = 6Tph  (1.14)

⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.15)

Substituting Eqs. (1.15) and (1.16) in Eq. (1.14), we get

1.8 Materials for Electrical Machines

1.8.1 Conducting Materials

Parameters such as resistivity, density, specific weight, tensile strength, resistance

Materials for electric machine

1.8.2 Resistive Materials

Conductors in heating devices

Conductors used in instrumentation

Rheostats and resistors

fig. 1.4 | Classification of magnetic materials based on permeability

Hard magnetic Soft magnetic

Electrical sheet Special purpose

Iron, silicon and Grain oriented Mumetal

Cast iron Permendur

Hard magnetic materials

Table 1.1 || Solid

Table 1.1 | (Continued)

Electrical sheet steel

•• Reduced hysteresis loss

Table 1.2 | Electrical sheet steel types and features

Table 1.3 | Special-purpose alloys and their key features

1. Basic Design Considerations of Electrical Machines 1.1

2. Design of Magnetic Circuits 2.1

2.1.2 Analysis of Parallel Composite Magnetic Circuits 2.4

3. Design of Transformer 3.1

3.3.5 Output Equation of Three-phase Transformer (Core-type) 3.12

4. Design of Three-phase Induction Motor 4.1

5. Design of Single-phase Induction Motor 5.1

5.6.2 Choice of Specific Loadings 5.7

6. Design of Synchronous Machine 6.1

7.2.3 Specifications of DC Machine 7.4

8. Computer-aided Design and Analysis of Electric Motors 8.1

⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.5)

Eph = 4.44 f φTph K ws (1.9)

= 3 × 2 Tph = 6Tph 1.12)

= 1.11pφI z ZK ws ns  ∵ Z = 6Tph  (1.14)

⇒ pφ = Bav × πDL (1.15)