2023 CLSSBB Trainer Solutions SC Ver

This material is proprietary to PWD Group, Inc.
No part of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc.
All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing this material will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
About International Supply Chain Education Alliance (ISCEA):

The ISCEA is the developer of the internationally recognized
certification programs of Certified Supply Chain Manager (CSCM),
Certified Supply Chain Analyst (CSCA), Certified Lean Master
(CLM), Certified RFID Master (RFIDSCM), Certified Supply Chain
Technology Professional (CSCTP), and Certified Demand Driven
Planner (CDDP). ISCEA is the governing body for the Ptak Prize.
ISCEA members hold mid to upper supply chain management
positions in Global 2000 companies. For more information, please
visit www.iscea.com and www.iscea.net
www.iscea.org S1
No part of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing this material will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Introduction
S1.2-Presenter only
International Supply Chain Education Alliance
www.iscea.org www.iscea.net www.iscea.com
Chagrin Highlands Center

2000 Auburn Drive, Suite 200
Beachwood, OH 44122, USA
Tel: 800-817-9083
Fax: 440-708-2641
S2
International Supply Chain Education Alliance
• Established in 2003 to fill the need of high
impact training for Supply Chain Professionals
and Candidates for Supply Chain Certification
Exams.
• Holds Supply Chain Education Workshops
Worldwide.
• ISCEA Instructors are University Professors or
Corporate Executives with 5+ years of
experience.
S2.1-Presenter Only
Partial List of companies who attended our
workshops or where our members work:
•Johnson Controls • UPS •Automated Packaging
• Pepsi America • GENCO •Avery Dennison
•L’Oreal USA •University of Texas •Department of Defense
•Nestle USA •SABIC •Diebold Incorporated
•Nordson Corporation •Accenture •Eaton Corporation
•Parker Hannifin Corporation •Checkpoint •General Motors
•Swagelok •Sun Micro Systems •United Nations
•The J. M. Smucker Company •Dell •Honeywell International
•The Nautilus Group •Ford Motor Company •Moen Incorporated
• The Timken Company •AkzNobel •Samsung
•Saudi Telecom •FedEx •Saudi ARAMCO
S2.2-Presenter Only
ISCEA Executives In-Charge of Key Programs
Dr. Kenneth Paetsch, DBA, CSCM
Director of CSCM/CSCA™ Programs
Mr. Mike Loughrin, CLM, CFPIM, CSCP, CSCM

Director of Lean Six Sigma Programs
Mr. Chad Smith, CDDP

Director of DDMRP/CDDP Programs
Co-Founder of Demand Driven Institute
Dr. Erick C. Jones, RFIDSCM, CLSSMBB, Fel. ISCEA

IISB – President, IISB (ISCEA International Standards Board)
Professor at the University of Texas Arlington
Dr. Gerald (Jerry) Ledlow, Ph.D., MHA, FACHE
IISB – Chair, Health Care Committee
Professor at Georgia Southern University
Dr. Erick C. Jones

IISB – Chair, Technology Committees
Professor at the University of Texas Arlington
S4
ISCEA Sponsored Events
European Supply Chain Distinction Awards
S2.3 -Presenter Only

Ptak Prize for Supply Chain Excellence
Each year ISCEA showcases Corporations that have
made significant improvement in operations by
combining clear objectives with aligned business
practices supported by flexible and adaptable
technology.
LeTourneau Steel
& Genco
Indian Oil &
S1.11-Presenter Only Honeywell
International Supply Chain

Education Alliance (ISCEA)
International Technology Board
Technology Committee
(IISB TC)
S2.5-Presenter Only
10
IISB - LEAN Six Sigma

Mission: IISB LEAN Six Sigma Committee (IISB LSS)
• Determine, evaluate and execute the ISCEA Lean and Six
Sigma certification processes for individuals and accredited
solution providers.
• Current Accredited Programs
▫ CLM (Certified LEAN Master)
▫ Certified LEAN Six Sigma Programs
 ELSSYB - Executive Yellow Belt Program *Invitation only
 CLSSYB – Yellow Belt Program
 CLSSGB – Green Belt Program
 CLSSBB – Black Belt Program
• Multi-step Certification
▫ Pre-Exam Approval for Class
▫ Accredited Training (Accredited Provider)
▫ Certification Exams (Online and proctored exams)
▫ Qualified Project & Presentations (Green/Black Belt)
S2.6-Presenter Only
ISCEA Technology Committee Six
Sigma Program
• Executive Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt (ELSSYB)
*invitation only
• Certified Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt (CLSSYB)
• Qualified/*Certified Lean Six Sigma Green Belt (Q/CLSSGB)
Certification Program
 Pre-Exam for being invited to class
 After Exam passing considered – Qualified Green Belt
 After passing Project report, and Presentation Review - Certified
Green Belt
• Qualified/Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt (Q/CLSSBB)
 Pre-Exam for being invited to class or CLSSGB
 After Exam passing considered – Qualified Black Belt
 After passing (2) Project report, and Presentation Review - Certified
Black Belt
S34
A Brief History and Overview of

Six Sigma
S7
Six Sigma in Procurement
11/18/2009
S8
Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt
Overview/History Goals and Objectives
1. Identify which Quality Programs including Six Sigma seek macro-

level or micro-level specific improvement
2. Identify which Quality Standard include Six Sigma
3. Identify which Gurus supported Six Sigma principles such as
Financials ,Management Accountability, 4 Absolutes of Quality
4. Define knowledge management and how does it help organizations
5. Define the Six Sigma Main Steps/Phases
6. Identify examples of the Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)
7. Identify which statistics DOES not measure specific measurement
S9
Six Sigma: Quality Gurus
• Well known quality Gurus whose technical foundations
contributed to Six Sigma include:
• Philip B. Crosby
▫ Senior management involvement
▫ 4 Absolutes of Quality
1. Quality is defined as conformance to customers’
requirements
2. The system for improving quality is prevention
3. The performance standard is zero defects
4. The measurement of quality is the price of
nonconformance
▫ Cost of Quality Measurement
▫ Quality as a Core
• W. Edwards Deming
▫ Plan-do-study-act
▫ Top management involvement
▫ System Improvement
▫ Constancy of purpose
S10
Six Sigma: A Brief History
• Armand Feigenbaum
▫ Total quality control/management
▫ Top Management Involvement
• Kaoru Ishikawa
▫ 4M or cause effect diagram
 Fishbone Diagram (Man, Machine, Methods, Material)
▫ Company Wide Quality control
▫ Next operator as customer
• Joseph M. Juran
▫ Top Management involvement
▫ Quality Trilogy (Planning, Control, Improvement)
▫ Quality Cost Measurement (Financial)
▫ Illustrates a parallel between his quality sequence and
financial management processes
▫ Pareto Analysis (80/20) Rule S11
Joseph M. Juran
• Project-by-Project Improvement
▫ Juran teaches that improvement in organizations is
accomplished on a project-by-project basis “and in no other
way.”
▫ The project-to-project approach advocated by Juran is a
planning-based approach to quality improvement.
▫ Managers must prioritize which project will be undertaken first
based on financial return.
▫ This means that analysts must use the language of
management, that is, money, in order to help determine which
projects should be undertaken.
S12
• Walter A. Shewart
▫ Assignable cause vs. chance cause
▫ Control Charts
▫ Plan-do-check-act
▫ Use of statistics for improvement
• Genichi Taguchi
▫ Loss function concepts
▫ Signal to noise ratio
▫ Experimental Design methods
▫ Concept of Design Robustness
S13
• Originated at Motorola in 1987
▫ In response to low quality perception
▫ Bill Smith credited as originator under Bob Galvin
▫ Focus on defect reduction and improved yield
▫ General outline: Six Steps to Six Sigma
• Modified/adapted by many companies, including
AlliedSignal (1989-1994)
▫ Dr. Mikel Harry was a principal advisor founded Six Sigma
Academy
▫ Standardized on the “MAIC” process and 12 steps
▫ Significant benefits in competitiveness /financial gains
• Adopted by General Electric in 1994
▫ Jack Welch was champion of the movement
▫ Applied in all parts of the company
▫ Considerable financial success
▫ Extensive publicity by 1998, including emphasis in annual
reports
S14
PWD Group’s Six Sigma Process
Methodology* Qualify Projects (Sponsorship)
DEFINE Define Specific Project (Black Belt)
Step 1 Identify Critical Characteristics

MEASURE Step 2 Clarify Specific and Targets
Step 3 Measurement System Validation
Step 4 Determine Baseline
ANALYZE Step 5 Identify Improvement Objectives
Step 6 Evaluate Process Inputs
Step 7 Formulate Implementation Plan
IMPROVE Step 8 Perform Work Measurement
Step 9 Lean Execute the proposed Plan
Step 10 Reconfirm the Plan
CONTROL Step 11 Set up Statistical Process Controls
Step 12 Operational Process Transition
* Proprietary of PWD Group Inc. S15
DMAIC Methodology
• An organized disciplined approach to problem solving in

most Six Sigma Organizations is known as DMAIC
Methodology
S16
Design and Operational Methodologies
Design for Six Sigma Operational Six Sigma
– Product Development Define – Process Improvement
DFSS No
Do products,
process and service
Yes
DMAIC
standards exist to
satisfy the
requirements?
Design Measure
Measure Analyze
Explore
No Is Improvement
Sufficient?
Yes
Develop
Improve
Implement
Control
Leverage
S17
Six Sigma Companies
• Companies
▫ Motorola, GE, Dupont, Polaroid, Kodak, Sony
• Results
▫ Motorola saved $940Million over three years
▫ GE saved 2.5 Billion as of 1999
S18
Comparison to Other Quality

initiatives
S19
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
• Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award

▫ Focused on Enterprise view not Project (micro)
view as in Six Sigma.
▫ The award is open to small (less than 500 employees)
and large firms (more than 500 employees) in the
manufacturing and service sectors.
▫ It is not open to public-sector and not-for-profit
organizations.
▫ There can be only two winners per category each year,
which limits the number of yearly awards to six.
• Additional information on the Baldridge award
▫ www.NIST.gov
S20
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
Baldrige Award Framework

Organizational Profile:
Environment, Relationships and Challenges
2 5
Strategic HR develop. &
planning management
7
1 Business
Leadership results
3 6
Customer and Process
market focus management
4
Information and analysis
S21
ISO 9000:2000
• Worldwide Impact
▫ On a worldwide basis, ISO 9000:2000 has had a much more
significant impact than any of the quality awards in terms of
the number of companies that have implemented the
approach..
• Focus of ISO 9000:2000
▫ The focus of ISO 9000:2000 is for companies to document
their quality systems in a series of manuals to facilitate trade
through supplier conformance.
• ISO
▫ Organization for International Standards
▫ ISO Standard for Six Sigma
 ISO 13053-1:2011 Quantitative methods in process
improvement -- Six Sigma
S22
ISO 9000:2000
• Standards
1. ISO 9000:2000 - Quality management systems -
Fundamentals and vocabulary.
2. ISO 9001:2000 - Quality management systems -
Requirements.
- These are used for internal implementation,
contractual purposes, or for third-party registrations.
3. ISO 9004:2000 - Quality management - Guidelines
for Performance Improvement
- These include continual improvement and enhancing
overall performance.
S23
ISO 13053:2011 Quantitative Methods in Process
Improvement – Six Sigma
• Six Sigma projects follow a defined sequence of steps with quantified goals and
financial targets (cost reduction and/or profit increase), and rely on statistical
tools to deal with uncertainty. Implementation involves the establishment of an
infrastructure with specific roles and responsibilities (e.g. black or green belts).
• The new standard, ISO 13053:2011, Quantitative methods in process
improvement – Six Sigma, deals exclusively with the application of Six
Sigma to ameliorate existing processes and is published in the following two
parts:
• Part 1: DMAIC methodology, describes the five-phased methodology DMAIC
(Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve and Control), and recommends best
practice, including on the roles, expertise and training of personnel involved in
such projects.
• Part 2: Tools and techniques, describes tools and techniques, illustrated by
factsheets, to be used at each phase of the DMAIC approach.
• Both documents can be applied to all sectors and organizations.
S24
• Sigma stands for the Greek symbol σ that designates a standard
deviation in statistics.
• Six refers to the number of standard deviations from a mean
specifications should be.
• Began in Motorola in 1982 as effort to reduce costs and improve
quality.
• It now involves planning, organization, training, human resources
planning, and pay-for knowledge.
• It requires both organizational and individual cooperation to
achieve a goal.
• It seeks to manage knowledge (Knowledge Management)
• Knowledge Management: A set of active practices that an
organization uses to create, assimilate, disseminate and
apply knowledge.
S25
… Sigma (s): a Measure of Variation
Sigma (s) represents standard deviation
- a measure of variability (Variance)
- Different than Range which is NOT dependent on
exact Values
1s
-3s +3s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 y
Days
Average
S26
“Sigma” as a Performance Metric
“Six Sigma process” -
A process that is so well understood and controlled that six standard
deviations will fit between the average output and the spec limit.
6s
1s 1s 1s 1s 1s 1s
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Average Days
“Spec”
Limit
S27
Sigma Level Long-Term ppm* Defects
1 691,462
2 308,538
3 66,807
4 6,210
5 233
6 3.4
*ppm = parts-per-million
S28
S29
Overview of Six Sigma Certification

& Training Programs
S30
Six Sigma: Training
• Generally Six Sigma Education is Categorized into
Training and Certification
▫ Some confusion is due to the fact that completion of some
Company training programs have provided an implied
certification
• Certification are generally associated with an exam and an
confirmation process at the higher levels
▫ The certification value is driven by the robustness of the
certification process and the success of the students who are
certified
▫ Certification can mean additional $ 20,000-$30,000 a year
in salary and or getting a job is some companies
 HR personnel call about the details of the certification to judge
the credibility
• Training is a means for preparing the student to be
successful in attaining the certification and success in the
field with the certification
S31
Six Sigma: Certification
• SS Certification based on the Karate color belt system
▫ Types
 Company Certifications (GE, 3M, others)
 University Certifications (UNL, UC-Berkley, others)
 Organizational Certifications (ASQ, IIE, ISCEA)
▫ Levels in ascending order to date
 Yellow Belt/White Belt
 Green Belt/Black Belt/Master Black Belt
• Certification are generally associated with an exam and an
confirmation process at the higher levels
▫ Certification Exam
▫ Board or organization confirmation process
 Affidavit Review
 Paper or report review
 Public Presentation
• Certification Value is driven by the robustness of the
training and certification process and the success of the
students S32
Six Sigma: Training
• Six Sigma Training generally is delivered in the following
manner by Belt
▫ Companies (generally no exam)
 White and or Yellow – 1 day format
 Blended Green/Black Company Training
 1 week training, and 3 weeks on certifying project – for 3 months for Six
Sigma, and 4 months for Lean Six Sigma
 Distinction between Green and Black is F/T SS Status and required
savings ($ 100,000 for GB and $ 250,000 for BB)
▫ Organizational (Generally related to certification process)
 White or Yellow Belt – 1 day format
 Green Belt – 1 week (seminar format) and exam
 Black Belt – 1 week (seminar format) and or on-site consulting (similar
to company 3-4 month process), project verification, and exam
 Can be online formats
▫ Colleges
 White or Yellow belt – Semester format and exam (Pre-reqs)
 Green Belt – 2 Semester format(prereqs) and exam
 Black Belt – 2 Semester format (Pre-reqs), project, and exam
 Can be online formats S33
ISCEA Technology Committee Six
Sigma Program
• Executive Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt (ELSSYB)
*invitation only
• Certified Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt (CLSSYB)
• Qualified/*Certified Lean Six Sigma Green Belt (Q/CLSSGB)
Certification Program
 Pre-Exam for being invited to class
 After Exam passing considered – Qualified Green Belt
 After passing Project report, and Presentation Review - Certified
Green Belt
• Qualified/Certified Lean Six Sigma Black Belt (Q/CLSSBB)
 Pre-Exam for being invited to class or CLSSGB
 After Exam passing considered – Qualified Black Belt
 After passing (2) Project report, and Presentation Review - Certified
Black Belt
S34
DMAIC Tools
S35

Define Measure Analyze Improve Control
•Business Case
•Project Desirability
Matrix
•Problem/Objective
Statement
•Primary/Secondary
Metric
•Change Management
•VOC/QFD
•SIPOC
•Process Mapping
S37.1
•XY Matrix
•Process FMEA
•Basic Statistics
•Decision-Making
•Non-Normal Data
Graphical Analysis
•Measurement System
Analysis
•Process Capability
S37.2
•Graphical Data Analysis

•Multi-Vari Analysis
•Inferential Statistics
•Hypothesis Tests
•Correlation
•Regression
•Process Modeling and
Simulation
•Pareto Chart
S37.3
•Hypothesis Tests
•Design of Experiments
(DOE)
•Advanced Regression
•Process Modeling and
Simulation
•Pilot and Test
S37.4
•Solution Selection
•Solution
Implementation
•Control Plans
•Control Charts
•Hypothesis Tests
•Process Capability
Assessment
•Best Practice
Sharing/Translation
S37.5
• Lean tools were
developed to improve
productivity and
eliminate wastes.
• Lean Six Sigma is a

combination of the Six
Sigma methodology and
lean manufacturing
techniques.
S38
• Interview • Hypothesis • Process • Factorial • Solution
Process Testing Capability Design of Selection/
• Language • Analysis of Analysis Experiments Implementati
Processing Variance • X-Y Map • Fractional on
• Prioritizatio • Quality • FMEA Factorials • Control Plans
n Matrix Function • Multi-Vari • Data Mining • Control
Chart • Blocking Charts
• System Map Deployment
• Chi-Square • Response • Hypothesis
• Stakeholder • Flowdown Tests
• Regression Surface
Analysis • Measureme Methodology • Process
nt System • Buffered Capability
• Thought Tolerance • Multiple
Analysis Assessment
Process Map Limits Response • Best Practice
• Value • Graphical Optimization Sharing/Tran
Stream Methods • Theory of slation
Mapping • Process Constraints • Visual
Behavior Systems
Charts • 5-S
• TPM
• Mistake-
Proofing
• SPC/APC
S39
… Lean Tools in Six Sigma
DEFINE MEASURE ANALYZE IMPROVE CONTROL
Interview Process Hypothesis Process Capability Factorial Design Control Plans

Testing Analysis of Experiments
Language Analysis of x-y Map Fractional Visual Systems
Processing Variance Factorials
Prioritization Quality Function FMEA Data Mining 5-S
Matrix Deployment
System Map Flowdown Multi-Vari Chart Blocking TPM
Stakeholder Measurement Chi-Square Response Surface Mistake-Proofing

Analysis System Analysis Methodology
Thought Process Graphical Regression Multiple Response SPC/APC
Map Methods Optimization
Value Stream Process Behavior Buffered Theory of
Mapping Charts Tolerance Limits Constraints
• These process analysis and process improvement tools have been used for
years!
• Six Sigma applies them in an integrated, sequential process.
• The most common attribute of Lean and Six Sigma is the Continuous
Improvement is a focus of both.
S40
Enterprise Wide Deployment
S41
Objectives
• Identify key elements in Six Sigma Implementation

• Identify key elements to deployment of Six Sigma
• Introduce to basics of change management
• Establish what a stakeholder is and why they are important
• Know the role of Six Sigma Teams and their structure
S42
Metric Implementing Six Sigma
Define
6 Methodology Measure
Analyze
Improve
✓ Business process Control

✓ Data driven
Management ✓ High performing ethical leadership
System ✓ Team based as fundamental work unit
S43
Implementing Six Sigma
• Committed leadership
▫ Changing to six sigma represents a cultural shift
▫ The GE model
 Managers participate in every Six Sigma training while
speaking to employees, answering questions, site
visiting, etc.
• Process Thinking
S44
Management Support
• The most critical element of Six Sigma implementation is

Top Management support
• Support critical for improving Internal quality for any
industry (Ex: Petroleum, manufacturing etc).
• Without management support, the true potential of Six
Sigma will never be realized
• Support includes:
▫ Reinforcing positive team results
▫ Providing direction along with support
S45
Business Process
• All processes must be evaluated.

▫ Make sure that a change does not interfere upstream
or downstream
• Places to look for interference
HR Manufacturing
Engineering Safety and
Sales and Health
Marketing Legal
Finance R&D
Product Liability Purchasing
More….
S46
Implementing Six Sigma
• Customer and market intelligence gathering

• Integration with business strategy and business
performance
• Training
• Continuous reinforcement and rewards
▫ @ Ge 40% of executive incentives are tied to Six
Sigma goals and progress
S47
Is your Company Ready?
• Six Sigma assumption

▫ Continuous improvement foundation is in place and
standardized process have been implemented
▫ Six Sigma promotes quality
 To measure quality it needs metrics
S48
SWOT Analysis
Strengths Objectivity and

diverse thinking
are critical to
the SWOT
Weaknesses
analysis!!!
Opportunities
Threats
Key Concern: Lack of Objectivity

S49
Internal Strengths
• Something a company is good at doing

▫ Skill
▫ Expertise
▫ Patent
▫ Key resource
▫ Technology
▫ Market position
 Market Segmentation (helpful in Spotting trends)
▫ Anything else that provides an advantage
S50
Internal Weaknesses
• Something that a firm lacks

▫ Poor cash flow
▫ Outdated technology
▫ High overhead
▫ Poor quality perception by consumer
S51
External Opportunities
• Expansion to new markets

• Low industry rivalry
• Minimal regulatory requirements
• Positive growth cycle
S52
External Threats
• Global competition
• Slow market growth
• New competitors
• Business to business on the internet
S53
SWOT Analysis
Strengths
• Hospital Weaknesses
Location
• Committed • Readmit Policy Opportunities
Nursing • Redundancies
Staff • eMAR, EHR, • Reduced cost Threats
• Excellent BPOC • Six Sigma • Penalty cost
Surgeons implementation training (Affordable
• Inventory • Reengineering Care act)
control, asset • Lawsuits
management
• Website
crashing
S54
Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
• A methodical process of identifying ”factors” or causes

to get to the “root” of the problem.
• One strategy is using the 5 Whys
▫ There may be more or less than 5 reasons, but it is an
acceptable place to start.
• A tool that can be used is for RCA is the Fishbone or
Ishikawa Diagram
S55
Input and Output Analysis
• In addition to the root cause analysis, Ishikawa can be

used to evaluate the Input and output variables
effectively. The other tool such as relationship
matrices technique can also be used for evaluating
Input and output variables.
S56
RCA-Fishbone Diagram
S57
RCA-Fish Bone Diagram
People Equipment Methods Retained

Foreign
Poor
Incorrect Objective in
Untrained lighting
counting surgeries
Staff Use of Equipment method
Incorrect counting systems
Manual
personnel counting-RN
Short Wrong
staffing of Not counting
Instruments for equipment
nurses procedure
Environment Material Measurement
S58
The Change Agent
“It has been often said that the most difficult

projects to manage are those that involve the
management of change……”
Kerzner H. 2009
S59
Managing Change
• To improve change needs to happen

(Evans/Lindsay, 2005)
▫ Process
▫ Procedures
▫ Facilities
▫ Organization
▫ Behavior
S60
Managing Change continued
• In general most change involves three stages:

1. Questioning the current state and remove the status
or current behavior
2. Introduce and implement new approaches to
replace old ones
3. Institutionalizing change
 Often reward systems help and show
commitment
S61
• Conflict and conflict

resolution "If you want
▫ Expect resistance to to make
change enemies, try
▫ Someone has to change
frustrated or is about something."
to frustrate
Woodrow Wilson
▫ Professional (Goals
and administrative)
▫ Personal
S62
• Mediate the conflict The average

manager spend
• Arbitrate the conflict
20% of his time
• Control the conflict dealing with
▫ Limit interaction conflict.
• Accept the conflict Posner 1986
• Eliminate the conflict
S63
Stakeholder Analysis
Can help identifying stakeholders……
S64
Process Inputs, Outputs, and Feedback
• Every process contains Inputs, Outputs, and Feedback.

It is important to keep track of these interactions to
accurately see what and where these can be measured.
• SIPOC Model
▫ A model that maps and details the relation between:
 Suppliers: Who provides information, materials, or
services
 Inputs: How the information is provided
 Process: What is done to the inputs
 Outputs: The final product or service
 Customers: Who receives the final product
S65
Key Stakeholders
• In the preparation of a project, efforts should be made to

identify and involve various parties affected by the
planned changes. These other parties are known as
Stakeholders.
S66
Key Stakeholders
Who are the main(key) stakeholders?
• Owners of the process (Ex: Managers working

in a particular department).
• Anyone contributing to the process
• Anyone affected by the process
• Those who benefit from process output
• All who see themselves as stakeholders
Not Competitors! S67

Key Stakeholders
Who are your general stakeholders?
• Society
• Stockholders
• Suppliers
• Customers
• All Employees
S68
Key Stakeholder Commitment
-2 -1 0 +1 +2
Active
Resistance Passive Collaboration
S69
Stakeholder Commitment
The more real commitment you have from

stakeholders, the better for your project.
What is real commitment?
When you study a plate of bacon and eggs,

you come to realize that while the chicken was
involved with the process, the pig was truly
committed.
Bill Conway
S70
An Example Analysis
TBM-Uptime - Stakeholder Analysis

Commitment
What is valued by the
Key Stakeholder (X) present level / (0) required level Recommended Actions
Key Stakeholder
-2 -1 0 1 2
He gives strong support, he
Plant Manager is also the sponsor of the X0
project
He will give support,
because he will get benefit, He will be involved during the
Production Manager X 0
but he may be influenced next meetings.
by the BT Managers
because he will get benefit
in view of waste, but he one
QTEC Manager X0
of his Technology Mgrs is
involved in the project as
Black/Green Belt
His support is required if
trials are required (later in
Production Control
the project).If we can X 0 "Some evening discussions"
Manager
improve the uptime he will
get benefit from the project
Involve him before "starting" of
If we improve the situation
the project. Small meeting
he will get benefit. But he
before project launch. Always
BTM Truck may loose the possibility to X 0
try to get informations about
hide some of his own
his feeling (during walk-over to
problems (DANGEROUS)
parking etc.).
S71
Stakeholder Analysis Form
S72
Two-Dimensional Stakeholder Analysis
Opposed Supportive
82
S73
• You can refine your stakeholder analysis by adding the

power/influence dimension
• This gives you a map showing where people stand regarding
your project, and helps you to focus your efforts.
• Some people may be opposed to the change, but having
little influence on the success/failure of your project.
• Your goal is to move everyone with success/failure influence
towards positive or least neutral.
• The success/failure influence of those who remain
stubbornly opposed must be minimized.
S74
S75
Flow Charts
Tools
A flow chart or process map can depict the sequence of product,
containers, paperwork, operator actions or administrative
procedures. This is a starting point for process improvement.
Common Flow Chart Symbols

Alternate Predefined Document
Process Decision Data
process Process
Connector
Manual Manual
Terminator Preparation
Input Operation
Off Page Merge Magnetic Disk

Display Delay
Connector Extract Or Storage
S76
The Process Map
• A process flow chart is simply a map of the system

• These charts are used to get an understanding of the
process, not necessarily a detailed analysis
S77
The Process Map
Uses:
• Detecting inappropriate use of resources
• Looks to eliminate 7 types of wastes in the system
• Holes or gaps in the control system
S78
Feedback
Flow Chart indicated the
need for
correction
Admissions Feedback/
Readmits
Emergency
Room
In Patient/
Out Patient
Discharge
Key participants in each step

are shown
Using the High Level Process Map
S79
No part of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc.. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing this material will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Traditional Process
Traditional improvement Improvement
activities tend to focus on actions
within individual functional and organizational groups ...
Result: Limited improvement in overall performance
Emergency Room OR Radiology Maternity

Optimized Optimized Optimized Optimized S80
Business Process Management
• BPM is a fundamental concept of Six Sigma. Efforts to

improve individual (local) process components are
replaced by systematic methods to understand, control
and improve (even optimize) overall business results.
S81
Business Process
There are three main business processes levels that need to

be considered in all Six Sigma strategy deployments
1. Business
2. Operations
3. Process
Each one has Key Process Input Variables (KPIV) and
Key Process Output Variables (KPOV)
S82
Process Elements
• Changes in the output will be related to changes that

originated in the Supply Improvement Process (SIP)
• If your SIPs are stable, your outputs will be stable
• ANY violation indicate your process model is incomplete
S83
Data Driven, Mathematical and Statistical
Thinking
• All work occurs in system of

interconnected processes.
• Variation exists in all processes.
• Understanding and reducing process

variation are keys to success.
S84
Role of Statistical Thinking & Methods
Business Mathematical Mathematical Business

Problem Problem Solution Solution
Quantification Data Implementation

with Data Analysis & Control
S85
Role of Statistical Thinking & Methods
Implement
The company 20% Invest in
inventory
profit margin percent of company
tracking
is smaller inventory is infrastructure to
system to
than not making increase profit
reduce lost
projected it to market margin
product
Quantification Data Implementation

with Data Analysis & Control
S86
The Place for DMAIC
“Harvesting the Fruit of Six Sigma”

Sweet Fruit
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS)
Process Entitlement
Bulk of Fruit
Process Characterization
and Optimization (DMAIC)
------------------------------------
Low Hanging Fruit
Basic Tools & Lean Methods
Ground Fruit
Logic and Intuition
S87
TEAMS
"None of us is smarter than all of

us."
(Japanese Saying)
http://www.t2tuk.co.uk/Team%20Building.aspx
S88
Types of Teams
• Six Sigma Teams • Quality Circles

• Improvement Teams • Quality Teams
• Process Improvement • Natural Work Teams
Teams
• Project Task Teams
• Self Directed Teams
• Cross Functional Teams
S89
Types of Teams continued
• Improvement Teams • Quality Teams

▫ Structure ▫ Structure
 8-10 members form single  8-10 members form a
department single department
▫ Focus ▫ Focus
 Quality or productivity issues  Quality or overall
▫ Member selection department performance
 Where the problem is observed

 Sources or causes may be found
 Members with special knowledge,
information or skills
 In areas that can be helpful in
developing remedies
S90
• Project Teams • Six Sigma Teams

 Broad or specific member
 8-12 members with a BB
selection
or MBB support
▫ Focus
 Qualified people with
 Specific projects such as
expertise needed
capital equipment
gathering, program ▫ Focus
overhaul, etc.
 Specific process or
customer based projects
with positive impact in
organization performance
S91
• Cross Functional Teams • Self Directed Teams

 8-10 members from  6-15 members from a
different departments work area. Skills require
members to work well in
▫ Focus groups
 Policy, practice, and ▫ Focus
operation changes
 Develop their own goals
inside area
S92
Team Size
• Not over 15 is a general rule

• Teams of 4 will not generate enough ideas
• The bigger the change and the more areas the project
overlaps, the more people you may want to use
S93
Team Member Roles
• Steering committee
• Process Owner
• Leader
• Team Leader
• Recorder
• Timekeeper
S94
Team Stages
• Forming
• Storming
• Norming
• Performing
• Adjourning
• Recognition and reward
S95
Team Development Stages
06-0105
S96
Team Meeting Structure
• Develop agenda • Summarize and repeat

• Distribute agenda key points through out
• Start on time • Put unfinished business
on the next agenda
• Appoint a recorder to
keep minutes • Finish on time
• Use Visual aids liberally • Distribute minutes
promptly
• Reinforce Participation,
conflict resolution and • Critique meeting
the problem solving effectiveness periodically
process
S97
Team Timing and Purpose
• Kaizen teams Simple / Visual

– Short duration
– One week or less
– Full time
– Visual project analysis
• Lean teams
– Medium duration 30-90 days
– Part time
– Cross functional in nature
– Time is a major improvement factor
– Requirements are usually not aligned
• Six Sigma teams
– Longer duration 60-120 days
– Part time
– Seek to reduce variation and eliminate errors Complex
– New product/service development
– Process stabilization and elimination of “root causes” McCarty, 2005
S98
• For significant • Organizational leadership is
meaningful key
improvement, • Production is the economic
several things factor… to business health
need to happen
• Competitive …organizations
must reinvent for improvement
• While this happens, customers
need to be served
• Implementation and
transformation has to start
somewhere
• Most commonly is cross
functional teams
S99
Roles and Responsibilities
S100
Key Roles for Success
Six Sigma
Strategic
Executive • Set vision and direction
Group Leadership
(Provide •Process Owners
Financial
Support) Champions • Lead implementation
Sponsors • Sponsor projects for results

MBB and BB
serve as
coaches Master • Teach, consult, lead
Black Belts projects
Black Belts • Lead projects
Green Belts • Lead/support projects

• Understand basics
Yellow Belt, White Belt, etc
•All employees
S101
Executive Leadership & Champion:
Responsibilities
• Participate in development of vision and strategy for Six

Sigma deployment
• *Executive Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt
• Manage resource investment development strategy
• Assist with project definition and alignment
▫ Coach sponsors and Black Belts
• Assure project tracking and reporting - including
validated financial benefits
• Assure transfer of solutions
• Assess performance
• Initiate actions to assure success
S102
Experts and Roles
• Champion
▫ Senior level managers
▫ Promote the deployment of six sigma
▫ Understand the philosophy and tools of Six
Sigma
▫ Select projects
▫ Set objectives
▫ Allocate resources
▫ Mentor teams
S103
Project Sponsor: Responsibilities
• Participate in project kick-off meeting

• Help remove roadblocks and buffer conflicts
• Assure continuing project alignment and urgency
• Ensure successful transfer of control responsibilities to
the
-process owner Or help to define the accountable person
• Providing direction and support
• Reinforcing Positive team results
S104
• Senior Management receives this training

▫ Executive or Certified Lean Six Sigma
Yellow Belt
• Define the project and project objectives
• Approve changes in direction or scope of the project
• Provide (or assist in providing) resources for the
project
• Participate in project kick-off meeting
• Help remove roadblocks and buffer conflicts
• Assure continuing project alignment and urgency
• Ensure successful transfer of control responsibilities
to the process owner
▫ Or help to define the accountable person
S105
Experts and Roles
• Master Black Belt (most technically trained)

▫ Advise Black Belts during project execution
▫ Teach classes (Coach)
▫ Lead major projects
▫ Participate in program development
▫ Additional training beyond Black Belt
S106
Responsibilities of a Black Belt
• Initiator
▫ Prepare initial project assessment to estimate benefits
▫ Identify needed project resources
• Technologist
▫ Use the DMAIC process
▫ Determine most effective tools to apply
• Leader (Coach)
A Fulltime
▫ Identify barriers to project progress Responsibility
▫ Lead the project team
▫ Inform the sponsor about project status
• Closer
▫ Deliver results on time
S107
Experts and Roles
• Black Belts • Green Belts

▫ Fully trained Six Sigma ▫ Functional employees
experts ▫ Trained in introductory
▫ Up to 160 hours of Six Sigma tools and
training methodology
▫ Advanced knowledge of ▫ Work on projects part
tools and DMAIC time
▫ Implement and ▫ Conduct basic analysis
monitor solutions of data
▫ Mentor and develop ▫ Provide ideas for
Green Belts improvement
S108
Experts and Roles
• Yellow Belts • Team Members
▫ Support Black Belts during ▫ From various
project execution
▫ Collect real data (MSA functional areas
Beneficial data)
▫ Gather data and
▫ Lead ground fruit logic based
projects conduct experiments
▫ Serve on project teams with
approval
▫ Provide operational knowledge
▫ Provide reality check (but
support) projects
▫ Support documentation and
promoting the benefits
▫ Support company directed
White Belt training
S109
Senior Management Training
• Usually receive sponsored training

• Managers lead the deployment of Six Sigma
• Managers must understand the concepts if their full
support is expected
• Managers will validate the impact of the training
S110
Key Roles for Project Success
• The process expert
• Helps collect data to
- knows the real-world operation of
identify causes and make
the process Project improvements
• Helps identify problems
and possible causes Team • Knows and follows process
changes
Member
• Green Belts
• Yellow Belts
Sponsor Black Belt
• Identify and prioritize projects • Initiate

• Remove roadblocks and buffer • Lead
conflicts • Apply
S111
•No partEnsure ongoing control • Close
of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing this material will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Why Six Sigma?
• To deal with a world of declining product prices

• To compete successfully with the best companies in the
world
Need to accelerate our rate of

improvement of quality and productivity
faster than our competitors
• To establish standard language and approaches across

functions and across businesses
• To develop the next generation of leaders
S112
Organization Deployment Strategy
• What to teach DMAIC

• How to teach
• How to implement
• How to drive
S113
Time to Reach Six Sigma
5.0
Years 4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25
4.5 Current Process Sigma Level
S114
Incremental Earnings
1) Incremental Product / Service Earnings Due to Increased Capacity.

▫ (Net Sales After Project - Net Sales before Project) * Product Line Gross Margin - SAG
incremental expenses
▫ Note: A some or all of overhead burden may also be counted in benefits. Ask your finance
rep.
2) Incremental Product / Service Earnings Due to Improved Product
Quality / Service Levels
▫ (Net Sales After Project - Net Sales before Project) * Product Line Gross Margin - SAG
incremental expenses
3) Price Adjustment/Concession Expenditure Reduction Due to
Improved Product Quality / Service Levels
▫ Annual estimated price adjustment/concession credits that will be eliminated.
4) Increased Net Sales Billed From Improved Pricing. (Includes
reductions in discounts and credits.)
▫ Net Price before Project - Net Price after project) * Annual Volume
S115
... a Source of Financial Gain
• Six Sigma projects target,

then eliminate or reduce
process problems.
• The result is real
financial savings, verified
by financial
representatives, returned
to the business.
S116
… a Competitive Asset
• Honeywell invites key customers to participate in their
Black Belt and other education programs
• DuPont uses Six Sigma resources to respond to customer
demands for cost reduction
• GE provides on-site service to assist customers in solving
their problems
 Our customers feel the difference. We have more than
3,000 Six Sigma projects underway in the airline
industry which will achieve $400 million in savings for
these customers … This service to our customers will
improve our long-term relationships as this key
industry rebounds.
 GE Annual Report
S117
... a Source of Intangible Assets
• Build process knowledge and understanding

▫ Identify important cause and effect relationships
 Separate reality from hunches, assumptions,
paradigms, & politics
▫ Build body of knowledge about products and processes
 Potentially greater benefit than initial financial gains
• Develop people
▫ Process thinking
▫ Statistical thinking
▫ Project and team leadership skills
▫ Business and financial understanding
S118
… a Shaper of Organizational Culture
Characteristics of a “Six Sigma Culture”:
• More data- and fact-based • Investment in education

business decisions and project execution
• Willingness to question the • A common language for
status quo understanding process
• A focus on really and requirements
understanding and
• A conviction that
simplifying all processes
everything can be
• A “no-boundaries” improved
approach to business
S119
… Not a cure all
If a company is struggling with low performance in terms

of quality, profitability, and productivity, a decision to
become a Six Sigma company may be unwise, and need
to learn the basics first. A company should be at a 3.5 or
4 sigma level before moving to 6 sigma.
S120

PWD Group Inc.- Lean Execute
• Designed to support the improve and control steps with
operational tools that managers and supervisors can
use
• Measures monitors and maintains the results of
executing Lean approach for long term management
S122
Statistics for Lean Six Sigma
Types of Statistics
• Descriptive statistics: Focuses on the collection,

analysis, presentation, and description of a set of data
• Inferential statistics: Focuses on making decisions

about a large set of data, called the population, from a
subset of the data, called the sample
S94
Sampling
• A population is the entire group of units under

investigation for a fixed period of time and a fixed
location
• A sample is the portion of a population that is selected

to gather information to provide a basis for action on
the population
S94
Why Sampling
• Less Time-Consuming
• Less Costly
• Less Cumbersome
• Practical
S94
Types of Sampling
• Non-Probability Samples
▫ Convenience
▫ Judgemental
▫ Quota
• Probability Samples
▫ Simple Random
▫ Stratified
▫ Systematic
▫ Cluster
S94
Variables
• Attribute Data
• Measurement Date
• Scales
▫ Interval
▫ Ratio
S94
Measures of Central Tendency
• Mean
• Median
• Mode
S94
Measures of Dispersion
• Range
• Inter-quartile Range
• Variance and Standard Deviation
S94
Graphical Plots
• Histogram
• Scatter Plot
• Box Plot
S94
Random Variable and Probability
Distributions
• Random Variable
• Discrete Random Variable
• Continuous Random Variable
• Binomial, Poisson and Normal Distribution
S94
Define (Sponsorship)

Six Sigma Sponsor Goals/Objectives
1. Identify the problem of thinking you are an expert

2. Identify the steps for doing a QFD or House of Quality
3. Define KPIV and KPOVs and know the levels of
identification
4. Define key stakeholders
5. Define how upper management supports Six Sigma teams
6. Define the role and criticism of lack of business impact and
bottom line results in Six Sigma organizations
7. Define how a customers worth is defined
8. Define the principal reason upper management supports Six
Sigma efforts
S125
Define
The Define (Sponsorship) portion of Six Sigma

Improvement Methodology is presented in the
following topic areas:
• Customer
• Project selection
• Stakeholders
• Methods
• Benefits
S126
Identify the Customer
Six sigma is built around determining customer’s

needs. Everything must start and end with the
customer’s demands in mind. Every performance
enhancement must be what the customer wants and is
willing to Pay for.
Sometimes it is better for Management to ask for help

to know the customer better and win a Market place.
S127
Identify the Customer
Customers usually weigh the CQFA of products or

services before purchasing
1. Cost
2. Quality
3. Features
4. Availability
Companies must excel in one of these areas to be successful
S128
Defining the Customer
• The receiver of the next operation, and internal

department, could be thought of as a customer.
• The external customer of a process could be the
purchaser.
• The primary customer of the process will or should have
the highest impact on the process.
▫ Accountability to final customer, even though there
may be intermediary customers, is the driving force.
S129
Two Types of Customers
• External
▫ End Users
 Ex: Consumers
▫ Intermediate Customers
 Ex: Retailers
▫ Impacted but do not purchase
• Internal
▫ Anyone inside the company who is affected by the
product as it passes through the company
S130
Customer Life Cycle
• Acquisition
▫ High cost
• Retention
▫ Cost ¼ of acquisition
• Attrition
▫ Enthusiasm fades as dissatisfaction increases
• Defection
▫ Loss of Customer
• Reacquisition
▫ Highest cost
S131
Customer Retention
• Keeping a customer costs ¼ the cost of recruiting a new

one
• Why spend so much money in getting new customers if
you cannot keep the customers you have
S132
Customer Retention
• Happy customers are known as apostles. These are

your best way to get the message across that your
product is the best.
• Unhappy customers turn into terrorists. These hurt
your company drastically by undoing expensive
advertising, marketing, etc…
• By taking the time to turn potential terrorists into
apostles, companies can save vast quantities of
money!!!
S133
Customer Loyalty
It is not good to look at a situation and dismiss a customer

due to lower quantity of orders. Companies need to look
at the customer’s lifetime of patronage. For example, a
lifetime customer of a…
Fast Food Chain: $ 10,000

Mercedez Dealer: $ 350,000
Groceries: $ 50,000
S134
Customer (Patient) Readmissions
It is not good to have readmissions and rework a patient.

This is especially important due to the new American
Health Act which penalizes readmission rates (Affects
Hospital’s Bottom line savings)
For example:
Penalty/Patient year 1(1%): $ 100,000
Penalty/Patient year 2 (2%): $ 200,000
Penalty/Patient year 3 (3%): $ 300,000
S135
Customer Expectations
Customer expectations follow a hierarchy of needs in

the following order:
• Basic
• Expected
• Desired
• Unanticipated
S136
• Companies implementing customer satisfaction programs

should continuously get inputs from their customers to
improve the program.
• Ideally customer feed back should satisfy organization needs
such as to identify customer requirements and spotting
upcoming trends.
• One of the ways to improve organization's customer service
program is by utilizing employee involvement.
S137
• Understanding customer needs is a constant requirement

for organizations. Customer data and information is often
collected in various amounts. The organization should
resolve to:
-Use more proactive approaches
-Focus on improvement plans
-Identify customer satisfaction drivers
S138
Force Field Analysis
A simple, useful tool for

assessing forces
supporting and resisting
change
Forces against Change
Forces for Change
Customer objections
Cost of direct sales Potential
Project:
Increased pressure
Utilize capabilities
Increase
sales force Disruption
Greater associate satisfaction efficiency
Cost of reorganization
Ask: How can the

supporting forces be Ask: How can the resisting
strengthened? be reduced?
S139
Kano Model
Noriaki Kano is a Japanese engineer whose work is being

used in a lot of Japanese and American Companies. His
model is based on 3 categories of customer needs:
• Dissatisfiers, ( basic requirements): if the basic
requirements are not present customer will be unhappy.
• Satisfiers, (variable requirements, or “more is better”):
When the requirements of the customer are met, the more
it is met ,the better.
• Delighters, (latent requirements): These services go
beyond the expectations of the customers.
S140
Kano’s Model of Customer
Satisfaction
Customer
Satisfaction
+
Delighters
100%
Actual
Performance
Satisfiers
Expected
S141
Interpreting Kano’s Model
• If your product or service doesn’t meet the Expected

attributes, you will anger and perhaps lose your customers.
• If you want to stay with your competition, you’d better have
the Satisfier attributes (and, the more of these you provide,
the happier your customers will be!).
• Identifying and providing Delighter attributes to your
product or service can give you competitive advantage and
increase market share.
S142
Affinity Diagram: Purpose & Uses
• Purpose
▫ Tool for processing what we hear from our customers
and/or identifying underlying issues
• Other Uses
▫ Identify or select Six Sigma projects
▫ Brainstorming tool
• Benefits
▫ Generates ideas
▫ Distills complex issues into major themes or topics
Note: At the stage, you are interested in identifying problems, not
solutions. It helps to maintain a “weakness orientation” (identifying
specific needs and problems) in collecting ideas.
S143
Affinity Diagram Method
Preparation
• Clarify Theme
• Warm-up
Writing
• Write Cards
• Scrub Cards
Grouping
• Group 1st-level
• Check for Omissions
If too many or too few groups,

repeat grouping step Titles
• Write Titles for Groups
to create “super groups” or “lesser
groups”
at the right level of abstraction.
S144
Generate the ideas
Theme: What are issues associated with implementation of business plan?

Weak up-front Complexity
No available Prioritization reconciliation
Capital driven by
is lousy! with corp customer
resource demands
Lacking allocation
Ownership of requires
production
plan doesn’t investment
capacity to
Sales forecast is
support cross all
not accurate
changing functional lines Everyday
requirements problems get in
“Scrub” - Clarify, the way
Fighting daily eliminate duplicates

problems Capital
Capital Poor availability
limitations! prioritization for limits
Unrealistic
market opportunity
goals create
introduction
‘blue sky’ Ownership of
attitude plan doesn’t Sales forecast is
cross all no good Goals are
functional lines unrealistic
S145
Identify Groupings

Ownership Capacity
Ownership of Fighting daily Capital Lacking

plan doesn’t problems availability production
cross all limits capacity to
functional lines Weak up-front opportunity support
reconciliation
changing
Poor with corp Sales forecast is requirements
prioritization for resource not accurate
market allocation Complexity
introduction driven by
Ownership of
plan doesn’t customer
Unrealistic demands
goals create cross all
functional lines requires
‘blue sky’ investment
attitude
But wait. These category titles
are too general. They’re insufficient
for really understanding the core issues.
S146
Ladder of Abstraction
Beverage
Alcoholic Beverage
More General
Beer
Regional Beer
Texas Beer
Shiner Bock
Bottle # MCA44978
Characteristics of the
beer in that bottle
Chemical composition of the

beer in that bottle
S147
Business Planning Affinity
Diagram
Planning Means not

Capacity Lack of time
approach not clearly
Plan not may not and
standardized defined
integrated meet needs resources
Poor Ownership of Ownership of Sales forecast is Complexity

prioritization for plan doesn’t plan doesn’t not accurate driven by
market cross all cross all customer
introduction functional lines functional lines Lacking demands
production requires
Fighting daily Unrealistic Weak up-front capacity to investment
problems goals create reconciliation support
‘blue sky’ with corp changing Capital
attitude resource requirements availability
allocation limits
opportunity
S148
Interrelationship: Planning Process
Out=2
Which of these In=2
Means not
issues provide clearly
most potential as defined Out=3
Six Sigma project Driver In=1
areas? Plan not
integrated
Planning
Driver approach not
standardized Capacity Out=1
may not In=3
Out=4 meet
In=0 needs Outcome
Outcome
Out=0 Lack of time and
In=4 resources
S149
Estimating Potential Financial Impact
• Major purpose of Six Sigma project is to help business

“make more money now as well as in the future.”*
Managers care about the bottom line.
• Therefore, it is important to have realistic estimates of
the financial benefits of Six Sigma projects.
• Many feel TQM and Six Sigma lack business impact.
* This is Goldratt’s definition of

the goal of any publicly
held company.
S150
Impacting the Bottom Line
NVA to VA
Cost Avoidance
Cash Flow
Growth
Tangible
Cost Takeout $$
Reported Project Bottom Line
Savings Impact
S151
Expected Financial Benefits
• Tangible
▫ Tangible benefits typically have clear, measurable,
positive impacts on income statement or balance sheet.
▫ General categories
 growth (incremental earnings),
 cost takeout
 cash flow
• Intangible
– May be difficult to quantify, but could be substantial.
Examples
• Cost avoidance; NVA to VA
• Customer and associate satisfaction
S152
Expected Financial Benefits
• Benefits must be:

▫ Directly linked to Six Sigma project.
▫ Incremental (i.e. not moneys/benefits we would have realized
anyway)
▫ Offset with project execution costs.
• Financial Baseline
▫ Typically, baseline period is twelve (12) months preceding
project start date.
• Recognition Horizon
▫ Twelve (12) months. (Where applicable, use prior period average
exchange rates.)
S153
Quality Functional Deployment (QFD)
– House of Quality
The house of quality is a matrix
used to help determine what
design features will meet
customer needs as well as how Interrelationship
it will interact with the other Of Design Features
customer needs. Only after
How to meet the customer
determining the customer wants
needs, the other steps in QFD (Design Features)
will occur.
Priorities
Customer
Comparison of
Some features react negatively
Customer
with other features, so this is

Needs
tracked on the “roof” of the

house.
Benchmarked Target Values
S154
• Calculate the value for the
absolute and relative weight
S155
Project Selection
Voice of Voice of
the Market the Process
Project Ideas
Voice of Voice of
the Business the Employees
Refining the Prioritizing and

definition Scope
Containment
Individual
Projects
S156
S157
Additional Slides
Drucker on Knowing the Customer

"What people in business think they know about customers and markets
is more likely to be wrong than right. There is only one person who
knows: the customer.
Only by asking the customers, watching them, by trying to understand

their behaviors, can one find out who they are, what they do, how they
buy, how they use what they buy, and what they expect....
The customer rarely buys what the business thinks it sells…."
Peter Drucker, Managing for Results: Economic Tasks and Risk-Taking

Decisions (1986)
S158
Financial Factors
NetIncome
Return on Assets ROA =
TotalAsset sUsed
NetIncome
Return on Investment ROI =
InvestmentUsed
Cash Flow in Time
period t CFt = CFB ,t − CFC ,t
Convert APR (i) into rate r r = (1 + i )

1
m −1
where m = periods per year
n
Net Present Value (NPV) CFt
NPV = 
t =0 (1 + r )t
NPV (r ) = 0
Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
Solve for r
S159
Customer Driven Service
• Listen to customer
• Define service strategy
• Set performance standards
• Select and train employees
• Recognize and reward accomplishments
S160
Collecting Customer Data
There are many levels to gaining knowledge about the

voice of the customer. When considering collecting data,
it helps to determine what level of the company is
impacting the customer. Is it your ???
▫ Business Level
▫ Process Level
▫ Operations Level
S161
Quality Function Deployment
• Pioneered in Kobe Shipyards by Yoji Akao

• Quality Function Deployment
▫ Customer wants are turned into technical demands
▫ The quality is designed and built in instead of added
on
S162
Document Vs. Knowledge Management
Document:
The intellectual property
the firm desires to
manage
Knowledge:
Not as structured and
goes beyond a
Homework: documents
Describe the
difference
between
Document and
Knowledge
management
S163
Quality Cost Categories
• Prevention
 Cost to prevent poor quality
 Quality should be built to prevent inspection
• Appraisal
 Cost with measuring, evaluating, inspecting,
auditing etc.
• Failure
▫ Internal
 Costs that occur prior to delivery of service or
product
▫ External
 Costs that occur after delivery
S164
Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)
Traditional Quality Costs

Tangible
Audit Administration /
Insurance Claims Disposition
Excess Linen Malpractice
Readmits
Counterfeit Drugs
Additional Costs of Poor Quality

Bed Changes
Intangible
ER Service for non ER events
Difficult or impossible to measure
Government Penalty
Lost patients due to negligence Lost Opportunity
Loss of accreditation and funds Lost Opportunity
Hidden Factory
Excess IV pumps and wheelchairs
Extended unpaid stays
Excess medical claims
Average COPQ Approximately 15% of Readmitted Patients
S165
Quality Cost Analysis
What is Quality Cost Analysis:

• The costs in relation to Identifying, Preventing, Appraisal
and Rework.
• In most companies the costs of poor quality runs at 20-
30% of sales-Juran.
• For instance, when the cost exceeds or too high in
relation to sales, it is ideal to stop adding quality
inspectors to reduce scrap cost.
S166
Define (Black Belt)

Six Sigma Black Belt Goals/Objectives
1. Define what the team's charter describes and how it

creates a consistent target for the team
2. What is the advantage of Project Management
S169
Define
The Define portion of Six Sigma Improvement

Methodology is presented in the following topic
areas:
• Project Scope
• Metrics
• Problem Statement
S170
Project Scope
As the adage goes, properly defining the problem is the

most important part of solving the problem. The following
tools and techniques are useful in the definition step:
• Project Charter
• Stakeholder
• Defining the Customer
• Pareto Diagrams
• SIPOC
• Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY)
• Voice of the Customer
• Affinity Diagrams
• Kano Model
S171
Metrics Selection
The primary and more detailed metrics are developed but

are not finalized in the definition step.
The primary metrics for consideration in a project would be
from several sources:
▫ Suppliers
▫ Internal process
▫ Customers
S172
Metrics Selection
The basic metrics are:

• Quality
• Cycle time
• Cost
• Value
• Labor
S173
Consequential Metrics
Consequential Metrics
• Metrics that may be impacted negatively as a
result of improving the primary metric.
• May keep you from passing your problem to
another area (e.g. Purchasing buys cheaper
component that leads to increased waste
generation).
S174
Project Charter
This Charter is very important for several reasons:

• The team is aware of the project goals and boundaries
• The team can remain focused on the goals (minimum
deviation from the original design)
• The team will work on projects that align with the
organization’s goals
• The team champion will support the team and their goals
S175
Project Charter
The project charter describes the projects general:
1. Mission
2. Scope
3. Objectives
It should contain the following key points
• Business case (financial impact)
• Problem statement
• Project scope (boundaries)
• Goal statement
• Role of team members
• Milestones/ deliverables (end products of the project)
• Resources required S176
Project Charter
• Purpose and Plan for

Project
• Key Communications
Tool
• A “Living” Document
▫ Updated as project develops
• Clear, Concise
• Elements of Project
Charter were identified
in the.
S177
Problem Statement
• A problem statement will detail the issue that the team wants to
improve.
• The problem statement should be crafted to be as descriptive as
possible. That is, how long has the problem existed, what
measurable item is affected, what is the business impact, and
what is the performance gap.
• The problem statement should be neutral, to avoid jumping to
conclusions.
• The problem statement should refer to a baseline measure.
• A base line measure can be defined as data on the level of
performance of the particular metric at the initial start of a
project.
S178
Goal Statement
The goal statement will be created and agreed to by the

team and team champion. Hopefully, the goal will be
achievable within a 120 to 160 day period.
S179
Milestones/Deliverables
For any well managed project, a set of stages or

milestones are used to keep the project on track and on
target to help bring a project to completion. Only half of
the project would be allocated to the define and
measure stages. Typical Six Sigma projects are between
120 and 160 days. Assigning teams a first project with
lengths of more than 160 days will lower their success
rate.
S180
Define Phase
Project Charter
Problem Statement: In 2012, plant hospital lost $5.6 million on COPQ. Of this, almost $4.4 (80%)
million occurred due to readmit penalties originating from the ER. This has resulted in a loss of
credibility for the hospital
Project Goals/Objective: Reduce COPQ for ER by 25% (1.3 million) by year-end.
Primary Metrics: - COPQ

- Readmits (% of patients discharged from ER)
- Audit score (% of readmitted patients)
Secondary Metrics: - Quality assurance in ER

- % of time (nurse/doctor/surgeon) spent with patient
- % of time explaining medication to patient
- % of time healthcare personnel trained on readmits
Team Members: Erick Jones - MBB

Harrison Armstrong - YB
Joe Michels - YB
S181
Resources Required
Typical resources required for a project could include:

• Qualified people
• Equipment
• Machinery
• Lab space
• Office space
• Machine time
• Phone
• Computer equipment
• Utilities, etc.
Effective Project Management Allows for optimizing resources and
keep projects from using unlimited resources
S182
Project Management &Timeline
Your Project Charter should include a
project timeline. This should show at least
the estimated completion dates of major
phases of the project.
January February March April May June July
DEFINE Define P roject Area

P repare for P roject Execution
MEASURE 1 Select C ritical C haracteristics

2 Determ ine Targets and Specifications
3 Validate the Measurem ent System
ANALYZE 4 Establish a Baseline

5 Determ ine Im provem ent Objectives
6 Study P rocess Inputs
IMPROVE 7 Determ ine P otential C auses

8 Quantify K ey Input Settings
9 Form ulate the Im plem entation P lan
CONTROL 10 Validate the P lan

11 C ontrol Inputss and Monitor Outputs
12 Sustain the C hange
S183
Leading Teams for Quality Improvement
• Stages of a Team’s Development

▫ Forming
 The team is composed and the objective for the team is set.
▫ Storming
 Team members begin to get to know each other and
agreements have not been made that facilitate smooth
interaction.
▫ Norming
 The team becomes a cohesive unit and interdependence,
trust, and cooperation develop.
▫ Performing
 A mutually supportive, steady state is achieved.
▫ Mourning
 Team members regret the end of the project and team
breaking up. S184
Conflict Resolution in Teams
• Stages in the Conflict Resolution Process

▫ Frustration. People are at odds, and competition or
aggression ensues.
▫ Conceptualization and Orientation. Opponents
identify the issues that need to be resolved.
▫ Interaction. Team members discuss and air the
problems.
▫ Outcome. The problem is resolved.
S185
Managing and Controlling Projects
Steps Used to Develop an Activity Network Diagram

(continued)
• Draw the network diagram. (PERT)
• Compute early start and early finish times by working from
left to right in the network. These are the earliest times that
individual tasks can be started and finished.
• Compute late start and late finish times by moving from
right to left in the network. These times are the latest times
that tasks can possibly be started or finished.
• Compute slack times and determine the critical path. The
critical path links activities with zero slack.
 Slack time = Late start – Early start
S186
Measure

Six Sigma Measure Goals/Objectives
1. Define Measurement Systems Analysis

2. Identify what bias
3. Identify Gauge R&R
S189
Critical Characteristics
Creating a clear, measurable Project y. May require

further scoping-down of y identified in DEFINE stage.
The Initial Objectives are to
▫ Determine the CTQs for the project area
▫ Flowdown to a related, measurable, workable, output ‘y ’
 Recognize and use the various tools for flowdown
▫ Identification of one or more measurable indicators of

process performance, the project y (s).
S190
Setting the Stage for Quality
Customer
Critical to ... CTS … Satisfaction
Critical to ... CTQ … Quality
Critical to ... … Process

CTP
S191
From Big Y to little y
Customer says: I just want a BIG Y
good cup of coffee! (CTS)
What are the attributes that make a cup of

big Y’s
coffee good? (CTQ)
taste……...hot……......portion……...appearance…..
Yummy What is the 16 oz Clean cups,

temperature? no floaters,
rich look...
little y’s
(CTP)
0.1 l
S192
Flow down from “Big Y” to “little x”
CTQ
CTP Measurable Input
Characteristic Input Controls
Characteristics Characteristics
Y y X x
• Taste • ppm coffee
• Temp • pH
• Portion • Taste Test Survey
• Appearance • Coffee Meister Result
S193
Measurement System Analysis
• Purpose
▫ Statistically or logically determine the adequacy of
the measurement system.
• Objectives
▫ Recognize and use the various tools for studying
measurement accuracy and precision
▫ Isolate areas for any needed improvements to the
measurement system
• Deliverable
▫ A quantification or justification of the adequacy of
the measurement system
▫ If necessary, a record of actions taken to improve
the measurement system.
S194
Metric Visualization
Project Metrics
Components
of Variation
Gage
R&R
Attribute
R&R
Adequate
Measurement
System S195
MSA Exercise
• You are a new inspector in a production process

• The job requires acute visual inspection of parts for
minor cosmetic defects
• Inspections must be completely within a very short time
to keep up with production
• To qualify to be considered for this coveted position, the
inspector must pass a test.
S196
MSA Exercise
• Inspector Test: Read the article below and count the
occurrences of the letter “f”
• Complete the test within 45 seconds and record the
number in the box below.
• Do not show your neighbor or say your number out load.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in
liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil
war, testing whether that nation, or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met
on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place
for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we
should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate...we can not consecrate...we can not hallow this ground. The
brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or
detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did
here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here
have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before
us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full
measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this
nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for
the people, shall not perish from the earth.
S197
MSA Exercise Follow-up
• Why were there differences in the counts?

▫ List on flip chart
• What things changes might have improved consistency?
(instruction, magnification, lighting)
▫ List on flip chart
• Which of these would apply to improving inspection?
• The purpose of MSA is to facilitate learning about and
improving a measurement system
S198
Components of Variation
Process Variations Measurement System Errors

• Accuracy
• Common Causes • Linearity
• Stability
• Special Causes • Repeatability
• Reproducibility
S199
Measurement Reproducibility
“Reproducibility”
Reproducibility
58.0 58.5 59.0 59.5 60.0 60.5 61.0 61.5 62.0 62.5
“Repeatability” (Marie)
Marie also
measures the
Durometer Durometer
reading of the
10 samples.* 58.0 58.5 59.0 59.5 60.0 60.5 61.0 61.5 62.0 62.5
“Repeatability” (Jack)
*In this example, all 10 samples are identical.

Durometer
58.0 58.5 59.0 59.5 60.0 60.5 61.0 61.5 62.0 62.5
S200
Analyze/Improve

Six Sigma Analyze/Improve
Goals/Objectives
1. Define the correct Benchmarking sequence

2. Identify how non-numeric information can be
generated in a designed experiment (DOE)
3. Define Evolutionary Operations (EVOP)
experiments
S203
Business Results
• Process Performance Metrics

• Benchmarking
• Financial Benefits
S204
Six Sigma Metrics
• Defects = D
• Units =U
• Opportunities for a defect = O
• Yield =Y
S205
Six Sigma Metrics
Total Opportunities: TO = TOP = U x O

Defects per unit: DPU = D/U also = -ln (Y)
Defects per normalized unit: = -ln (Ynorm)
Defects per opportunity: DPO = DPU/O = D/UO
Defects per million opp.: DPMO = DPO x 10^6
• Defects = D
• Units = U
• Opportunities for a defect = O
• Yield = Y
S206
Benchmarking
Any enterprise should know their strongest competitors on a

process by process basis.
Sometimes it is necessary to look outside the industry to find
good benchmarking data.
S207
Benchmarking Sequences
1. Determine Current Practices

1. Select problem area
2. Identify key performance factors
3. Understand own processes and the processes of
others
4. Select performance criteria based on needs and
priorities
2. Identify Best Practices
1. Measure the performance within the organization
2. Determine the leaders in the criteria areas
3. Find an internal or external organization to
benchmark
S208
Benchmarking Sequences
3. Analyze Best Practices
1. Visit the organization as a benchmark partner
2. Collect information and data of the benchmark leader
3. Evaluate and compare current practices with the
benchmark
4. Model Best Practices
1. Drive improvement changes to advance performance
2. Extend performance breakthroughs within the
organization
3. Incorporate new information in the business decision
making
4. Share results with benchmark partner
5. Seek other benchmark leaders for further improvement
5. Repeat
S209
Examples of Benchmarking
• Customer satisfaction
• Actual customer desires
• Current competition
• Best in related industries
• Best in the world
S210
Typical Vs. Breakthrough Benchmarking
Your Company
Best
Typical Breakthrough
Performance
Performance
Time Time
S211
Models & Transfer Equations
Environmental “Truth” y = f(x)

Factors
Visible Model y = f(x) + 
Planned Experiments,
Observation, Discovery
Estimated y(est) = f(xi) + 
Model
Simulations Optimization
“All models are wrong
S97.1 – Presenter Only
but some are useful.” George Box
S212
Planned Experimentation
Experiment:
“A test or series of tests in which purposeful
changes are made to the input variables of a
process or system so that we may observe and
identify the reasons for changes that might be
observed in the output response.”
The plan for an experiment is also called

the “design of experiment” or “DOE” and
the output of an experiment is not
necessarily numerical.
S213
Montgomery, Douglas C. 2000. Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th Ed., Wiley. p. 1.
A Comparison
One-at-a-Time Statistical Design EVOP

• Time-consuming • Design of • Evolutionary
and inefficient Experiments (DOE) Operations (EVOP)
• No guarantee of • Efficient and effective • Introduce small
finding optimum changes in process
• Optimum is variables during
• Interaction of methodically sought, normal production
variables can statistically verified, flow
produce incorrect and documented
conclusions • Changes are non-
• Interactions of conforming
variables are
incorporated into the • Used to determine
design settings
S214
Experimentation: Documentation…...
Documentation of a Planned Experiment
PROJECT:
LOCATION:
PREPARED BY: DATE:
1. OBJECTIVE:
2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
3. EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES:
A. Response Variables Measurement Technique
1.
2.
3.
B. Factors Under Study Levels
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C. Background Variables Method of Control
1.
2.
3.
4. REPLICATION:
5. METHODS OF RANDOMIZATION:
6. DESIGN MATRIX: (Attach Copy)
7. DATA COLLECTION FORMS: (Attach Copies)
8. PLANNED METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS:
9. ESTIMATED COST, SCHEDULE, AND OTHER RESOURCE CONSIDERATIONS:
S215
Control

Six Sigma Control End Chapter
Questions
1. Define what a control chart to identify

2. Define why control limits are set at the three sigma
level
3. Define how charting can identify a special cause
S218
Validation Steps
1. Run the new/revised process.
2. Monitor results carefully.
3. Calculate performance statistics.
4. Compare actual results to expected.
S219
No partRof031130
this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing this material will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Control Inputs, Monitor Outputs
Purpose
 Continue to run process at new settings and collect data
on process mean, noise, and Z-Score levels.
 Define plan to ensure that level of x’s does not change;
but if it does, have a corrective control plan available.
Objectives
At end of step, participant should be able to:
 Identify and design appropriate techniques for
maintaining acceptable process performance.
Deliverables
 For each vital x, provide a plan for maintaining its
chosen level.
S220
No part of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing thismaterial will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Hierarchy of Control
Process Prevention of Problem
Robust (Robust Design &
Process Modification
Mistake Proofing)
Early Detection &

Early in Setpoints for
Control of Problem
Process Vital x’s (APC/SPC)
Internal y Reactive
(Inspection)
Customer CTQs Too Late
S221
Natural Erosion After Process Improvement
Quality
“Experience shows that if nothing is done

to prevent it, the improved quality, won
Improvement with such difficulty, may begin to
disappear”*
Months
*Box and Luceno, Statistical Control by Monitoring and Feedback Adjustment, 1997 S222
Standardize and Control to Hold Gains
Quality
Improvement 3
Continuous improvement with

Improvement 2 gains locked in through
standardization and control.
Months
Improvement 1
S223
Standards and Standardization
Standard: The best currently known way to

perform an activity.
The standard contains essential information about actions that

are vital to:
performing the process in a way that will deliver in the
required levels of process output, or
reacting when there is risk that the performance is not
satisfactory.
The standard describes performance related to the vital x’s.

S224
PDCA to SDCA
Check
Do Act
Standardize
Move back when
Standardize to improvement is
hold the gains required
Plan
Act Do
Check
S225
SPC in the Control Phase
Applications of control charting - in order of sophistication:

•Reporting and monitoring process performance
•Making process adjustments
•Evaluating the effect of simple experiments
•Simultaneous monitoring of multiple characteristics - to discover
which charts provide best predictors of product or process
performance
•For continual improvement - a way of thinking, with charts acting
as a catalyst for this thought process.
• In the ongoing control of the process, the use of control charting typically
focuses on the first two categories of use.
S226
Statistical Process Control
• Effective statistical process control is based on the
intelligent application and use of statistical control
charts.
• Control charts are graphs on which we plot
▫ a statistic - such as individual values, subgroup
averages or ranges
▫ and lines representing the average (or reference
value) and control limits of the statistic.
• The charts enable us to identify signals of the presence
of unusual (non-random) causes affecting the
process.
• Control charts will work with subgroups of size 1, even
when the data are not normally distributed.
S227
Common and Special Cause Variation
• Common Cause Variation: Always present in the
process. Also known as natural variation.
• Special Cause Variation: Variation due to external
sources. Also known as assignable cause variation.
Sources of Special cause variation:
Discrepancies with:
▫ Tools and machines
▫ Workers
▫ Materials
▫ Work methods
▫ Measurement methods
▫ Environment S228
Common Cause Variation
• In a hypothetical situation, if all within time, piece to

piece, and measurement variation were removed from a
process, only inherent (Common cause) variation will
be left. It is ideal to minimize the common cause
variation to improve the process after process control has
been achieved.
S229
Interpretation of Control Charts
Unexpected Variability
UCL
Variability Inherent
to the Process
LCL
Unexpected Variability
The Control Limits - set at 3 standard deviations from the

centerline - represent the range of results we would expect if only
random variation is present.
Results beyond the control limits are a signal of some “special

cause” of disturbance of the process.
S230
• Central Line
• UCL UCL
Zone A
• LCL Zone B
• Zones A, B, C Central
Zone C
line
Zone C
Zone B
Zone A
LCL
S231
Chart Run Rules
• SPC Rule 1
 One point beyond zone A
• SPC Rule 2
 Nine points in a row in Zone C or beyond
• SPC Rule 3
 Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing
• SPC Rule 4
 Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down
• SPC Rule 5
 Two out of three points in a row in Zone A or beyond
• SPC Rule 6 –
 Four out of five points in a row in Zone B or beyond
S232
SECtCS CT – Representative CT
Respondent 8 CT Chart
12
10
CT Score
8
6
4
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Weeks
S233
SECtCS CT – Representative Non-CT
Respondent 2 CT Chart
12
10
8
CT Score
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Weeks
S234
Control Chart Issues
• Since many variables are important in control charting, the

risk of having an operator plot a large number of
characteristics is that the Distraction from the actual
process itself
S235
Example Problem
• A process is in control with p bar =0.10 and n =100. The

three sigma limits of the np control chart are:
1 and 19
S236
LEAN
… Lean Tools in Six Sigma
DEFINE MEASURE ANALYZE IMPROVE CONTROL
Interview Process Hypothesis Process Capability Factorial Design Control Plans

Testing Analysis of Experiments
Language Analysis of x-y Map Fractional Visual Systems
Processing Variance Factorials
Prioritization Quality Function FMEA Data Mining 5-S
Matrix Deployment
System Map Flowdown Multi-Vari Chart Blocking TPM
Stakeholder Measurement Chi-Square Response Surface Mistake-Proofing

Analysis System Analysis Methodology
Thought Process Graphical Regression Multiple Response SPC/APC
Map Methods Optimization
Value Stream Process Behavior Buffered Theory of
Mapping Charts Tolerance Limits Constraints
These process analysis and process improvement tools have

been used for years!
Six Sigma applies them in an integrated, sequential process.
S238
Lean History
• The Arsenal in Venice, Italy

• Honore Blanc and Interchangeable Parts
• Frederick Taylor “The Principles of Scientific Management”
• Frank & Lillian Gilbreth and motion studies
• Henry Ford and the production line
• W. Edward Deming and Total Quality Management
• Training Within Industry Service
• Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno and Toyota Production System
258
S239
What is Lean?
• At its base, it is the development of the worker

• It empowers the employee to make changes they feel are
necessary
• Used to reduce the effects of the 7 Wastes
• It’s only one tool in the tool bag
259
S240
Fundamental Principles of Lean Production
• The workplace is safe, orderly, and immaculately clean

• Products are built just-in-time and only to customer
demand
• Six sigma quality is built into the product and the
process
• Empowered work teams make key decisions on the shop
floor and in supporting functions
• Visual management techniques are used to spread
critical information throughout the factory
• There is a relentless pursuit of perfection
• Material is supplied via kanban with a reduced
dependence on MRP
S241
Ohno’s Seven Types of Waste
• Overproduction
• Waiting
• Transportation
• Processing
• Excessive inventory
• Unnecessary motion
• Making defective products
S242
5S
• A methodology used to organize activities and areas in

a facility
262
S243
Is 5S Necessary?
• Factories are living, breathing entities that have a heart beat

and must eat and respire just like many other organisms.
• 5S is the training regimen that a factory or company needs to
partake in to get to that level.
263
S244
Handling Resistance
• What’s so great about organization and orderliness?

• Why should the company president be the 5S chairman?
• Why clean when it just gets dirty again?
• Implementing organization and orderliness will not boost
output.
264
S245
Handling Resistance
• Why concern ourselves with triviality?

• We already implemented organization and orderliness.
• My filing system is a mess but I know my way around it.
• We did 5S years ago.
265
S246
Handling Resistance
• The 5S and related improvements are just for the factory.

• We’re too busy to spend time on organization and orderliness.
• Who are they to tell me what to do?
• We don’t need the 5S
266
S247
Why Use 5S?
• The 5S concept helps get your house in order and keep it in

order.
• The basic concept is setting the work place up so that it is
organized and runs well.
• A technique that makes the problems visible in a work
place.
267
S248
5S Benefits
• Zero changeovers brings product diversification

• Zero defects brings higher quality
• Zero wastes brings lower costs
• Zero delays brings reliable deliveries
• Zero injuries promotes safety
• Zero breakdowns brings better maintenance
• Zero complaints brings greater confidence and trust
• Zero red ink brings corporate growth
268
S249
The 5 Pillars
• Sort
• Set in Order
• Shine
• Standardize
• Sustain
269
S250
Sort
• Organization of job assignments, orders, operations,

materials, etc.
• Organization means clearly distinguishing between what is
needed and is to be kept and what is unneeded and is to be
discarded.
270
S251
Set in Order
• Clarification of where items belong so that anyone can

understand where to find them and where to return them.
• This helps reduce training time and drives home the concept
of a visual factory.
271
S252
Shine
• Literally sweeping the floors and keeping things in order.

• Maintenance activities often occur here because the
operators usually understand the equipment better than
anyone else.
272
S253
Standardize
• Maintenance of the first three pillars.
273
S254
Sustain
• Follow specified and standardized procedures.

• The ultimate responsibility for maintaining the 5S’s is the
manager.
• They lead by example and should show the same discipline
they expect from their workers.
274
S255
5S - Workplace Organization
• First S: Sort (Organization)

Distinguish between what is needed and not needed.
• Second S: Stabilize (Orderliness)

A place for everything and everything in its place.
• Third S: Shine (Cleanliness)

Cleaning and looking for ways to keep it clean.
Cleaning is inspecting!
• Fourth S: Standardize (Promote Adherence)

Share established standards and make standards obvious.
• Fifth S: Sustain (Self-Discipline)

Stick to the rules and maintain the first four S’s.
S256
Introducing 5S Into a Workplace
• Establish a 5S Promotion Organization – members of the top

management should be involved in pushing the program out.
• Establish a 5S Promotion Plan – schedule implementations
out to ensure that areas are aware that they will be
responsible for participation.
276
S257
• Create 5S Campaign Materials – create materials that enlist

companywide cooperation in the company’s 5S campaign.
• In-house Education – teach everyone what 5S is and what it
will mean to them and how it will involve them.
277
S258
• Implementation – the activities are what will ingrain the 5S

into the culture or cause it to fail.
• Evaluation and Follow Up – follow up and activities and make
sure things are going correctly. If not, what has failed and how
do you learn from the mistakes.
278
S259
5S Campaign
• Establish a plan.
• Plans should be for at least 1 year but no more than 2 years.
• It should show a schedule of activities.
• Facilities evolve so be prepared to make adjustments as you
go.
279
S260
5S Campaign
• Kick off the campaign.

• Bring everyone together.
• Set the tone and let the employees see the managers’
enthusiasm about the program.
280
S261
5S Campaign
• Depending on current status with the company, differing

viewpoints can be taken. i.e. the plant is doing poorly so
promote survival, or the plant is doing well so prepare for the
possible downturn.
281
S262
In-house Education
• Enlighten the employees. This can be done in a number of

ways.
▫ Slogans – use employee developed slogans to place on banners
and bulletins.
▫ Posters – use posters to show work or information about a
technique or project that was performed.
▫ In-house bulletins – convey to the employees how 5S is expected
to support the company’s objectives.
▫ 5S news – provide more information about the 5S concepts. Even
show work done at other places or do a company highlight.
▫ Outside consultants – hold seminars for upper and middle
management so that they can obtain more in-depth knowledge
▫ Videos and books – again more information
▫ Single point 5S lessons –have the managers show the employees
what they have learned and how they are incorporating the 5S
S263
Summary
• Make 5S education continuous

• Don’t be a perfectionist
• The primary place for 5S Implementation is the workplace
• Encourage independent thinking
• Encourage motivation and skill building
283
S264
Lean Tenants
• Value
▫ How does the customer define value?
• Value Stream
▫ What processes does a product pass through as it is
completed?
• Pull
▫ Ensure that nothing is produced until it is needed up a
downstream operation.
• Flow
▫ Ensure that product passes from operation to
operation without any delays in between.
• Perfection
▫ Continuous improvement
S265
Traditional Push Systems
• The production of product in large lots has the the

following disadvantages:
-Additional product transportation expenses
-Longer customer delivery lead times
-Potential product damage or deterioration costs
S266
Kanban Systems (Pull systems)
• Deals with Control of Material Flow

• Don’t produce until it is needed
• Downstream pulls from upstream
• Reduces dependence on schedules
• Visual signals control production
• Reduce inventory levels
• Customer is doing the pulling
S267
Kanban Systems (Pull systems)
• The essence of Kanban concepts includes:

• Delivery of components and products only when
needed
• Minimal storage in production areas
• Distress through the production system when a
machine failure occurs
S268
Visual Controls/Communication
Two Types of Visual Standards
1: Visual Communication
– Display performance status
– Display “Need To Know” information MasterCard
2: Visual Control
– Give directives
– Give directions Tools
– Show tool/material location
S270
Visual Management & Performance Focus
It is critical that all vital knowledge be communicated clearly, effectively,

and regularly to all affected persons in all levels of the organization
Examples of visual
Targets & performance management tools: Signs & displays
SCRATCH
Production count boards FREE AREA
Remove or cover
Tuesday’s production all rings and
watches before
Scheduled Actual Problems entering
Time (PCs) (PCs)
8:00 - 12:00 450 465
Limit sample for quality Bulletin boards & KPI boards
12:00 - 4:00 500 490
4:00 - 8:00 450 370 Feeder Key Performance Indicators
down
8:00 - 12:00 400 440
Good Bad
S271
No part of this document can be reproduced without prior written permission of PWD Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Anyone reproducing thismaterial will be prosecuted to the full extinct of the law.
Visual Management & Team Performance
ASSESSMENT! At first
glance!
No need to read
all the numbers to
understand what
the status is.
S272
The Concept of Visual Controls
• A visual control is any communication device used in the

work environment that tells us at a glance how work should
be done.
• Applies to any type of information critical to the flow of work
activities.
• In any situation, we can implement standardization in such a
way that all standards are identified by visual controls.
S273
Machine Lubrication
Information at machine,
including Min and Max
Identification
Identification on oil can levels
on barrel
DTE
25
MAX
DTE
25
MIN
DTE
25
S274
Inventory Indicators
Parts Storage
Part A
Max
Min
S275
Levels of Visual Controls
Headlight Example
• Level 1: Share Information Add a reminder to turn off
lights in the owner’s manual.
• Level 2: Share Standards Add a reminder sticker to the

driver’s side window.
Reminder: Turn your lights off.
• Level 3: Build Standards Add a symbol to the dash that
into Work Area shows lights are on.
 Lights On
S276
Levels of Visual Controls (Cnt’d)
Level 4: Add Audible or Sound chime if ignition

Visual is turned off with lights
still on.
Level 5: Stop Error Add device that prevents

removal of key if lights
are on.
Level 6: Prevent Error Install timer to shut off

lights after ignition is off.
S277
Total Preventative Maintenance
(TPM)
Total Preventative Maintenance
• A multi-step, team-based approach to minimize all the

types of waste caused by equipment downtime.
• Goals
1. Maximize equipment efficiency
2. Eliminate equipment breakdowns
S279
TPM Partnership
a partnership between maintenance and production

Current Situation Future Situation
Maintenance Production Maintenance Production
• Cleaning, Lubrication • Cleaning, Lubrication

• Maintenance, Inspection • Cleaning • Maintenance, Inspection
• Downtime through • Preventive Maintenance
• Preventive Maintenance breakdown losses
• Overhaul • Condition-Based Maint.
• Overhaul
Manufacturing
• Technical Improvements Manufacturing
Repairs (Breakdown)
• Training of Operators
Repairs (Breakdown)
S280
TPM Steps
7. Step
6. Step
- full
7. Autonomous maintenance application
5. Step
- consolidation of clean,
6. Standards for process check and maintenance
4. Step quality assurance
knowledge
- autonomous maintenance according
3. Step 5. Autonomous inspection to checklists and service standards
- develop knowledge of the machine construction

4. Train associates in
autonomous maintenance - build skills for autonomous maintenance
2. Step
- set up checklists and service standards
3. Establish cleaning and - visual management on machine and/or equipment
lubrication standards - working area standards for cleaning and tidiness
1. Step - eliminate leaks
2. Eliminate sources of - making maintenance tasks easier
contamination - eliminate sources of machine soiling
- Basic cleaning
1. Initial cleaning - lubrication
- defect tagging } Cleaning is inspecting!
S281
The effects of TPM Go Beyond Maintenance
TPM is not a program but a

1. Cleaning becomes checking
4. Improvement becomes positive change in behavior to improve
effects
2. Checking becomes discovery equipment effectiveness.
of abnormalities
5. Positive effects become pride
in the workplace
3. Abnormalities become things
to be improved
Program of Activities
Changing attitudes
Breakdowns and defects
should be seen as an
embarrassment
Motivation Effects Effects Changing

Changing Changing
-area managers, Achievement of work-
the Reduction of defects the
operators productivity place
equipment and breakdowns people
-Pride in one‘s work goals
Changing behavior
-Positive attitude toward
making improvements
-Thorough maintenance
management
S282
Example of TPM
• Before • After
S283
Quick Changeover / Agile tools
• Setup / changeover reduction
▫ SMED – Single Minute Exchange of Die
(Reference)
• Changeover process are divided in to a series
of work elements as Internal and External.
Videotape of changeover process may be
used to assist in dividing the work elements.
• As much as internal elements (performed
while the system is stopped) are converted in
external(performed while the system is
running) and streamlining the others.
• Right-sized tools instead of massive high
efficiency machines
• Innovative solutions
• Combination tools S284
Mistake-Proofing
Definition of Mistake-Proofing
• A technique for eliminating errors.
• Making it impossible to make mistakes.
• In Japan: Poka-Yoke
Principles for Mistake-Proofing
• Take over repetitive tasks or input actions that depend on
constantly being alert.
• Worker focuses on process improvement, rather than
detection of output defects.
“It is good to do it right the first time: it is even better to make it
impossible to do it wrong the first time.”
S285
It matters when defects are detected
Early detection of defects reduces the overall costs.
Early Next Final
Defects Customer
Step Step Inspection
Detected
Cost to the
company
*Much rework
*Warranty cost
Impact to the Very Minor Minor Delay *Delay in *Reputation
Company delivery
*Loss of Market
*Added Share
inspection
When are most of your defects detected?

S286
Lean Execute
• Designed to support the improve and control steps with
operational tools that managers and supervisors can use
• Measures monitors and maintains the results of executing
Lean approach for long term management
S287
Relationship of Lean and Flow
• Many different programs out there

▫ Lean
▫ Demand Flow ® manufacturing
▫ Agile manufacturing
▫ Continuous flow manufacturing
▫ Toyota Production System
• Different people have different views, but in my
opinion
▫ Lean is the overarching philosophy
▫ Many tools are used in lean
 Including flow manufacturing
S288
Glossary of Relevant Terms
• CTS – Critical to Service • KPIV – Key process input variables
• CTQ – Critical to Quality • KPOV – Key process output
• CTP – Critical to Process variables
• COPQ – Cost of Poor Quality • LSS -Lean Six Sigma
• DOE – Design of Experiments • NVA – Non-Value Added
• DMAIC – Define, Measure, Analyze, • MSA – Measurement Systems
Improve, Control Analysis
• EVOP – Evolutionary Operations • PDCA – Plan Do Check Act
• DPMO – Defects per Million Opportunities • SMED – Single Minute Exchange of
Die
• HOQ – House of Quality
• SPC – Statistical Process Control
• ISO – Organization for International
Standards • TPS – Toyota Production System
• JIT – Just in Time • VOC – Voice of the Customer
• VOM – Voice of the Market
S289
PWD Group Inc.
• Six Sigma Materials
▫ Texts
▫ Study Guides
▫ Intern Projects
• Six Sigma Services Offered

▫ Proctored Six Sigma Certification On-site and Online Exams and
Renewals
 Yellow Belt, Executive Yellow Belt, Green Belt, and Black Belt – ISCEA
Approved
▫ Six Sigma Document Review Service
 We have qualified writers on staff
▫ Six Sigma Online Training
▫ Six Sigma “Train the Trainer” Training
▫ Lean Execute Time Study and Process Improvement Consulting
• Contact trainer for information on how to reach the company
 www.pwdgroups.com
S290
Exam Time (CLSSYB)
Measure Six Sigma With Qualitative
Tools (Green Belt Modules)

Six Sigma Methodology
• Six Sigma’s Project based methodology approach

contains several stages. It normally begins with the
Define Step.
S294
SIPOC Process Map
S295
SIPOC Process Map
The SIPOC process map provides team members an

understanding of the process. It is a view of the process
taken at a very high level with approximately 4-7 steps.
S296
Define
The Project Charter
• Official plan and authorization

▫ The formal “go ahead”
• Contract between project sponsor and
team
Why What How Who When
Process
Needs to Plan
Problem Improvement team
happen Timetable
- Metrics
S298
The Project Charter
• Necessity of Project Charter

- The team will be focused on the appropriate problem
-The solution will be aligned towards the organization's
goals
-The team champion will be supportive
S299
Project Charter
The project management optimizes resources

by using the following key elements:
1. Planning
2. Scheduling
3. Controlling
S300
Team Makeup
Considerations Considerations
Process Work
scope Ad Hoc Team Members Distribution
(provide situational expertise)
Problem Ease of
Expertise (Where Communication
the problem
Is observed)
Core Team Analytical &
Customer 3-5 members Creative
knowledge
Six Sigma
Stakeholder representation
Core Team
representation
Members
Functional
Capable of serve for the life representation
effectiveness of the project.
S301
Team Makeup
During the team building phase, the following best describes

the actions of the team:
▫ Members prioritize and perform tasks
▫ The team leader is usually directive
S302
Project Management Resources
Typical resources required for a project could include:
• Qualified people
• Equipment/Machinery/Machine Time
• Lab space/Office space/Phone
• Computer equipment
▫ (Not Necessarily Project Management Software)
▫ Sometimes PM Software is expensive and harder to learn than Manual
Methods such as PERT and CPM
• Utilities, etc.
• Effective Project Management Allows for optimizing resources
and keep projects from using unlimited resources
S303
Milestones/Deliverables
For any well managed project, a set of stages or milestones

are used to keep the project on track and on target to
help bring a project to completion. Only half of the project
would be allocated to the define and measure stages.
Typical Six Sigma projects are between 120 and 160
days. Assigning teams a first project with lengths of more
than 160 days will lower their success rate.
S304
Project Management &Timeline
Your Project Charter should include a
project timeline. This should show at
least the estimated completion dates of
major phases of the project.
January February March April May June July
DEFINE Define P roject Area

P repare for P roject Execution
MEASURE 1 Select Critical Characteristics

2 Determ ine Targets and Specifications
3 Validate the Measurem ent System
ANALYZE 4 Establish a Baseline

5 Determ ine Im provem ent Objectives
6 Study P rocess Inputs
IMPROVE 7 Determ ine P otential Causes

8 Quantify K ey Input Settings
9 Form ulate the Im plem entation P lan
CONTROL 10 Validate the P lan

11 Control Inputss and Monitor Outputs
12 Sustain the Change
S307
Additional Slides – GB(92)
Advantages of Gantt charts:

1. The charts are easy to understand
2. Each bar represents a single activity
S305
Manual Project Management
Manual project management planning and

controlling methods:
▫ Have an advantage over computer methods in terms
of cost
▫ Have become nearly extinct because of the availability
of computer methods
▫ Are easier to learn from than computer methods
S306
Communications Plan
• Resistance to change resulting from an improvement

project can cause failures. The project team might consider
development of a plan to handle stakeholders and is known
as Communications Plan
S308
An Example Analysis & Communication Plan
MRI Processing Time - Stakeholder Analysis

Commitment
What is valued by the
Key Stakeholder (X) present level / (0) required level Recommended Actions
Key Stakeholder
-2 -1 0 1 2
He gives strong support, he
Hospital Administrato
is also the sponsor of the X 0
(Sponsor)
project
She will give support,
because she will get
Director of Radiology benefit, but she may be He will be involved during the
X 0
(Sponsor) influenced by radiology next meetings.
managers (MRI, CTScan,
etc.)
because he will get benefit
in view of wasted time, but
MRI Manager
he and one of his MRI X 0
(Green Belt)
Technicians is involved in
the project as Black/Green
Belt
His support is required if
trials are required (later in
MRI Technician the project). If we can
X 0 "Some evening discussions"
(Yellow Belt) improve the MRI bed turns,
he will get benefit from the
project.
Involve him before "starting" of
If we improve the situation
the project. Small meeting
she will get benefit. But she
MRI Admissions Clerk before project launch. Always
may lose the possibility to X 0
(Yellow Belt) try to get informations about
hide some of her own
his feeling (during walk-over to
problems. (DANGEROUS)
parking etc.).
S309
Measure
Drawing Valid Statistical Conclusions
• The objective of statistical inference is to draw

conclusions about population characteristics based on
the information contained in a sample.
• Statistical inference contains two elements:
▫ The inference
▫ The measure of the validity of the inference
S311
Drawing Valid Statistical Conclusions
• Sampling plans are routinely selected based on

their:
▫ Validity
▫ known risks
▫ Applicability
S312
Null and Alternative Hypothesis
• The null hypothesis, H0, will always stated using equality sign
so as to specify a single value. Among several assumptions, the
basic one is that the the variables are dependent.
• The location of the critical region can be determined only after
H1 has been stated.
• To state the hypotheses correctly, the claim in the problem
must be identified carefully.
• If the claim suggest a hint such as more than, less than,
superior to, inferior to, then H1 will be stated as the inequality
symbol(< or >) corresponding to the suggested hint.
• If there is a compound hint such as at least, equal to or
greater, at most, no more than, and so on, then this entire
compound hint should be expressed as H0, only the equality
sign, and H1 is set by the opposite direction.
S313
Null and Alternative Hypothesis
• If there is no hint regarding the characteristic of interest in

the problem, H1 is stated using the not equal symbol () .
• Example: It is claimed that an average speed of a
motorcycle in interstate 80 is less than 68 miles an hour,
state the null and alternative hypotheses.
• Solution: This is a simple direction of “less than” so we use
this for alternative hypothesis and use the equal sign for
the null hypothesis.
H0 :  = 68
H1 :   68
S314
Null and Alternative Hypothesis – Test
Statistic
• To be able to test the null hypothesis, a test statistic should be
calculated from sample information, this value is compared with a
desired critical value. A decision can then be made to reject or not
to reject the null hypothesis.
• Test statistic is a number resulting from the manipulation of
some raw data according to certain specified procedures.
• A null hypothesis can only be rejected, or fail to be rejected, it
cannot be accepted because of a lack of evidence to reject it.
• If the null hypothesis is rejected then we automatically accept the
alternative hypothesis.
• The population parameters that are being tested are known to be
mean, variance, standard deviation and proportion.
S315
Null and Alternative Hypothesis –
Enumeration (Descriptive) Statistic
• Enumerative data is data that can be counted. A census is an
enumerative collection and study.
• A useful tools for tests of hypotheses conducted on
enumerative data are the Chi Square, binomial and Poisson
distributions.
• Deming defined a contrast between enumeration and
analysis:
-Enumerative study is a study in which action will be taken on the
Universe.
-Analytic study is a study in which action will be taken on a process
to improve performance in the future.
S316
Null and Alternative Hypothesis –
Descriptive Statistic
Numerical descriptive measures create a picture of a set of

data. These measures are calculated from a sample of size n
(n=1,2,….,x) are numerical descriptive measures called
statistics.
Measures Statistics Parameters
Mean X 
Standard Deviation S s
S317
Z-score for Defective Lots example?
S318
Process Flow Diagram Feedback
indicated the
(Flowchart) need for
correction
Admissions Feedback/
Readmits
Emergency
Room
In Patient/
Out Patient
Discharge

are shown
Using the High Level Process Map
S319
Process Mapping
The following are principal reasons for utilizing

process mapping:
▫ To identify where unnecessary complexity exists
▫ To visualize the process quickly
▫ To assist in work simplification
S320
Using the High Level Process
Map
• Uses for the process map:

▫ Define the scope of the process to be considered in
the Six Sigma project.
▫ Identify key stakeholders.
▫ Serve as a basis for more detailed mapping required
in future steps of the Six Sigma process.
S321
Analyze/Improve
S322
Boxplot – Upper and Lower
Fourths
• Order the n observations from smallest to largest and

separate the smallest half from the largest half. Then the
lower (upper) fourth is the median of the smallest (largest)
half of the data, where the median is included in both
halves if n is odd. A measure of the spread that is resistant
to outliers is the fourth spread. fs fs = upper fourth – lower
fourth.
S323
Boxplot-Outliers
• Any observation farther than 1.5fs from the closest fourth

is an outlier. An outlier is called extreme if it is more
than 3fs from the nearest fourth, and it is mild otherwise.
S324
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
• Select one or more leading digits for the stem values. The
trailing digits become the leaves.
• List stem values in a vertical column.
• Record the leaf for every observation.
• Indicate the units for the stem and leaf on the display.
S325
Stem-and-Leaf Displays
• Identify typical value

• Extent of spread about a value
• Presence of gaps
• Extent of symmetry
• Number and location of peaks
• Presence of outlying values
S326
Scatter Diagrams
• A scatter diagram displays the relationship between two

variables, it is also known as a correlation chart. This type
of diagram can help determine if relationship exists and
how to control the causes of the relationship.
S327
Histograms Discrete Data
• Determine the frequency and relative frequency for each

value of x. Then mark possible x values on a horizontal
scale. Above each value, draw a rectangle whose height
is the relative frequency of that value.
S328
Discrete Vs Continuous Data
• Discrete data is counted and only takes certain values.

Example: Rolling a single die can result
in values of 1,2,3,4,5 and 6.
• Continuous data can take any value within a range.
Example: recorded values of reflecting length,
volume and time.
-The above data are measurable and also be referred
as a variable.
S329
Check Sheets
• The following types of check sheets commonly

used to record counted, measured, and locational
data are
• Measles charts
• Recording check sheets
• Checklists
S330
Data Distribution
• Usually, Histograms, Stem & Leaf Plots and Box

Plots are used to display the same type of data.
S331
Data Considerations
• In order to assure data accuracy and integrity, the

following considerations should be observed.
• Avoid unnecessary rounding of data
• Record production data in time sequence
• Filter data for entry errors
S332
Histogram Shapes
symmetric unimodal bimodal
positively skewed negatively skewed
S333
Central Limit Theorem
• The distribution of the sample means approaches a

normal distribution, regardless of the shape of the
original population.
Probability Density
X S334
• The sample means (𝑋ത ′ 𝑠) will be more normally distributed

around μ than individual readings X’s.
• The distribution of sample means approaches normal
regardless of the shape of the parent population.
• The spread in sample means (𝑋ത ′ 𝑠) is less than X’s with the
standard deviation of (𝑋ത ′ 𝑠) equal to the standard deviation
of the population divided by the square root of the sample
size and is known as the standard error of the mean, 𝑆𝑋ത :
sx
Sx =
n
S335
• Let X be any random variable with mean u and standard

deviation s. Take a random sample of size n. As n
increases and as a result of the central limit theorem:
• The distribution of the population mean approaches a
normal distribution with mean u and standard
deviation of s/squ. rt. n
S336
Confidence Interval for the
Mean
• With continuous data and a large sample, confidence
interval for the mean of the population, μ, can be calculated
as follows:
𝑋ത : The sample mean
σ: The population standard deviation
𝑧𝑎 : The critical value in z- distribution for a desired CI
2
• For a small sample (<30) with unknown population
standard deviation the confidence interval is as follows:
𝑋ത : The sample mean
S : The sample standard deviation
𝑡𝑎 : The critical value in t- distribution for a desired CI
2
S337
Basics Assumptions with
ANOVA
• The expected values of the errors are zero
• The variances of all errors are equal to each other
• The errors are independent
• They are normally distributed
• The fundamental equation of analysis of variance may
express the idea that the total sum of squares of deviations
from the grand mean is equal to the sum of squares of
deviations among treatment means and the grand mean
plus the sum of squares of deviation within treatments
S338
Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA)
• Use when evaluating the effect of discrete inputs on continuous outputs
• One-Way ANOVA
• Tests whether or not the observed subgroup means are statistically different
• Assumption of homogeneity of variances applies to the variance of the
treatment groups.
• H0: µ1= µ2= µ3= µ4=…= µn
• Ha : At least one (1) mean is statistically different from the others
• Two-Way ANOVA
• Considers two factors, for example, Operator and Sample.
- Tests whether or not the subgroup means are statistically different within
either factor.
- Can also test for presence of interaction. For example, operator B measures the light
samples heavier than operator A, but measures the heavier samples lighter.
- Used to analyze a “crossed design”.
• Nested ANOVA
- Used to quantify sources of variation.
S339
Chi-Squared Test
• Can be used for hypothesis testing when evaluating

data for goodness of fit to suspected distributions
• Used to calculate the coefficient of contingency with
“N” equaling the grand frequency total
• In all cases, the data is divided into cells

• The degrees of freedom for each distribution is
different
S340
Planning the Experiment
• Information generated in a designed experiment may be

based on values which are not necessarily numerical
• Conclusions may be wrong or misleading unless carefully
planned and results studied statistically
S341
Equality Tests for Medians
• The following tests are used to perform tests for equality

of population medians
• Mann Whitney test
• Kruskal-Wallis test
• Mood's Median test
S342
Nonparametric testing
• In nonparametric statistics, no assumptions are made

concerning the distribution from which the samples
are taken.
• Nonparametric tests do not assume the outcomes to be
normally distributed.
S343
EVOP
• Evolutionary Operations
• Ability to recognize small differences through large
sample sizes is the basic statistical principle
• Describes the way sequential experimental designs can be
made to adopt to system behavior
• Learning from past results and predicting future
treatments for better response
• As a statistical tool it may be extended beyond the two
level factorial case
S344
Example Problem
• 1000 units of product were examined for the possibility

of 5 different undesirable characteristics. A total of 80
defects were found. How many defects would be
expected in 1,000,000 opportunities?
Solution : 16,000
S345
S346
Defects and Defective
Results of the inspection:

TEST REQUST FORM TEST REQUST FORM TEST REQUST FORM
REQUESTOR REQUESTOR REQUESTOR
DEVELOPMENT CODE DEVELOPMENT CODE DEVELOPMENT CODE WRONG
BLOCKING CONDITION BLOCKING CONDITION BLOCKING CONDITION
PERFORMANCE STANDARD WRONG PERFORMANCE STANDARD PERFORMANCE STANDARD MISSING
GRADIENT GRADIENT GRADIENT
FUNCTIONAL TESTS FUNCTIONAL TESTS FUNCTIONAL TESTS
TEST REQUST FORM TEST REQUST FORM

REQUESTOR REQUESTOR
DEVELOPMENT CODE DEVELOPMENT CODE WRONG
BLOCKING CONDITION BLOCKING CONDITION MISSING
PERFORMANCE STANDARD PERFORMANCE STANDARD WRONG
GRADIENT GRADIENT MISSING
FUNCTIONAL TESTS FUNCTIONAL TESTS
Defective Level
• What is the Unit? How many units are there?
• What is a Defective? How many defectives? What is the DPMO?
Defect Level
• What is the Defect? How many defects? How many Defects/Unit,
[dpu]?
• What is the Opportunity? How many Opportunities per Unit?
• How many Defects/Million-Opportunities, [DPMO]? S347
Example Problem
• If 100 defected units were found, after inspecting

10,000 parts for 10 possible defective features. After
inspecting a millions parts, how many defective parts
would be found?
Answer: 1000
S348
Potential Capability (Paper &
Pencil)
Recall, Potential Process Capability is estimated as follows:
*With a one-sided spec, the

Location* mean or target is used;
Spec Limit With two-sided specs, the
ZST = mid-spec is used.
Pooled SD
Mid-Spec = 25
Short-Term SD = 1.613
35 25
ZST = = 6.2
1.613
What is the predicted DPMO for this

potential capability?
S349
Example Problem
An X bar and R chart was prepared for an operation using

twenty samples with five pieces in each sample; X bar was
found to be 33.6 and R bar was 6.20. During production, a
sample of five was taken and the pieces measured 36, 43,
37, 25, and 38. At the time, this sample was taken:
Only the Range was outside control limits
S350
Example Problem
• A process is in control at X ̿ = 100, R ̅ = 7.3 with n = 4. If

the process level shifts to 101.5, with the same range, what
is the probability that the next X bar point will fall outside
the old control limits:
Answer: 0.016
S351
Example Problem
• A control chart for defects per unit uses probability

limits corresponding to probabilities of .0975 and
.025.The central line on the control chart is at 2.0. The
limits vary with the value of n. Determine the correct
position of these upper and lower control limits when
n=5:
Answer: 3.24, 0.76
S352
Example Problem
• If the probability of a car starting on a cold morning is .6,

and we have two such cars, what is the probability of at
least one of the cars starting on a cold morning?
Answer: 0.84
S353
Proportion Defective
Standard Deviation:
ŝ = p(1- p) / n
Proportion Defective: Control Limits:
p = %defectiveinsamplesize p ± 3ŝ
S354
Example Problem
• What is the upper confidence limit (3 sigma) for

proportion defective when the average daily production
is 2500 units with an established fraction defective of
0.05?
Answer: 0.063
S355
Binomial: Number Defective
Standard Deviation:
sˆ = np(1 − p)
Total
“Defectives”
Mean: Control Limits:
np = D =
 d np  3ŝ
k
Average Total
“Defectives” Groups
S356
Six Sigma Metrics for DISCRETE
Output Data
Defects DPMO
Units
Z-score
Oppor-
tunities
Yield
The Z-score will be computed and used as the Six

Sigma Metric.
DPMO and Yield are directly related.
S357
Example:What’s My Z-score?
(1-sided) Upper
standard
Specification
deviation
Limit = 15.0
(long-term)
= 2.0
Results based on
many lots, over
several weeks.
Mean = 11.0 y , performance
characteristic,
[dimensions]
What is the Do It!
Z-score of this ˆ
USL − μ (___ ) − (___ ) =
= =
y
process? Z (___ )
LT
sˆ LT
S358
From Z-score to DPMO
standard Upper
deviation Specification
(long-term) Limit = 15.0
= 2.0
Mean = 11.0 y , performance characteristic,

What is the [dimensions]
predicted DPMO
of this process?
S359
A Famous Z-score
Upper
one Specification
Limit
standard
Z-score of this
deviation
Process:
(long-
ZLT = 4.5
term)
What is the
predicted Mean
DPMO of this
process? 4.5 SLT
You should be warned that many report the Z-score of a process thus:
- Calculate number of SLT multiples between Mean and Spec Limit
- Add 1.5
Under that practice, this process would be reported as a

“6-Sigma” process!
S360
Example Problem
• The DPMO for a process is 860. What is the approximate

6 sigma level of this process?
Answer: 4.63
S361
Example Problem
• A process consists of three sequential steps with the

following yields: Y1=99.8, Y2=97.4, Y3=96.4. Determine
the total defects per unit.
Answer: .065
S362
Converting Yield, % Defective,
DPMO, etc., Z-score
Knowing one, look up the
other
Proportion Percent Proportion Percent
Rt. Tail PPM Z-score Rt. Tail PPM Z-score
Conforming Out Conforming Out
0.50 0.50 50% 500,000 0.000 0.991 0.009 0.90% 9,000 2.366
0.55 0.45 45% 450,000 0.126 0.992 0.008 0.80% 8,000 2.409
0.60 0.40 40% 400,000 0.253 0.993 0.007 0.70% 7,000 2.457
0.65 0.35 35% 350,000 0.385 0.994 0.006 0.60% 6,000 2.512
0.70 0.30 30% 300,000 0.524 0.995 0.005 0.50% 5,000 2.576
0.75 0.25 25% 250,000 0.674 0.996 0.004 0.40% 4,000 2.652
0.80 0.20 20% 200,000 0.842 0.997 0.003 0.30% 3,000 2.748
0.85 0.15 15% 150,000 1.036 0.998 0.002 0.20% 2,000 2.878
0.90 0.10 10% 100,000 1.282 0.999 0.001 0.10% 1,000 3.090
0.91 0.09 9% 90,000 1.341 0.9991 0.0009 0.09% 900 3.121
0.92 0.08 8% 80,000 1.405 0.9992 0.0008 0.08% 800 3.156
0.93 0.07 7% 70,000 1.476 0.9993 0.0007 0.07% 700 3.195
0.94 0.06 6% 60,000 1.555 0.9994 0.0006 0.06% 600 3.239
0.95 0.05 5% 50,000 1.645 0.9995 0.0005 0.05% 500 3.290
0.96 0.04 4% 40,000 1.751 0.9996 0.0004 0.04% 400 3.353
0.97 0.03 3% 30,000 1.881 0.9997 0.0003 0.03% 300 3.432
0.98 0.03 3% 25,000 1.960 0.9998 0.0002 0.02% 200 3.540
0.98 0.02 2% 20,000 2.054 0.9999 1E-04 0.01% 100 3.719
0.99 0.01 1% 10,000 2.326 0.9999966 3.4E-06 0.0003% 3 4.508
What is the Z-score corresponding to 150,000 ppm?

S363
Converting Z-score to Yield
Proportion Percent Proportion Percent

Rt. Tail PPM Z-score Rt. Tail PPM Z-score
Conforming Out Conforming Out
0.50 0.50 50% 500,000 0.000 0.991 0.009 0.90% 9,000 2.366
0.55 0.45 45% 450,000 0.126 0.992 0.008 0.80% 8,000 2.409
0.60 0.40 40% 400,000 0.253 0.993 0.007 0.70% 7,000 2.457
0.65 0.35 35% 350,000 0.385 0.994 0.006 0.60% 6,000 2.512
0.70 0.30 30% 300,000 0.524 0.995 0.005 0.50% 5,000 2.576
0.75 0.25 25% 250,000 0.674 0.996 0.004 0.40% 4,000 2.652
0.80 0.20 20% 200,000 0.842 0.997 0.003 0.30% 3,000 2.748
0.85 0.15 15% 150,000 1.036 0.998 0.002 0.20% 2,000 2.878
0.90 0.10 10% 100,000 1.282 0.999 0.001 0.10% 1,000 3.090
0.91 0.09 9% 90,000 1.341 0.9991 0.0009 0.09% 900 3.121
0.92 0.08 8% 80,000 1.405 0.9992 0.0008 0.08% 800 3.156
0.93 0.07 7% 70,000 1.476 0.9993 0.0007 0.07% 700 3.195
0.94 0.06 6% 60,000 1.555 0.9994 0.0006 0.06% 600 3.239
0.95 0.05 5% 50,000 1.645 0.9995 0.0005 0.05% 500 3.290
0.96 0.04 4% 40,000 1.751 0.9996 0.0004 0.04% 400 3.353
0.97 0.03 3% 30,000 1.881 0.9997 0.0003 0.03% 300 3.432
0.98 0.03 3% 25,000 1.960 0.9998 0.0002 0.02% 200 3.540
0.98 0.02 2% 20,000 2.054 0.9999 1E-04 0.01% 100 3.719
0.99 0.01 1% 10,000 2.326 0.9999966 3.4E-06 0.0003% 3 4.508
What is the process Yield corresponding to What is the process PPM

a Z-score of 3.0? corresponding to a Z-score of 3.0?
S364
Calculating Process Sigma
• A Six sigma process performs at process variation level

of 6 σ, meaning only 3.4 defects occur per million
opportunities.
Sigma DPMO
1 697672
1.5 501350
2 308770
2.5 158687
3 66811
4 6210
4.5 1350
5 233
6 3.4
S365
Control
• Control charts can be an effective tool for

use in controlling inputs and monitoring
outputs.
• Use the appropriate method.
S367
I/MR as Alternative to Poisson Charts
The I/MR chart can be used as

an alternative to the c-chart.
I-MR Chart of c=10
20
U C L=19.09
Individual Value
15
_
10 X=10.08
LC L=1.07
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
O bser v ation
12
U C L=11.07
Moving Range
6
__
3 M R=3.39
0 LC L=0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
O bser v ation
R 040202
S368
Control Charts for Rare Events
• When the average count falls below 1.0 per sample,
the attribute control charts become very
insensitive.
• Consider the situation of a chemical plant that has
occasional spills, as shown below: (example from
Wheeler, 1995).
C Chart of Spills
1.4
1.2 • In most months UCL=1.277
Spill Date
Days Between
Spills
1.0 there are no
Sample Count
23-Feb-01
11-Jan-02 322
0.8 spills, so a c-
15-Sep-02 247
06-Jul-03 294
0.6 chart (based on
19-Feb-04 228
29-Sep-04
20-Mar-05
223
172
0.4
first 48 months
0.2 _
13-Jul-05 115
of data) would C=0.143
0.0 LCL=0
1 6 12 18 24 30
look like this:
36 42 48 54
Sample
R 040202
S369
One Method - Converting to
Rate
• Instead of counting the number of spills per year, we could
measure the number of days between spills. This number can
be converted to a rate (spills per day) and - to make it more
meaningful - to spills per year.
I-MR Chart of "Spills per Year"
Days Between "Spill Rate" "Spills per 1
3
Spill Date Spills (spills per day) Year" U C L=2.886
Individual V alue
23-Feb-01
11-Jan-02 322 0.00311 1.13 2 _
15-Sep-02 247 0.00405 1.48 X=1.769
06-Jul-03 294 0.00340 1.24
19-Feb-04 228 0.00439 1.60 1
29-Sep-04 223 0.00448 1.64 LC L=0.652
20-Mar-05 172 0.00581 2.12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13-Jul-05 115 0.00870 3.17 O bser vation
1.5
U C L=1.372
The I/MR chart of Spill Rate

M oving Range
1.0
shows that performance has 0.5 __

M R=0.42
gotten worse.
0.0 LC L=0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
R 040202 O bser vation
S370
Process Performance Indices –
Pp and Ppk
• The process performance indices, Pp and Ppk, indicate

the ‘elbow room’ of the process
• Overall or “long-term” standard deviation is used
• Pp quantifies the centered process performance:
USL − LSL
Pp =
6sˆ LT
• Ppk quantifies the un-centered process performance:
USL − Mean Mean − LSU 

Ppk = Min , 
 3sˆ lt 3sˆ lt 
S371
Process Capability Index
The Process Capability Index (Cp) provides

an alternate metric to estimate potential
process capability
Specification Range of Characteristic
Cp = Within-Segment Variation of Process/Product
USL − LSL
Cp = 6s st
S372
The Process Capability
Index, Cpk
S373
Capability & Performance Index
Summary The Cp assumes that the
process is in a state of
statistical control and is on-
target.
The Cpk assumes that the
Process Process
process is in a state of
Mean On- Mean Not statistical control and centered
Target On-Target at the overall mean - which is
Short- not necessarily the target.
Term
Standard Cp Cpk The Pp centers the distribution
on-target, but makes no
Deviation
assumption about statistical
Long- control.
Term
Standard Pp Ppk The Ppk assumes that the
process is centered at the
Deviation overall mean, but makes no
assumption about statistical
control.
S374
Example Problem
• Which of the following statements can be considered

accurate, given that Cpk (upper) was given as 2.0 and
Cpk (lower) was given as 1.0?
• Answer: The process is shifted to the left
S375
LEAN
The 7 types of waste (muda)
• Overproduction
• Inventory
Transportation and
• Transportation
Motion will least likely
• Process to result in poor
• Idle Time product quality
• Operator Motion
• Bad Quality
S377
TPM Steps
7. Step
6. Step
- full
7. Autonomous maintenance application
5. Step
- consolidation of clean,
6. Standards for process check and maintenance
4. Step quality assurance
knowledge
- autonomous maintenance according
3. Step 5. Autonomous inspection to checklists and service standards
- develop knowledge of the machine construction

4. Train associates in
autonomous maintenance - build skills for autonomous maintenance
2. Step
- set up checklists and service standards
3. Establish cleaning and - visual management on machine and/or equipment
lubrication standards - working area standards for cleaning and tidiness
1. Step - eliminate leaks
2. Eliminate sources of - making maintenance tasks easier
contamination - eliminate sources of machine soiling
- Basic cleaning
1. Initial cleaning - lubrication
- defect tagging } Cleaning is inspecting!
S378
Total Productive Maintenance
• Goal is to eliminate unplanned downtime in order to

avoid losses due to maintenance.
• Overall equipment effectiveness is the prime measure
used to evaluate TPM. The factors required to calculate
OEE are availability, Performance and Quality.
• Using TPM metrics, various formulas for machine
availability calculations would require information such
as Operating Time, Down Time and Loading Time.
S379
Theory of Constraints and Six
Sigma
• In the Define phase of Six Sigma, Theory of
Constraints thinking can be used to identify and
prioritize projects.
• Will the proposed project really make a difference in
overall performance of the system?
• In Analyze phase, it can help in judging performance of the

constraint and the influence of other parts of the system on
the constraint.
• In the Improve phase, it can help in identifying actions that
can be taken to increase throughput.
S380
Theory of Constraints (TOC)
• Goals of TOC
▫ Increased throughput
▫ Reduced inventory
▫ Reduced operating expenses
S381
Standard Work
• The best combination of machines and people working

together to produce a product or service at a particular
point in time is known as Standard work.
• Standard work sheets are required for standard
operations consisting of
▫ Cycle time based on Takt time
▫ Work sequence - the order of operations
▫ Standard inventory on hand
S382
Exam Time (CLSSGB)
Designing for Six Sigma Qualitative

Tools (Black Belt Modules)

SIPOC Model
Inputs
Suppliers Inputs Processes
Inputs
Feedback
Outputs
Feedback
Customer
S386
Example of Prioritization
Reality Check:
• The prioritization worksheet is intended to be an aid to project
selection – It is based on benefit cost ratio – Look at the typical
Project Descriptions below.
• Sample considerations in benefit-cost ratio are Increased
profits, Improved process capability, reduced defects, and
reduced warranty claims.
• Criteria and weights should be modified to reflect business
priorities.
Critical to On-going
Customer Tangible financial Translation
satisfaction* financial impact benefits? project?**
Weight = 0.42 Weight = 0.22 Weight = 0.22 Weight = 0.14
<$100K 0 <$100K 0
None 1 $100-$250K 1 $100-$250K 1 No 0
Broad 2 $250K-$1M 3 $250K-$1M 3 Same Site 3 Project
Project Description 1
Specific 7 Over $1M 6 6 Over $1M 36 Other Site 07 Score
Reduce Warranties 1 3 3 0
Improved Capabilities 7 0 0 0
Reduce Defects
S387
Example Problem
If the project internal rate of return is estimated at 11% and:

A. The company cost of capital is 10%
B. The company cost of capital is 12%
C. Funds are limited and another project will yield 14%
D. Funds are unlimited and another project will yield 14%
The project will be approved only when: B & D are true
S388
Internal Strengths
• Something a company is good at doing

▫ Skill
▫ Expertise
▫ Patent
▫ Key resource
▫ Technology
▫ Market position
 Market Segmentation (helpful in Spotting trends)
▫ Anything else that provides an advantage
S389
Drucker on Knowing the Customer
"What people in business think they know about customers

and markets is more likely to be wrong than right. There
is only one person who knows: the customer.
Only by asking the customers, watching them, by trying to

understand their behaviors, can one find out who they are,
what they do, how they buy, how they use what they buy,
and what they expect....
The customer rarely buys what the business thinks it

sells…."
Peter Drucker, Managing for Results: Economic Tasks and

Risk-Taking Decisions (1986)
S390
Balanced Scorecard
• Kaplan and Norton have outlined a business planning

process that gives consideration to factors other than
financial ones. It provides more perspectives for
stakeholder interests. This approach is referred to as
Balanced Scorecard.
• A strategic planning and management system that is
used to align business activities in to vision and strategy
of an organization.
S391
Define (Black Belt)
Managing and Controlling
Projects
Completion
• Critical Path time is 19
E weeks
A 3 B
B 5 6
C 7 5
D 3 D F H
E 6 A
3 3 3
F 3
3
G 3
C G
H 3
7 3
S393
Projects
Critical Path
The critical path in a project means that:
1. The project is important to the profits of the
organization
2. Delays of events on this path delay the ending
of the project
3. Events on this path have no slack time
S394
Projects
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

• A management planning and control tool in which the
events are pre-identified along with their corresponding
interrelations.
• Activity times are assumed to be random with a
probability distribution
• The use of PERT requires the Critical path to be known
in advance.
S395
Variation: understanding and decision making
• Variances from budgets for a project are the difference

between planned and actual and are used to focus
corrective action efforts and should be fixed for the
duration of the project.
S396
• Senior Management receives Sponsor training

• Executive or Certified Lean Six Sigma Yellow Belt
• Encourage, motive, and support Mid-Manager support
• Team success is driven by ACTIVE Support from Mid-
Managers
• Define the project and project objectives
• Provide Financial Support as
• Process Owners and Champions only
• Approve changes in direction or scope of the project
• Provide (or assist in providing) resources for the
project
S397
Affinity Diagram: Purpose &
Uses
• Purpose
▫ Helps solve unfamiliar problems
▫ Tool for processing what we hear from our
customers and/or identifying underlying
issues Note: At the stage, you
• Other Uses are interested in
identifying problems, not
▫ Identify or select Six Sigma projects solutions. It helps to
maintain a “weakness
▫ Brainstorming tool orientation” (identifying
• Benefits specific needs and
problems) in collecting
▫ Generates ideas ideas.
▫ Distills complex issues into major themes

or topics S398
Defining the Customer
• The receiver of the next operation, and internal

department, could be thought of as a customer.
• The external customer of a process could be the
purchaser.
• The primary customer of the process will or should
have the highest impact on the process.
▫ Accountability to final customer, even though there
may be intermediary customers, is the driving force.
S399
Team Makeup
Considerations Considerations
Process Work
scope Ad Hoc Team Members Distribution
(provide situational expertise)
Problem Ease of
Expertise (Where Communication
the problem
Is observed)
Core Team Analytical &
Customer 3-5 members Creative
knowledge
Six Sigma
Stakeholder representation
Core Team
representation Members
serve for the life Functional
Capable of of the project. representation
effectiveness
S400
Measure
Using the High Level Process
Map
• Uses for the process map:

▫ Define the scope of the process to be considered
in the Six Sigma project.
▫ Identify key stakeholders.
▫ Serve as a basis for more detailed mapping
required in future steps of the Six Sigma
process.
S402
Process Flow Diagram
(Flowchart)
Feedback indicated
the need for
correction
Feedback/
Readmits
Admissions
Emergency
Room Discharge
In Patient/
Out Patient

are shown
S403
Analyze/Improve
Notation for Binomial Cumulative
Distribution Function
• For X ~ Bin(n, p), the cumulative distribution

function will be
x
P ( X  x ) = B ( x; n, p ) =  b( y; n, p)
y =0
x = 0, 1, 2, …n
A graphical display of the total percentage of

results below a certain measurement value is
called a Cumulative distribution function
S405
Binomial Experiment
1. Each trial can result in one of the same two possible

outcomes, which are denoted by success (S) or failure
(F).
2. The trials are independent of each other.
3. The probability of success is constant p form trial to
trial.
4. Does not require the use of natural logarithmic
base
S406
Computation of a Binomial
PMF
(
b( x; n, p) = 0 ) p (1− p )
 n
x
x n− x
x=0,1, 2,........, n
otherwise
S407
Chi-Square Test
S408
Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
• As part of the retail sales process, the Sales Representatives are

instructed to obtain certain buyer information. The information can
be used to provide follow-up information and reminders to the
buyer. The BB project is focused on improving the compliance to
this instruction. The BB pulls records from the five sales regions.
S409
Chi-Squared Test
Example Problem:
• Three trainees were given the same lot of 50 pieces and asked to
classify them as defective or non-defective, with the following
results: Defective 17 30 25; Non-defective 33 20 25.In
determining whether or not there is a difference in the ability of
the three trainees to properly classify the parts, the following
statements are true:
• The chi-square calculated value is 6.9
• II. Using a level of significance of .050, the critical value of the
chi-square is 5.99
• III. Since the obtained chi-square is greater than 5.99, we reject
the null hypothesis
S410
Goodness of Fit
• When evaluating data for goodness of fit to

suspected distributions:
▫ The X^2 test can be used for hypothesis testing
▫ In all cases, the data is divided into cells
S411
Coefficient of Contingency
• Used to estimate the strength of relationship between

two variables
• C= √(X^2/(X^2+N))
where N is the grand frequency total
S412
F - Distribution
• The F distribution is used extensively to test for

equality of variances from two normal populations.
• If U and V are the variances of independent random
samples of size n and m taken from normally distributed
populations with variances of w and z, then
U /w
F=
V /z
S413
Factorial Experiment
• An experiment with two or more factors, in which all

levels of one variable are run at each level of the second
variable is known as Factorial Experiment.
• A variable can assume several (more than two)
values
S414
Full Factorial
Look completely at:

All factors, all possible treatment combinations that are
associated with the factors and their levels, effects of main
factors and interactions between factors have on the
measured responses.
▫ May require many experimental runs depending on
how many factors at various levels are explored.
▫ If a experiment has 4 factors with 3 levels each, the
number of trials required are 81.
S415
Fractional Factorial
• More factors with a “fraction” of the treatment

combinations looked at
• Because not all treatment combinations are looked at in
the experimental design, it presents a mixing or
“confounding” between main effects and
interactions
• Confounding is when the effects of two variables are
not separable.
S416
EVOP
• Evolutionary Operations
• Ability to recognize small differences through large
sample sizes is the basic statistical principle
• Describes the way sequential experimental designs can
be made to adopt to system behavior
• Learning from past results and predicting future
treatments for better response
• As a statistical tool it may be extended beyond the two
level factorial case
S417
Example Problem
• Variation in the shape parameter for the Weibull

distribution can create all of the following distribution
shapes such as Normal, Rayleigh and Exponential.
S418
Best Subsets Regression
• Best Subsets Regression is an iterative process that examines

potential models with one predictor, then two, then three, and
so on, through a model that includes all possible predictors.
• Only models with the highest R-Squared values are retained
in the analysis.
• Model selection is made based upon the Minitab output. A
good model should have:
▫ high R-squared
▫ high adjusted R-squared
▫ a C-p metric value that is approximately equal to the
number of predictors in the specified model
▫ a low s (s is the standard deviation of the error term in the
model)
S419
Taguchi Design of Experiments
• Parameter design
▫ The selection of control factors and the determination
of optimal levels for each of the factors.
▫ Control factors are those variables in a process that
management can manipulate.
▫ Optimal levels are the targets or measurements for
performance.
• Tolerance design
▫ Deals with developing specification limits.
▫ Occurs after parameter design has been used to reduce
variation and the resulting improvement has been
insufficient.
S420
Example problem
• If parts A, B, and C combined to create a part, and the

individual tolerances for the weights of these 3 parts are
as listed below. What would be the total tolerance for the
completed part
Ingredient A: 75 + 2.0 grams
Ingredient B: 45 + 2.5 grams
Ingredient C: 30 + 1.5 grams
Answer: 150 + 3.54 grams
S421
Latin Square Design
• Essentially a fractional factorial experiment that requires

less experimentation to determine the main treatment
results.
• The primary advantage of the Latin Square design,
compared to the factorial design is that it requires less
data, in most circumstances
S422
Design of Experiments
• The advantage of using the "modern designed "method

of experimentation, rather than the classical, is that
fewer terms and measurements are needed for valid
and useful information
S423
Flow Charts
Used to Identify Improvements
• Organize a team for the purpose of examining the process.
• Construct flow chart to represent each process step.
• Discuss and analyze each step in detail.
• Ask the key question, “Why do we do it this way?”.
• Compare the actual process to an imagined “perfect” process.
• Is there unnecessary complexity?
• Does duplication or redundancy exists?
• Are there control points to prevent errors or rejects? Should there be?
• Is this process being run the way it should?
• Can this process be run differently?
• Improvement ideas may come from substantially different processes.
S424
Models & Transfer Equations
Environmental “Truth” y = f(x)

Factors
Visible Model y = f(x) + 
Planned Experiments,
Observation, Discovery
Estimated y(est) = f(xi) + 
Model
Simulations Optimization
“All models are wrong

but some are useful.” George Box
S425
A Possible Experimental Strategy
One-Factor-at-a-Time (OFAT): Focus sequentially on
individual factors. Hold all other factors at nominal constant
level until the focused ‘design’ factor produces its optimum
response.
Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E
Work on A
Work on B
Work on C
and so on . . .
S426
An OFAT...
What we missed!
“That was a “Another dumb
mistake! Stick with idea… told you
B-Low.” A
Low Hig we were already
h at ‘entitlement’!
Go back to Low-
High 20 80 Low and stay
there.”
B
Let’s try
Let’s try
increasin Low 40 30 increasin
g A!
g B!
Our current operating
conditions
S427
Another Possible Common Sense
Approach
Stick-with-a-Winner: Another design strategy that sequentially
focuses on individual factors. Keep all other factors at the previous
level until the focused ‘design’ factor produces its optimum response
Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E
1. Work on A
2. Work on B
3. Work on C
4, 5, 1, 2, 3, ... and so on . . .
S428
“Stick-with-a-Winner”
Example - Consider a process in which the yield is a
function of the temperature and the reaction time. From
historical information, it is known that the process produces
an acceptable, yet hopefully improvable, yield at a
temperature of 155 [°F] and a reaction time of 1.5 [hrs]. An
experiment is run to investigate the effects of reaction time
on yield using the stick-with-a-winner approach. Five runs
are made, producing yields as follows:
Temperature Time Yield
155 0.5 45%
155 1.0 65%
155 1.5 77%
155 2.0 71%
155 2.5 48%
S429
The Time Effect
Maximum at ~ 1.67 Hrs.
80
75
70
65
Yield
60
55
50
45
40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time
Temperature set at 155 [°F]; Time varied
S430
SWAW, Part II, the Temperature Effect
A second experiment is run with the reaction time held at 1

hour and 40 minutes. The one-factor-at-a-time approach is
used as temperatures are varied to produce the following
yields:
Temperature Time Yield

140 1.67 59%
150 1.67 74%
160 1.67 78%
170 1.67 73%
180 1.67 66%
S431
The Temperature Effect
Maximum at ~ 160 [°F].

80
75
70
65
Yield
60
55
50
45
40
130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Tem perat ure
Time set at 1.67 [hr]; Temperature varied
S432
The Big Picture & What We
Missed
Contour Plot of Yield
200 60
65
190
70
90
180 75
85 60 80
85
Temp
170
85
90
160 80 95
75
150
70
140 65
60
130 45 64
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time
S433
A Comparison
One-at-a-Time Statistical Design
• Time-consuming and • Efficient and effective
inefficient
• Optimum is methodically
• No guarantee of finding sought, statistically
optimum verified, and documented
• Interaction of variables • Interactions of variables
can produce incorrect are incorporated into the
conclusions design
S434
The Cornerstone
“The two-level factorial and fractional

factorial designs should be the
cornerstone of experimentation for product
and process development, troubleshooting
and improvement.”
Douglas C. Montgomery, Design and Analysis of Experiments, 5th Ed., p.383.
S435
What is a Factor? What is a Level?
Catapult Factorial
• List the factors and possible factor settings (levels) for
studying the effects on catapult distance.
• How many combinations of factors and settings are
there?
Factor Levels
Draw-back Angle infinite
Cup Location 5 To state a model in an
Arm Stop Position 6
4
experimental design is
Front Arm Tension Pt.
Rubber Band Att. Pt. 5 fixed indicates that the
Ball Type 2 levels used for each
# of Rubber bands 2 factor are the only ones
Operators many of interest
S436
Experiment Factors
When considering qualitative and quantitative factors in

the same designed experiment, the sum of squares for
the qualitative factors can still be calculated even
though no numerical scale can be attached to the levels
S437
Example Problem
An experiment is being run with eight factors. Two of the

factors are temperature and pressure. The levels for
temperature are 25, 50 and 75. The levels for pressure are
14,28,42 and 56. How many degrees of freedom are
required for this experiment to determine the effect of the
interaction between temperature and pressure?
• Answer: 6
S438
Let’s Bake Some Bread – a 2x2 DOE
• While baking bread a novice bread maker noticed that the

bread quality appeared to be related to the amount of
yeast and type of flour used in the process.
• Following Six Sigma training, the bread maker decided to
study the effects of flour and yeast. He decided to use two
different amounts of flour (Low and High) and two
different amounts of yeast (Low and High).
• A few questions:
▫ How many factors?
▫ How many levels of each factor?
▫ How many factor-level combinations?
How do you measure perfect bread?
• IASB uses “taste” and
“bread density (0.23 g/cc)” as
keys
to bread perfection. IASB - International Association for Superior Bread
S439
2X2 DOE, with Results
Also written
as (2)2
High 0.15 0.25 (Levels)Factors
Yeast Experimental
What is the response,
effect of Low 0.20 0.30 at treatment
changing the Yeast = High
Yeast level from Flour Mix = High
Low High
Low to High? The numbers in the
Flour Mix boxes
What is the effect of represent the bread
changing the Flour density
Mix from Low to measured for each of the
High? four
trial combinations.
S440
Analyzing 2x2 Factorial Design
Effects
Effect of B:
-0.05
High 0.15 0.25 Avg. Yeast
High:
(.15+.25)/2=.20
Yeast
Changing the Yeast from
Avg. Yeast Low to High decreases the
Low 0.20 0.30 Low: response by 0.05
(.20+.30)/2=.2
5
Low High Is the Flour effect the
Flour Mix same at both levels of
Avg. Flour Yeast?
Avg. Flour
Low: High:
(.20+.15)/2= (.30+.25)/2=
Effect of Flour
.175 .275 Changing Flour Mix from
Mix: Low to High increases the
+0.1 bread density by 0.1
S441
Calculating the Effects
Flour Mix Yeast Flour x Yeast Result

-1 -1 +1 .20
+1 -1 -1 .30
-1 +1 -1 .15
+1 +1 +1 .25
Sum - High .55 .40 .45 Ave: .225
Sum - Low .35 .50 .45
High - Low .20 -.10 .00
Effect .10 -.05 0
Half-Effect .05 -.025 0
.05*FM -.025*Y 0*FxY
Prediction Equation
Bread Density (Y) = .225 + .05FlourMix - .025Yeast
S442
Analysis of Results
Factorial Fit: Bread Density versus Flour Mix, Yeast With only one
Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Bread Density (codedfor each
replicate
units)
Term Effect Coef experimental
Constant 0.22500 combination, there
Flour Mix 0.10000 0.05000
Yeast -0.05000 -0.02500
is no estimate of
Flour Mix*Yeast 0.00000 0.00000 “error” and no F-
ratios or p-values
S = *
can be computed.
Analysis of Variance for Bread Density (coded units)
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P
Main Effects 2 0.01250 0.01250 0.006250 * *
2-Way Interactions 1 0.00000 0.00000 0.000000 * *
Residual Error 0 * * *
Total 3 0.01250
S443
Adding Replicates
All treatment
combinations are
replicated, giving a
total of 8 results.
StdOrder RunOrder CenterPt Blocks Flour Mix Yeast Bread Density
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 0.20
2 2 1 1 1 -1 0.30
3 3 1 1 -1 1 0.15
4 4 1 1 1 1 0.25
5 5 1 1 -1 -1 0.22
6 6 1 1 1 -1 0.29
7 7 1 1 -1 1 0.17
8 8 1 1 1 1 0.27
Adding the new data: Create a Reminder -

worksheet like the one shown. You Replicates: Repeated runs at the
can do that by creating a new same experimental conditions.
design or simply be adding the When you replicate a design, you
necessary rows to your existing duplicate the complete set of runs
worksheet. from the initial design.
S444
Factorial Plots - Added Data
Interaction Plot (data means) for Bread Density
0.300 Flour
Mix
-1
0.275 1
0.250
Mean
0.225
0.200
0.175
0.150
-1 1
Yeast
Main Effects Plot (data means) for Bread Density
Flour Mix Yeast
0.28
0.26
Mean of Bread Density

How do these results compare with 0.24
original four results? 0.22
0.20
0.18
-1 1 -1 1
S445
Interpreting Effects Plots
Pareto Chart of the Standardized Effects

(response is Bread Density, Alpha = .05)
The effects are plotted
2.78
F actor N ame
in Pareto format. The
A F lour M ix
A
B Y east
reference line
represents the .05
Alpha level.
Term
AB
0 2 4 6 8 10
Normal Probability Plot of the Standardized Effects
Standardized Effect (response is Bread Density, Alpha = .05)
99
Effect Ty pe
Not Significant
95 Significant
90 F actor N ame
A F lour M ix
80 A B Y east
70
Effects are plotted.
Percent
60
50
Significant effects are 40

30
20 B
identified with a 10
letter. 5
1
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
R 040127 Standardized Effect
S446
Analysis with Replicates
With replication, we have an estimate

of “error” and can compute significance
of the effects and interactions.
Factorial Fit: Bread Density versus Flour Mix, Yeast

Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Bread Density (coded units)
Term Effect Coef SE Coef T P

Constant 0.23125 0.004507 51.31 0.000
Flour Mix 0.09250 0.04625 0.004507 10.26 0.001
Yeast -0.04250 -0.02125 0.004507 -4.71 0.009
Flour Mix*Yeast 0.00750 0.00375 0.004507 0.83 0.452 The model can be
S = 0.0127475 R-Sq = 96.97% R-Sq(adj) = 94.71%
simplified by removing
the non-significant terms.
Analysis of Variance for Bread Density (coded units) (Here, the interaction
term.)
Main Effects 2 0.0207250 0.0207250 0.0103625 63.77 0.001
2-Way Interactions 1 0.0001125 0.0001125 0.0001125 0.69 0.452
Residual Error 4 0.0006500 0.0006500 0.0001625
Pure Error 4 0.0006500 0.0006500 0.0001625
Total 7 0.0214875
S447
Reducing the Model
• In building the model - or prediction

equation - we strive to include only the
important effects.
• At this point in our example all terms,
including the two-way interaction, are in
the model.
• Use the p-values (i.e., p-value < alpha) to
decide which terms to retain in the model.
S448
Analysis of Residuals
Do the ‘two-second look.’

If you don’t see a pattern, move on.
Residual Plots for Bread Density
Normal Probabilit y Plot of t he Residuals Residuals Versus the Fit t ed Values
99
0.010
90
0.005
Residual
Percent
50 0.000
-0.005
10
-0.010
1
-0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Residual Fitted Value
Histogram of the Residuals Residuals Versus t he Order of t he Data

3 0.010
0.005
Frequency
2
Residual
0.000
1 -0.005
-0.010
0
-0.010 -0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Residual Observation Order
S449
Transformation Data to
Improve Fit
• A pattern in the Residuals Vs. Fitted Data may indicate the
need to transform the response variable.
• Common transformations are Square Root, Log, Reciprocal
Square Root and Reciprocal
• To show this, the data have been modified so that there is a
pattern in Residuals vs. Fits.
Residuals Versus the Fitted Values

(response is ResidPat)
Flour Mix Yeast Bread Density ResidPattern

0.02
-1 -1 0.200 0.190
1 -1 0.300 0.280
0.01
-1 1 0.150 0.145
There is a pattern in
Residual
1 1 0.250 0.235
0.00 the residuals
-1 -1 0.220 0.210
1 -1 0.290 0.320
-0.01
-1 1 0.170 0.155
1 1 0.270 0.265
-0.02
• What is the best 0.15 0.20

Fitted Value
0.25 0.30
transformation?
S450
Bread DOE
• Feeling in a creative mood, the Master Breadmaker

(MB) decided to make a more nutritious bread by
adding a few things to the flour mix (oatmeal, grits,
and wheat bran). He calls this new flour Rixmix.
• Not wanting to be ridiculed if the new bread is a
failure, MB decides to conduct another 2x2 DOE to
evaluate the new flour mixture.
• Factor settings are the following:
▫ Flour Mix low setting: 25% Rixmix and 75% whole wheat
flour
▫ Flour Mix high setting: 75% Rixmix and 25% whole wheat
flour
▫ Yeast low setting = 50 grams
▫ Yeast high setting = 100 grams
• There are two replicates for each treatment.
S451
Bread DOE
The design and results are given. Copy the

data into Minitab, define the design and
analyze the results. Include factorial plots,
ANOVA, prediction equation and analysis
of residuals.
StdOrder RunOrder CenterPt Blocks Flour Mix Yeast BreadDensity
1 1 1 1 25 50 0.20
2 6 1 1 75 50 0.33
3 5 1 1 25 100 0.22
4 2 1 1 75 100 0.26
5 3 1 1 25 50 0.20
6 8 1 1 75 50 0.34
7 7 1 1 25 100 0.20
8 4 1 1 75 100 0.27
Experimental Design with results.

S452
Results of Bread DOE Exercise
Main Effects Plot (data means) for BreadDensity
Flour Mix Yeast
The Main Effects Plot
0.30
indicates a strong effect
0.28
of Flour Mix and a
Mean of BreadDensity
0.26
weaker effect of Yeast
0.24 (but without some
0.22 comparison to “noise”
0.20 we don’t know if these
25 75 50 100
effects are significant).
Interaction Plot (data means) for BreadDensity

0.34 Flour
Mix
25
0.32
75
The Interaction Plot 0.30
indicates presence of 0.28

Mean
0.26
interaction between 0.24
Flour Mix and Yeast 0.22
0.20
50 100
Yeast
S453
Results of Bread DOE Exercise
Factorial Fit: BreadDensity versus Flour Mix, Yeast

Estimated Effects and Coefficients for BreadDensity (coded units)
Term Effect Coef SE Coef T P

Constant 0.25250 0.003062 82.47 0.000
Flour Mix 0.09500 0.04750 0.003062 15.51 0.000
Yeast -0.03000 -0.01500 0.003062 -4.90 0.008
Flour Mix*Yeast -0.04000 -0.02000 0.003062 -6.53 0.003
S = 0.00866025 R-Sq = 98.72% R-Sq(adj) = 97.75%
Analysis of Variance for BreadDensity (coded units)

Main Effects 2 0.0198500 0.0198500 0.00992500 132.33 0.000
2-Way Interactions 1 0.0032000 0.0032000 0.00320000 42.67 0.003
Residual Error 4 0.0003000 0.0003000 0.00007500
Pure Error 4 0.0003000 0.0003000 0.00007500
Total 7 0.0233500
Prediction Equation (Coded Units)

Bread Density (Y) = .2525 + .0475FlourMix - .015Yeast -
.0225FlourMix*Yeast
S454
Review
• Two-level factorial designs

• Terminology
▫ Factors
▫ Levels
▫ Treatments
▫ Replication
▫ Randomization
▫ Prediction equation (transfer function)
• Minitab
▫ Creating and defining a factorial design
▫ Factorial plots
▫ Plots of residuals
▫ ANOVA of results
S455
Control
Process Performance Metrics
Estimated or actual performance level of

Overall process (Based on long-term, or overall, output
(ZLT) variation)
Capability Potential of existing process; provides measure

(ZST) of improvement possibilities (Based on short-term,
or within-group, variation)
Shift
The difference between ZST and ZLT
(Zshift)
Defines the absolute best the existing process
Entitlement
can do (This performance may be intermittent and for
(ZENT)
very short periods of time)
The level at which the process needs to perform,
Goal
(ZGOAL)
as set by business (Achieved by improving existing
process – DMAIC - or designing new process - DFSS).
S457
A Possible Project/Process
Scenario
S458
A Second Scenario
S459
A Third Scenario
S460
Contact Information
Erick C. Jones, PhD, CSSBB, P.E.
University of Texas Arlington
Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering
Associate Professor
420 Woolf Hall
Arlington, TX 76019
ecjones@uta.edu
(817) 272-7592
S461
PWD Group Inc.
• Six Sigma Services Offered
▫ Proctored Six Sigma Certification On-site and
Online Exams and Renewals
 Yellow Belt, Executive Yellow Belt, Green Belt, and
Black Belt – ISCEA Approved
▫ Six Sigma Document Review Service
 We have qualified writers on staff
▫ Six Sigma Online Training
▫ Six Sigma “Train the Trainer” Training
▫ Lean Execute Time Study and Process
Improvement Consulting
S462
Exam Time (CLSSBB)

2023 CLSSBB Trainer Solutions SC Ver

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

2023 CLSSBB Trainer Solutions SC Ver

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2023 CLSSBB Trainer Solutions SC Ver

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This material is proprietary to PWD Group, Inc.

About International Supply Chain Education Alliance (ISCEA):

Chagrin Highlands Center

Mr. Mike Loughrin, CLM, CFPIM, CSCP, CSCM

Mr. Chad Smith, CDDP

Dr. Erick C. Jones, RFIDSCM, CLSSMBB, Fel. ISCEA

Dr. Erick C. Jones

European Supply Chain Distinction Awards

S2.3 -Presenter Only

International Supply Chain

IISB - LEAN Six Sigma

A Brief History and Overview of

1. Identify which Quality Programs including Six Sigma seek macro-

Step 1 Identify Critical Characteristics

• An organized disciplined approach to problem solving in

Comparison to Other Quality

• Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award

Baldrige Award Framework

Overview of Six Sigma Certification

Step 1 Identify Critical Characteristics

•Graphical Data Analysis

• Lean Six Sigma is a

Interview Process Hypothesis Process Capability Factorial Design Control Plans

Stakeholder Measurement Chi-Square Response Surface Mistake-Proofing

Enterprise Wide Deployment

• Identify key elements in Six Sigma Implementation

✓ Business process Control

• The most critical element of Six Sigma implementation is

• All processes must be evaluated.

• Customer and market intelligence gathering

• Six Sigma assumption

Strengths Objectivity and

Key Concern: Lack of Objectivity

• Something a company is good at doing

• Something that a firm lacks

• Expansion to new markets

• A methodical process of identifying ”factors” or causes

• In addition to the root cause analysis, Ishikawa can be

People Equipment Methods Retained

Environment Material Measurement

“It has been often said that the most difficult

• To improve change needs to happen

• In general most change involves three stages:

• Conflict and conflict

• Mediate the conflict The average

• Accept the conflict Posner 1986

• Eliminate the conflict

Can help identifying stakeholders……

• Every process contains Inputs, Outputs, and Feedback.

• In the preparation of a project, efforts should be made to

Who are the main(key) stakeholders?

• Owners of the process (Ex: Managers working

Not Competitors! S67

Who are your general stakeholders?

The more real commitment you have from

When you study a plate of bacon and eggs,

TBM-Uptime - Stakeholder Analysis

• You can refine your stakeholder analysis by adding the

Common Flow Chart Symbols