13 - HowPopulationsEvolve PSR

CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS, NINTH EDITION
PowerPoint Lectures
Chapter 13
How Populations Evolve
TAYLOR
SIMON
DICKEY
HOGAN
REECE
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
• In the 1960s, the World Health Organization
(WHO) launched a campaign to eradicate malaria.
• They focused on killing mosquitoes by massive
spraying of the pesticide DDT.
• DDT resistance evolved in mosquito populations.
• Today, malaria causes more than a million deaths
and 250 million cases of illness each year.

Introduction
• The drug chloroquine was hailed as the miracle cure
for malaria, but in some regions the drug is now
powerless against the disease as the parasite evolved
resistance to the drug.
• An understanding of evolution informs all of biology,
from exploring life’s molecules to analyzing
ecosystems.

Figure 13.0

Figure 13.0_1
Chapter 13: Big Ideas
Darwin’s Theory of The Evolution of Populations Mechanisms of

Evolution Microevolution

DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

13.1 A sea voyage helped Darwin frame his
theory of evolution
• Charles Darwin is best known for his book On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
commonly referred to as The Origin of Species,
which launched the era of evolutionary biology.

theory of evolution
• Darwin’s theory differed greatly from the long-held
notion of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging
species.
• Darwin called his theory descent with modification,
which explains that
• all of life is connected by common ancestry and
• descendants have accumulated adaptations to
changing environments over vast spans of time.

theory of evolution
• Consequently, scientists regard Darwin’s concept
of evolution by means of natural selection as a
theory, a widely accepted explanatory idea that
• is broader in scope than a hypothesis,
• generates new hypotheses, and
• is supported by a large body of evidence.
Checkpoint question What was Darwin’s phrase
for evolution? What does it mean?

Figure 13.1a
Darwin in 1840 HMS Beagle in

port
Great Asia
Britain Europe
North
America
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Africa
PACIFIC
Equator OCEAN
PACIFIC Galápagos South
OCEAN Pinta Islands
America
Marchena
Andes
Genovesa
Santiago Equator Australia
Daphne Cape of
Fernandina
Pinzón Islands PACIFIC Good Hope
OCEAN
Isabela Santa
Cruz
Santa San
Cape Horn Tasmania
Fe Cristobal New
Tierra del Fuego Zealand
0 40 km Florenza Española
0 40 miles

Figure 13.1a_1
Great Asia
Britain Europe
North
America
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Africa
PACIFIC
Equator OCEAN
South
America
Andes
Australia
Cape of
PACIFIC Good Hope
OCEAN
Cape Horn Tasmania
New
Tierra del Fuego Zealand

Figure 13.1a_2
PACIFIC Galápagos
OCEAN Pinta Islands
Marchena
Genovesa
Santiago Equator
Daphne Islands
Pinzón
Fernandina
Isabela Santa
Cruz Santa San
Fe Cristobal
0 40 km Florenza Española
0 40 miles

Figure 13.1a_3

Figure 13.1a_4

Figure 13.1b

Figure 13.1b

Figure 13.1c

Video: Blue-Footed Boobies Courtship Ritual

Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual

Video: Galápagos Island Overview

Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana

Video: Galápagos Sea Lion

Video: Galápagos Tortoise

Video: Soaring Hawk

13.2 The study of fossils provides strong
evidence for evolution
• Fossils
• are the imprints or remains of organisms that lived
in the past,
• document differences between past and present
organisms, and
• reveal that many species have become extinct.
• The fossil record reveals the historical sequence in
which organisms have evolved.

Figure 13.2a

Figure 13.2b

Figure 13.2c

Video: Grand Canyon

13.3 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Fossils of
transitional forms support Darwin’s theory of
evolution
• Many fossils link early extinct species with species
living today.
• Thousands of fossil discoveries shed light on the
evolutionary origins of many groups of organisms.

evolution
• Beginning in the late 1970s, paleontologists
unearthed transitional fossils and thought that
whales arose from a wolf-like carnivore.
• But molecular biologists found a close relationship
between whales and hippopotamuses and
hypothesized that whales and hippos were both
descendants of a cloven-hoofed ancestor.

evolution
• Two fossils discovered in 2001 provided the
answer.
• Both Pakicetus and Rodhocetus had the distinctive
ankle bone of a cloven-hoofed mammal.
• Thus, as is often the case in science, scientists are
becoming more confident about the evolutionary
origin of whales.

Figure 13.3
Key
Pakicetus Pelvis
1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) Femur
Tibia
Foot
Ambulocetus
3 m (9.8 ft)
Rodhocetus
3 m (9.8 ft)
Dorudon
4–5 m (13–16 ft)
Modern cetacean
(Humpback whale)
12–16 m (39–52 ft)
13.4 Homologies provide strong evidence for
evolution
• Evolution is a process of descent with modification.
• Evolution is a remodeling process.
• Related species can have characteristics that have
an underlying similarity yet function differently.
• Similarity resulting from common ancestry is known
as homology.
• Structural and molecular homologies reveal
evolutionary relationships.

Figure 13.4a
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Human Cat Whale Bat

13.4 Homologies provide strong evidence for
evolution
• An understanding of homology helps explain why
early stages of development in different animal
species reveal similarities not visible in adult
organisms.
• Some of the most interesting homologies are
vestigial structures, remnants of features that
served important functions in the organism’s
ancestors.

Figure 13.4b
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo Human embryo

Figure 13.4b_1
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo

Figure 13.4b_2
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Human embryo

13.5 Homologies indicate patterns of descent
that can be shown on an evolutionary tree
• Today, biologists represent patterns of descent with

an evolutionary tree, often turned sideways.
• Homologous structures can be used to determine
the branching sequence of an evolutionary tree.
• These homologies can include
• anatomical structure and/or
• molecular structure.

Checkpoint question Refer to the evolutionary tree
in Figure 13.5 above. Are crocodiles more closely
related to lizards or birds?
13.6 Darwin proposed natural selection as the
mechanism of evolution
• Darwin’s greatest contribution to biology was his
explanation of how life evolves.
• Insights into how incremental change occurs could
be seen in examples of artificial selection.
• Darwin reasoned that if artificial selection can bring
about so much change in a relatively short period
of time, then natural selection could modify species
considerably over hundreds or thousands of
generations.

Figure 13.6
Fantail Frillback
Rock pigeon
Old Dutch Capuchine Trumpeter

Figure 13.6_1
Rock pigeon

Figure 13.6_2
Fantail

Figure 13.6_3
Frillback

Figure 13.6_4
Old Dutch Capuchine

Figure 13.6_5
Trumpeter

Figure 13.UN01
Observations
Heritable variations Overproduction
in individuals of offspring
Inferences
Individuals well-suited to the environment tend to leave more offspring
and
Over time, favorable traits accumulate in the population

13.6 Darwin proposed natural selection as the
mechanism of evolution
• It is important to emphasize three key points about
evolution by natural selection.
1. Although natural selection occurs through
interactions between individual organisms and the
environment, individuals do not evolve. Rather, it
is the population, the group of organisms, that
evolves over time.
2. Natural selection can amplify or diminish only
heritable traits.
3. Evolution is not goal directed; it does not lead to
perfectly adapted organisms.

13.7 Scientists can observe natural selection
in action
• Biologists have documented evolutionary change
in thousands of scientific studies.
• An unsettling example of natural selection in action
is the evolution of pesticide resistance in hundreds
of insect species.

Figure 13.7
Pesticide
application
Chromosome with
allele conferring
resistance to pesticide
Survivors
Additional applications of the
same pesticide will be less effective,
and the frequency of resistant
insects in the population will grow

Figure 13.7_1

13.7 Scientists can observe natural selection
in action
• These examples of evolutionary adaptation reveal
two important points about natural selection.
1. Natural selection is more of an editing process
than a creative mechanism.
2. Natural selection is contingent on time and place,
favoring those heritable traits in a varying
population that fit the current, local environment.
Checkpoint question In what sense is natural
selection more an editing process than a creative
process?

THE EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS

13.8 Mutation and sexual reproduction
produce the genetic variation that makes
evolution possible
• Organisms typically show individual variation.
• Mutations are the ultimate source of the genetic
variation that serves as raw material for evolution.
• In organisms that reproduce sexually, most of the
genetic variation in a population results from the
unique combination of alleles that each individual
inherits.

evolution possible
• Fresh assortments of existing alleles arise every
generation from three random components of
sexual reproduction:
1. crossing over,
2. independent orientation of homologous
chromosomes at metaphase I of meiosis, and
3. random fertilization.

evolution possible
Checkpoint question What is the ultimate (original)
source of genetic variation? What is the source of
most genetic variation in a population that
reproduces sexually?

Figure 13.8

Animation: Genetic Variation from Sexual
Recombination

13.9 Evolution occurs within populations
• A population is a group of individuals of the same
species that live in the same area and interbreed.
• A gene pool consists of all copies of every type of
allele, at every locus, in all members of the
population.
• Microevolution is a change in the frequencies of
alleles in a population’s gene pool and evolution
occurring on its smallest scale.
Checkpoint question Why can’t an individual
evolve?

Figure 13.9

13.10 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can test
whether a population is evolving
• The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that
allele and genotype frequencies will remain
constant if
• a population is large,
• mating is random, and
• there is no mutation, gene flow, or natural selection.
• The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test
whether evolution is occurring in a population.

• To test the Hardy-Weinberg principle, let’s look at
two generations of our imaginary iguana
population.
• Figure 13.10B shows the frequencies of alleles in
the gene pool of the original population.
• From these genotype frequencies, we can calculate
the frequency of each allele in the population.

Figure 13.10a
No webbing Webbing

Figure 13.10b
Phenotypes
Genotypes WW Ww ww
Number of animals 320 160 20
(total = 500)
Genotype frequencies 320
500 = 0.64
160
500 = 0.32 20
500
= 0.04
Number of alleles 640 W 160 W + 160 w 40 w

in gene pool
(total = 1,000)
800 200
Allele frequencies 1,000 = 0.8 W 1,000 = 0.2 w

• Figure 13.10C shows a Punnett square that uses
these gamete allele frequencies and the rule of
multiplication to calculate the frequencies of the
three genotypes in the next generation.
• Because the genotype frequencies are the same as
in the parent population, the allele frequencies p
and q are also the same.
• Thus, the gene pool of this population is in a state
of equilibrium—Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

Figure 13.10c
Gametes reflect allele Sperm

frequencies of parental W w
gene pool p = 0.8 q = 0.2
WW Ww
p2 = 0.64 pq = 0.16
W
p = 0.8
Eggs
wW ww
qp = 0.16 q2 = 0.04
w
q = 0.2
Next generation:
Genotype frequencies 0.64 WW 0.32 Ww 0.04 ww
Allele frequencies 0.8 W 0.2 w

13.11 CONNECTION: The Hardy-Weinberg
equation is useful in public health science
• Public health scientists use the Hardy-Weinberg
equation to estimate how many people carry
alleles for certain inherited diseases.
• One out of 10,000 babies born in the United States
has phenylketonuria (PKU), an inherited inability to
break down the amino acid phenylalanine.
• The health problems associated with PKU can be
prevented by strict adherence to a diet that limits
the intake of phenylalanine.

Figure 13.11
INGREDIENTS: SORBITOL,
MAGNESIUM STEARATE,
ARTIFICIAL FLAVOR,
ASPARTAME† (SWEETENER),
ARTIFICIAL COLOR
(YELLOW 5 LAKE, BLUE 1
LAKE), ZINC GLUCONATE.
†PHENYLKETONURICS:
CONTAINS PHENYLALANINE

MECHANISMS OF MICROEVOLUTION

13.12 Natural selection, genetic drift, and
gene flow can cause microevolution
• The 5 main causes of evolutionary change are
1. natural selection,
2. genetic drift, and
3. gene flow.
4. NonRandom Mating
5. Mutations.

13.12 Natural selection, genetic drift, and
gene flow can cause microevolution
• The bottleneck effect and founder effect lead to
genetic drift.
• The bottleneck effect leads to a loss of genetic
diversity when a population is greatly reduced.
• Genetic drift is also likely when a few individuals
colonize an island or other new habitat, producing
what is called the founder effect.
Checkpoint question How might gene flow
between populations living in different habitats
actually interfere with each population’s adaptation
to its local environment?
Figure 13.12a_1
Original
population

Figure 13.12a_2
Original Bottlenecking
population event

Figure 13.12a_3
Original Bottlenecking Surviving

population event population

Figure 13.12b

Animation: Causes of Evolutionary Change

13.13 Natural selection is the only
mechanism that consistently leads to
adaptive evolution
• Only natural selection consistently leads to
adaptive evolution—evolution that results in a
better fit between organisms and their
environment.
• Relative fitness is the contribution an individual
makes to the gene pool of the next generation
relative to the contributions of other individuals.
• As a result of natural selection, favorable traits
increase in a population.

13.13 Natural selection is the only
mechanism that consistently leads to
adaptive evolution
Checkpoint question Explain how the phrase
“survival of the fittest” differs from the biological
definition of relative fitness.

Figure 13.13

13.14 VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: Natural
selection can alter variation in a population in
three ways
• Natural selection can affect the distribution of
phenotypes in a population.
• Stabilizing selection favors intermediate
phenotypes.
• Directional selection shifts the overall makeup of
the population by acting against individuals at one
of the phenotypic extremes.
• Disruptive selection typically occurs when
environmental conditions vary in a way that favors
individuals at both ends of a phenotypic range over
individuals with intermediate phenotypes.
Figure 13.14
Distribution of phenotypes
in original population
of individuals
Frequency
Phenotypes (fur color)
Directional selection Stabilizing selection Disruptive selection

Original population
Selection
Evolved
pressure
population

Figure 13.14_1
Directional selection
Original population
Selection
Evolved
pressure
population
Cliff swallows
Original
20
Percentage of birds
population
Survived
15 cold
weather
10
0
Body size
Figure 13.14_2
Stabilizing selection
Human birth weight

25 100
Percentage of newborns
20 80
Mortality (%)
15 60
10 40
5 20
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1
Birth weight (lbs) 1
Figure 13.14_3
Disruptive selection
African black-bellied finches

Number of young birds
60 Survived
Did not survive
50
40
30
20
10
0
Width of lower beak (mm)

Checkpoint question What type of selection
probably resulted in the color variations evident in
the garter snakes seen above?
13.15 Sexual selection may lead to
phenotypic differences between males and
females
• Sexual selection is a form of natural selection in
which individuals with certain characteristics are
more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.
• Secondary sex characteristics can give individuals
an advantage in mating.

Figure 13.15a

females
• In some species, intrasexual selection occurs, in
which individuals compete directly with members of
the same sex for mates.
• In a more common type of sexual selection, called
intersexual selection (between sexes) or mate
choice, individuals of one sex (usually females) are
choosy in selecting their mates.

females
Checkpoint question Males with the most
elaborate ornamentation may garner the most
mates. How might choosing such a mate be
advantageous to a female?

Figure 13.15b

Figure 13.15c

13.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The
evolution of drug-resistant microorganisms
is a serious public health concern
• In the same way that pesticides select for resistant
insects, antibiotics select for resistant bacteria.
• We contribute to the problem of antibiotic
resistance when
• doctors overprescribe antibiotics,
• patients prematurely stop taking antibiotics, and
• livestock producers add antibiotics to animal feed
as a growth promoter and to prevent illness.

13.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The
evolution of drug-resistant microorganisms
is a serious public health concern
• In 2013, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
reported that drug-resistant microorganisms infect
more than 2 million people and cause 23,000
deaths in the United States each year.
• The CDC identified 15 microorganisms that pose
urgent or serious threats to public health.
Checkpoint question Explain why the following
statement is incorrect: “Antibiotics have created
resistant bacteria.”

Figure 13.16
Percent antibiotic Transmission

resistant cases route
Pneumonia
Bloodstream infection
Pathogen Disease Ear infection
SEX Food poisoning Food poisoning Food poisoning
Gonorrhea Meningitis
(campylobacteriosis) (salmonellosis) (shigellosis)
Neisseria gonorrhaea Streptococcus pneumoniae Campylobacter Salmonella Shigella

13.17 Diploidy and balancing selection
preserve genetic variation
• Diploidy preserves variation by “hiding” recessive
alleles.
• Balancing selection occurs when natural selection
maintains stable frequencies of two or more
phenotypic forms in a population.
• Heterozygote advantage is a type of balancing
selection in which heterozygous individuals have
greater reproductive success than either type of
homozygote, with the result that two or more alleles
for a gene are maintained in the population.

13.17 Diploidy and balancing selection
preserve genetic variation
Checkpoint question Why would natural selection
tend to reduce genetic variation more in
populations of haploid organisms than in
populations of diploid organisms?

Figure 13.17
Asia
Africa
Frequencies of the
sickle-cell allele
0–2.5%
2.5–5.0%
5.0–7.5%
7.5–10.0%
Areas with high 10.0–12.5%
incidence of
>12.5%
malaria
Adapted from A.C. Allison, Abnormal hemoglobins and
erythrovute enzyme-deficiency traits, Genetic variation in human
populations, G.A. Harrison, ed. Oxford, Elsevier Science (1961).
13.18 Natural selection cannot fashion
perfect organisms
• The evolution of organisms is constrained.
1. Selection can act only on existing variations. New,
advantageous alleles do not arise on demand.
2. Evolution is limited by historical constraints.
Evolution co-opts existing structures and adapts
them to new situations.
3. Adaptations are often compromises. The same
structure often performs many functions.
4. Chance, natural selection, and the environment
interact. Environments often change
unpredictably.

13.18 Natural selection cannot fashion
perfect organisms
Checkpoint question Humans owe much of their
physical versatility and athleticism to their flexible
limbs and joints. But we are prone to sprains, torn
ligaments, and dislocations. Why?

You should now be able to
1. Explain how Darwin’s voyage on the Beagle
influenced his thinking.
2. Explain why the concept of evolution is regarded
as a theory with great significance.
3. Explain how fossils form and why the fossil
record is incomplete.
4. Explain how homologies, the fossil record, and
molecular biology support evolution.
5. Explain how evolutionary trees are constructed
and used to represent ancestral relationships.

6. Describe Darwin’s observations and inferences
in developing the concept of natural selection.
7. Explain how the work of Thomas Malthus and
the process of artificial selection influenced
Darwin’s development of the idea of natural
selection.
8. Explain why individuals cannot evolve and why
evolution does not lead to perfectly adapted
organisms.
9. Describe two examples of natural selection
known to occur in nature.

10. Explain how mutation and sexual reproduction
produce genetic variation.
11. Explain why prokaryotes can evolve more
quickly than eukaryotes.
12. Describe the five conditions required for the
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
13. Explain why the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is
significant to understanding the evolution of
natural populations and to public health science.
14. Define genetic drift and gene flow. Explain how
the bottleneck effect and the founder effect
influence microevolution.
15. Distinguish between stabilizing selection,
directional selection, and disruptive selection.
Describe an example of each.
16. Define and compare intrasexual selection and
intersexual selection.
17. Explain how antibiotic resistance evolves.
18. Explain how genetic variation is maintained in
populations.
19. Explain why natural selection cannot produce
perfection.

Figure 13.0
UNIT III: Concepts of Evolution
Naturalist
Pesticide Researcher Filmmaker

Figure 13.0-1
Naturalist
Figure 13.0-2
Pesticide Researcher

Figure 13.0-3
Filmmaker

Figure 13.UN02
Dominant Heterozygotes Recessive

homozygotes homozygotes

Figure 13.UN03
Original Evolved Pressure of

population population natural selection
Stabilizing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection

Figure 13.UN04
Microevolution
is the
change in allele may result from

frequencies in a
population
(a) (b) (c)
random fluctuations due to

more likely in a movement of due to leads to
individuals adaptive
(d) (g)
or gametes evolution
may be result of of individuals
(e) (f) best adapted

to environment
Figure 13.UN05

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CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS, NINTH EDITION

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 13: Big Ideas

Darwin’s Theory of The Evolution of Populations Mechanisms of

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Darwin in 1840 HMS Beagle in

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Human Cat Whale Bat

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Chick embryo Human embryo

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• Today, biologists represent patterns of descent with

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Old Dutch Capuchine Trumpeter

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Old Dutch Capuchine

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Over time, favorable traits accumulate in the population

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