PSYCHOSEXUAL-THEORY
years old.
Sigmund Freud advanced a theory of personality
development focusing on the impact of the sexual
pleasure drive on the human psyche. Freud's
psychosexual theory states five stages of human
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital.
These psychosexual stages capture the main
growth points of a person from infancy to adulthood
and focus on different facets of wants, needs, and
desires. Specific times during the developing
process, he asserted that one body area is more
susceptible to romantic, sexual stimulation.
Erogenous zones include the mouth, anus, and
the genital area. The child's libido is focused on
conduct impacting the primary erogenous zone of
his age; he cannot focus on the primary erogenous
zone of the next stage without resolving the
developmental conflict of the current one.
THE ORAL STAGE
This stage begins at birth, when the oral cavity is
the primary focus of libidal energy. The child
preoccupies himself with nursing, with the
pleasure of sucking and accepting things into the
mouth.
The oral character who is frustrated at this stage,
whose mother refused to nurse him on demand or
who truncated nursing sessions early, is
characterized by pessimism, envy, suspicion and
sarcasm.
The overindulged oral character, whose nursing
urges were always, and often excessively satisfied,
is optimistic, gullible, and is full of admiration for
others around him.
The stage culminates in the fundamental conflict of
weaning, which deprives the child of both the
sensual joys of nursing and the psychological
pleasure of being cared for, mothered, and held.
The stage lasts approximately one and one-half
years.
A child at a specific developmental stage has
specific requirements, such as the infant's need to
nurse. When these requirements are not met,
frustration sets in; when these needs are met to an
excessive level, the kid becomes hesitant to go on
to the next stage, which leads to overindulgence.
Both irritation and overindulgence cause a fixation
because they both permanently lock a portion of
the child's libido into the stage in which they take
place. Little libido remains engaged in each stage
of development if a child moves through the stages
normally, settling each dispute and moving on.
However, if he becomes fixated on a certain stage,
the way that stage was satisfied will take over and
have an impact on his adult personality.
THE ANAL STAGE
The child enters the anal stage at one and one-half
The child meets the conflict between the parent's
demands and the child's desires and physical
capabilities in one of two ways: Either he puts up a
fight or he simply refuses to go.
The child who wants to fight takes pleasure in
excreting maliciously will result in the formation of
an anal expulsive character. (This character is
generally messy, disorganized, reckless, careless,
and defiant.)
Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby
spiting his parents while enjoying the pleasurable
pressure of the built-up feces on his intestine. If this
tactic succeeds and the child is overindulged, he
will develop into an
A child may develop into an anal retentive
character if the he/ she is overindulged. This
character is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy,
withholding, obstinate, meticulous, and passive-
aggressive. The resolution of the anal stage, proper
toilet training, permanently affects the individual
propensities to possession and attitudes towards
authority.
This stage lasts from one and one-half to two years
THE PHALLIC STAGE
The Phallic Stage is the setting for the greatest,
most crucial sexual conflict in Freud's model of
development.
In this stage, the child's erogenous zone is the
genital region
As the child becomes more interested in his
genitals, and in the genitals of others, conflict
arises.
The Oedipus complex (The Electra complex in
women), involves the child's unconscious desire to
possess the opposite-sexed parent and to eliminate
the same-sexed one.
In the young male, the Oedipus conflict stems from
his natural love for his mother, a love which
becomes sexual as his libidal energy transfers from
the anal region to his genitals. Unfortunately for the
boy, his father stands in the way of this love. The
boy therefore feels aggression and envy towards
this rival, his father, and also feels fear that the
father will strike back at him.
As the boy has noticed that women, his mother in
particular, have no penises, he is struck by a great
fear that his father will remove his penis, too. The
anxiety is aggravated by the threats and discipline
he incurs when caught masturbating by his parents.
This castration anxiety outstrips his desire for his
mother, so he represses the desire.
Moreover, although the boy sees that though he
cannot posses his mother, because his father does,
he can posses her vicariously by identifying with his
father and becoming as much like him as possible:
this identification indoctrinates the boy into his
appropriate sexual role in life. A lasting trace of the
oedipal conflict is the superego, the voice of the
father within the boy. By thus resolving his
incestuous conundrum, the boy passes into the
latency period, a period of libidal dormancy.
On the Electra complex, Freud was more vague.
The complex has its roots in the little girl's
discovery that she, along with her mother and all
other women, lack the penis which her father and
other men posses. Her love for her father then
becomes both erotic and envious, as she yearns for
a penis of her own.
She comes to blame her mother for her perceived
castration, and is struck by penis envy, the
apparent counterpart to the boy's castration
anxiety. The resolution of the Electra complex is far
less clear-cut than the resolution of the Oedipus
complex is in males; Freud stated that the
resolution comes much later and is never truly
complete.
Just as the boy learned his sexual role by
identifying with his father, so the girl learns her role
by identifying with her mother in an attempt to
posses her father vicariously. At the eventual
resolution of the conflict, the girl passes into the
latency period, though Freud implies that she
always remains slightly fixated at the phallic stage.
Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic
character, who is reckless, resolute, self-
assured, and narcissistic--excessively vain and
proud. The failure to resolve the conflict can also
cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close
love; Freud also postulated that fixation could be a
root cause of homosexuality
LATENCY PERIOD
The resolution of the phallic stage leads to the
latency period, which is not a psychosexual stage
of development a period in which the sexual drive
lies dormant unparalleled repression of sexual
desires and erogenous impulses
During the latency period, children pour this
repressed libidal energy into asexual pursuits such
as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships.
But as soon puberty strikes, and the genitals once
again become a central focus of libidal energy
GENITAL STAGE
The child's energy once again focuses on his
genitals, interest turns to heterosexual relationships
The less energy the child has left invested in
unresolved psychosexual developments, the
greater his capacity will be to develop normal
relationships with the opposite sex
If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the
phallic stage, his development will be troubled as
he struggles with further repression and defenses
KEY TERMS:
1. Erogenous -(of a part of the body) sensitive to
sexual stimulation.
2. Fixation - is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved,
the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A
person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example,
may be over-dependent on others and may seek
oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.
3. Overindulged - gratify the wishes of (someone)
to an excessive extent.
4. Id - This aspect of personality is entirely
unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive
behaviors. It is driven by the pleasure principle,
which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not
satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety
or tension.
5. Ego - According to Freud, the ego develops from
the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can
be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real
world. The ego functions in the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious mind.
6. Superego- According to Freud, the superego
begins to emerge at around age five. The superego
holds the internalized moral standards and ideals
that we acquire from our parents and society (our
sense of right and wrong).
7. Penis Envy parallel to womb envy, girls
experience anxiety (feeling of castration) upon
realization that they do not have a penis. (Sigmund
Freud)
8. Womb Envy (Karen Horney) denotes the envy
that men feel of the biological functions of the
female (pregnancy, child birth, and breastfeeding).
FEW FACTS ABOUT ERIK ERIKSON
•Erikson was born in Frankfrut, Germany on June
15, 1902.
•He was an artist and a teacher before becoming a
developmental psychologist.
•He was a good friend of Anna Freud – daughter of
Sigmund Freud, the proponent of Psychosexual
Development Theory.
OVERVIEW OF ERIKSON’S THEORY OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
This theory is an extension of Sigmund Freud’s
Theory of Psychosexual Development.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
identifies 8 stages in which a healthy person should
pass through from birth to death.
During each stage, the person experiences a
psychosocial crisis or conflict that could positively
or negatively affect personality development, and
as a result, they develop a personality trait, a skill,
and a virtue.
To put it in simple terms, his theory shows how
social experiences play a role in the development
and growth of an individual.
STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST
Infancy(Ages 0-1)
This stage sets our perception of the world.
As infants we ask ourselves "can we trust the
world?
We learn that if we can trust someone now, then
we can trust others in the future. However, if our
caregivers are inconsistent we may feel discomfort
or distress. The negative experience can lead to a
sense of mistrust in their environment and
caregivers.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope.
By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have
hope that as new crises arise, there is a real
possibility that other people will be there as a
source of support.
The important event in this stage is feeding.
STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT
Early Childhood(Ages 2-4)
Children at this stage are focused on developing a
sense of personal control over physical skills and a
sense of independence.
If we are encouraged and allowed to do things on
our own, then we develop confidence. But if we are
not, and if our caregivers are overly controlling,
then we may begin to feel ashamed of their
autonomy and doubt their abilities.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If
children in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in their own
ability to survive in the world.
The important event in this stage is toilet training.
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
Play Age(Ages 3-6)
In preschool we start to take initiative, try out new
things and learn basic principles.
We ask: "Is it okay for me to do what I do?"
If we are encouraged to take initiative, we can start
planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face
challenges. If we are held back, we may feel guilty
about our desires and initiatives.
The balance between initiative and guilt during this
stage can help children understand that it’s
acceptable to take charge and make their own
decisions, but there will also be times when they
must follow the rules or guidelines set by others.
Successfully navigating this stage develops the
virtue of purpose.
The important event in this stage is independence.
STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
School Age(Ages 6-12)
In this stage, children start to compare themselves
with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth. If
we receive recognition from out teachers and our
peers we become industrious which is the other
term for hardworking. But if we get too much
negative feedback we start to feel inferior and lose
motivation.
Success leads to the virtue of competence, while
failure results in feelings of inferiority.
The important event in this stage is school.
STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
Adolescence (12-18 years old)
Adolescents go through a period of intense self-
exploration during which they search for a sense of
self and personal identity. Children are growing
more independent and considering their future in
terms of careers, relationships, families, and
housing, among other things. The person aspires to
fit in and be a part of society.
If adolescents are encouraged to explore new roles
and allowed to do so, they are more likely to
complete this period with a strong sense of self and
a sense of independence and control. They will
also acquire the virtue of fidelity.
If adolescents are constrained, given no room to
explore, or find the process to be too stressful or
burdensome, they may become confused about
their roles. They will likely develop these traits: role
confusion/identity crisis, feeling unsure of their
roles, and uncertainty about their future.
The important events in this stage are social
relationships.

STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
Young Adulthood (18-40 years old)
The primary source of conflict throughout this
phase is developing close, loving bonds with
others. In this stage, we start to share ourselves
more intimately with other people. With someone
who is not a relative, we explore connections that
could lead to longer-term commitments.
Those who make it through this stage are capable
of developing close, mutually beneficial
connections with others and have a sense of
commitment, safety, and care. The individual will
also acquire the virtue of love.
If individuals have trouble building these deep
relationships, perhaps as a result of prior identity
problems that haven’t been resolved or a fear of
being rejected, they may feel isolated and lonely,
will develop a sense of disconnection and
estrangement, and sometimes can lead to
depression.
The important events in this stage are relationships
(romantic/platonic).
STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
Middle Adulthood (40-65 years old)
People concentrate more on creating their lives at
this time, particularly through their employment,
families, and contributions to society. People often
feel a need to start or nurture things that will outlive
them, often through mentoring others or making
changes that would help others. Through
generativity, we gain a sense of our place in the
larger scheme of things.
If people believe they are making a meaningful
difference in the world, whether it is through raising
their children or bringing about constructive social
change, a sense of generativity/contribution to the
world and feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment can be experienced by them. The
individual will also acquire the virtue of care.
If people believe they are not contributing in a
meaningful way or if they are not engaged in
productive or innovative activities, they may
become stagnant/unproductive, have shallow
involvement in the world, and have feelings of
disconnection and restlessness.
The important events in this stage are work and
parenthood. People frequently give their careers a
lot of attention. Adults who engage in meaningful
employment feel more productive and like they are
making a difference in the world. Meanwhile,
fostering the next generation, directing their
development, and instilling their ideals can give
adults a sense of generativity. Adults often feel like
they’re shaping the future through parenthood.
STAGE 8: EGO INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR
Maturity (65 years old – death)
This is the time when we evaluate our
accomplishments and, if we feel we are living a
successful life, we can build integrity. This stage
entails looking back on one’s life and either feeling
content and happy with it or experiencing a great
deal of regret. As we get older and become senior
citizens, we tend to slow down and enjoy
retirement.
If individuals believe they have led a meaningful
and fulfilling life, they will have ego integrity, sense
of closure and completeness, and the virtue of
wisdom.
On the other hand, people may suffer despair if
they feel remorse about the past, think they have
made bad judgments, or think they haven’t
succeeded in achieving their life goals. They will
also develop bitterness, depression, hopelessness,
and feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.
The important event in this stage is reflection on
life.
I. Jean Piaget
EARLY LIFE
Jean William Fritz Piaget is a Swiss psychologist
known for his work on child development
Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland on August 9,
1896, and began showing an interest in the natural
sciences at a very early age.
Piaget continued to study the natural sciences and
received his doctorate in zoology from the
University of Neuchâtel in 1918.
1920s he began to move toward work as a
psychologist.
PERSONAL LIFE
Piaget married Valentine Chatenay in 1923 and the
couple went on to have three children.
His observations of his own children served as the
basis for many of his later theories.
LATER YEARS
In 1925, Piaget returned to the University of
Neuchâtel as a professor of psychology, sociology,
and philosophy.
From 1929 to 1967, he served as the Director of
the International Bureau of Education in Geneva.
He also taught at the University of Geneva.
Piaget founded the International Center for Genetic
Epistemology in 1955. He died in 1980 and was
buried in Geneva.
II. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
This theory deals with the nature of knowledge and
how humans come to acquire, construct, and use it.
This is also referred to as Piaget’s developmental
stage theory.
In the 1920s, Piaget was employed at Binet
Institute wherein his job was to develop French
versions of the English intelligence test questions.
While looking at the children’s answers, he was
fascinated how young children consistently gave
wrong answers to certain questions. He noticed
that children made mistakes that older children and
adults managed to avoid. This led him to a theory
that children’s cognitive processes are different
from adults.
Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of
assumptions about children’s intelligence:
ü Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in
quality rather than in quantity. This means that
children reason (think) differently from adults and
see the world in different ways.
Children actively build up their knowledge about the
world. They are not passive creatures waiting for
someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
The best way to understand children’s reasoning is
to see things from their point of view.
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive
development that children undergo and each stage
involves a different type of intelligence
III. Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage ( Birth to 2 years old)
During this earliest stage of cognitive development,
infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
sensory experiences and manipulating objects. (In
other words, infants and young children experience
the world and gain knowledge through their senses
and motor movements. Through trial and error,
children discover more about the world around
them.)
Major characteristics and developmental
changes during this stage:
Know the world through movements and
sensations
Learn about the world through basic actions such
as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
Learn that things continue to exist even when they
cannot be seen (object permanence)
Object permanence: Object permanence
describes a child's ability to know that objects
continue to exist even though they can no longer be
seen or heard. (Example: if you place a toy under a
blanket, the child who has achieved object
permanence knows it is there and can actively seek
it.)
Schema is both the category of knowledge as well
as the process of acquiring that knowledge. He
believed that people are constantly adapting to the
environment as they take in new information and
learn new things.
In assimilation, new information is incorporated
into pre-existing schemas.
In accommodation, existing schemas might be
altered or new schemas might be formed as a
person learns new information and has new
experiences.
Equilibration, As children progress through the
stages of cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation).
Preoperational Stage ( Ages 2 to 7 )
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but
still struggle with logic and taking the point of view
of other people. They also often struggle with
understanding the idea of constancy. (Children
become much more skilled at pretend play during
this stage of development, yet they continue to
think very concretely about the world around them.)
Major characteristics and developmental
changes during this stage:
Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words
and pictures to represent objects
Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others
Getting better with language and thinking, but still
tend to think in very concrete terms
Concrete Operational Stage ( Ages 7 to 11 )
During this stage, children also become less
egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete
operational stage also begin to understand that
their thoughts are unique to them and that not
everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts,
feelings, and opinions. (They become much more
adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might
view a situation.)
Major characteristics and developmental
changes during this stage:
Begin to think logically about concrete events
Begin to understand the concept of conservation;
that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is
equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but
still very concrete
Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle
Formal operational stage ( Ages 12 to up )
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an
increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract At this
point, adolescents and young adults become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the
world around them. (The ability to systematically
plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge
during this stage.)Mceod, S. PHD (2023)
Major characteristics and developmental
changes during this stage:
Begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
Begins to think more about moral, philosophical,
ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a
general principle to specific information
IV. Significance
Piaget’s theory helps us understand more about
children’s intellectual growth. By knowing this,
people, especially educators, will be able to
comprehend a child’s understanding of the world
and how their intellectual capacity is processing
and how it is developed.
Piaget’s theory helps us understand children’s
behaviors and their point of view of the world.
Extremely influenced the educational system in
developing policies and teaching practices, one
concrete example is the Plowden Report of (1967),
a review of UK government’s primary education
which lead to Piaget-associated recommendations:
Children should be given individual attention and it
should be realized that they need to be treated
differently.
Children should only be taught things that they are
capable of learning
Children mature at different rates and the teacher
needs to be aware of the stage of development of
each child so teaching can be tailored to their
individual needs.
About Daniel Goleman
Daniel Goleman is a scientific journalist, author
and psychologist who popularized the concept of
’emotional intelligence’, which was first coined in
1990 by Peter Salavoy and John Mayer in their
article “Emotional Intelligence”, published in the
journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.
He was born in Stockton, California, on March 7,
1946
a Ph.D. graduate in psychology from Harvard
University.
His 1995 book, Emotional Intelligence, lasted a
year and a half on The New York Times bestseller
list, with over 5,000,000 copies in print globally in
40 languages, and has been a big seller in many
countries.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to control
your own emotions as well as understand the
emotions of others.
Having a high level of emotional intelligence allows
you to empathize with others, communicate
effectively, and be both self and socially aware.
This was originally developed in 1998 with five
domains— self- awareness, self-management, self
motivation, empathy, social skills, and redesigned
in 2002 with four domains.
Self-awareness: Know your Emotions
Self-awareness is the ability to recognise and
understand your own thoughts, feelings, and
emotions, which can all affect your interactions with
others.
Example If you are a manager with low self-
awareness you may struggle to recognise and
understand your own emotions and thoughts, which
can lead to difficulty in regulating your behaviour
and making sound decisions.
If you are a manager with heightened self-
awareness you have the ability to recognise and
understand your own emotions and thoughts, and
how they impact your behaviour and decision-
making.
💡A Working Example of Low Self Awareness💡
Luka, a newly promoted manager in an office
environment, is helping his team complete their
day-to-day tasks. His actions are being interpreted
as micromanaging.
Luka senses the tension but hasn’t made the
mental jump from worker to manager. He doesn’t
realise his actions are detrimental to team
performance.
When Luka’s employees say: “Don’t worry, you’re
busy, I can do it”, he doesn’t hear the truth of the
statement – that his focus should be elsewhere –
and assumes they’re demotivated.
A solution: To gain more self-awareness as a new
manager, Luka could keep a self-reflective journal,
to help him process the situation. Or, he could use
the Eisenhower Matrix to help him prioritize and
delegate.
Self-regulation: Manage your Responses
The ability to manage disruptive emotions and
impulses, and to contemplate before you react.
People with high emotional intelligence can
exercise restraint and control when expressing their
emotions.
Calm in the face of adversity is not a natural
response or something you’re born with. The
emotional brain is far faster (and older) than the
rational frontal cortex. It sends us into fight or flight
mode whenever we need to defend ourselves, and
it can happen at innocuous and frustrating
moments.
What is Self-Regulation?
Self-regulation, also known as emotional
regulation, is the process of consciously managing
how we feel about certain emotions, thoughts,
events, experiences or behaviors. In other words,
self-regulation allows us to practice emotional
intelligence and allows us to not let our feelings
overwhelm us.
For example, practicing self-regulation can help us
stop and pause when we are upset at a friend or
family member, and not say something heated that
we may not mean in the moment. Self-regulation
can also include the practices of self-reflection, and
meditation, and allows us to understand the reason
behind negative emotional states like anxiety or
anger.
Those that are well-versed in self-regulation are
good at finding places to take a break from work,
physical activity, and emotionally charged
conversations in order to preserve their control over
how they feel. Strong emotional regulation typically
leads to better health outcomes and better
academic performance, so it is critical for educators
to provide students with guidance in these skills
early and often.
Conversely, low self-regulation (or poor self-
regulation) can lead to unhealthy behaviors, such
as fighting with friends, self-harm, or use of
substances as a coping mechanism for negative
emotions and thoughts. These types of behaviors
typically provide immediate emotional relief but
cause widespread harm in the long term, and can
be hard habits to reverse. Navigating self-regulation
can be challenging, so teachers and trusted adults
should be prepared with a set of tools to help
students work through their feelings and thoughts.
Social Awareness: Recognize others’ emotions
it means having an awareness and understanding
of the world around us..
our ability to accurately understand the emotions of
other people and empathize with them.
We are social creatures, and we live in a world
where relationships and social interactions play a
large part in a successful life.
This makes having the ability to understand the
emotions of others incredibly important.
If we lack social awareness, then it can cause our
lives to be much more difficult and full of friction.
Social awareness is all about taking the focus off
ourselves for a moment and beginning to think
about those around us. This can be very difficult to
do for some of us, especially if we are often
wrapped up in ourselves and consumed by our own
thoughts.
It requires suspension of selfishness and self-
absorbed thinking in order to accurately identify and
understand how those around us think and feel.
Why is Social Awareness Important?
We are social creatures, and we live in a world
where relationships and social interactions play a
large part in a successful life. This makes having
the ability to understand the emotions of others
incredibly important.
If we lack social awareness, then it can cause our
lives to be much more difficult and full of friction.
It’s not that social awareness all of a sudden will
make us a social butterfly, it simply means we will
relate to our fellow man or woman in a more
positive and meaningful way. We will have a better
time understanding their struggles and what makes
them joyful.
The ability to relate to others is significant in
creating rapport and building strong bonds.
Stronger Connections/Relationships
If you lack social awareness, it can be difficult to
form such relationships. However, if you learn to
master social awareness, you can build strong,
meaningful connections.
Conflict Management
Sometimes conflicts are necessary, especially
when a certain topic or concern needs to be worked
through. What social awareness provides is better
management when it comes to conflicts.
Increased Positivity
It’s no secret that a positive life is a better-lived life.
Anyone who used to sulk about and now lives more
upbeat and positive can attest that it is a much
better way to live (once you get over the initial
addiction to that negative feeling).
Less Discrimination
As we grow in social awareness, discrimination
towards other people will decline.
Whether this is discrimination based on culture,
race, class, or any other factor, being socially
aware helps to eliminate such thinking.
Understanding how another person thinks and feels
makes it incredibly difficult to discriminate and think
poorly of them. Once you get to know the inner-
workings of someone, you look less at their
external appearance and condition and view them
more for their internal beliefs and emotions.
Social skills: Recognize others’ emotions
To properly manage one's and others' emotions, to
connect, interact, and work with others.
Emotionally intelligent people can build trust with
other people and can quickly gain respect from the
people they meet.
The Multiple Intelligences
 The theory of Multiple Intelligences was
proposed by Howard Gardner, a Pennsylvanian
developmental psychologist, where he believed that
people have different ways of thinking and learning,
instead of only having to focus on one single
general intelligence. The theory of Multiple
Intelligences has nine (9) types of intelligence
namely visual-spatial intelligence, linguistic-verbal
intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence,
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence,
interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal
intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, and existential
intelligence.
Visual-Spatial intelligence is the ability of
the person to visualize and manipulate objects. The
potential career of people who have high visual-
spatial intelligence can be artist, architect, and
engineer.
Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence is the
ability to use words in writing, speaking, and
memorizing information. People who have high
linguistic-verbal intelligence can have a potential
career of becoming a writer or journalist, a
lawyer, and a teacher.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence is the
capacity of a person that can perform logical
reasoning, analyzing and problem-solving. The
potential career for people having a high logical-
mathematical intelligence can be computer
programmer, mathematician, accountant, engineer,
and scientist.
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence is the
ability related to body movements, performance
action, and physical control. People with high of
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can have a potential
career of becoming a dancer, an actor, a builder, or
a craftsperson.
Musical intelligence is the ability to
perceive sounds and to create music or composing
songs. People who have high musical intelligence
can have a chance of becoming a singer, a
composer, a musician, a music teacher, and a
conductor in a choir/orchestra.
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to
socialize, interact, and understanding people
around him/her. People who have high
interpersonal intelligence can have a potential
career of becoming a psychologist, a philosopher, a
counselor, a salesperson, and a politician.
Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the
ability to understand and reflect one’s emotional
state, feelings, and motivation. People with high
intrapersonal intelligence can have a potential
career of becoming a philosopher, a writer, a
theorist, and a scientist.
Naturalistic intelligence refers to the
ability to explore and take care the environment
and to create connection with the nature. The
potential career that is suitable for naturalistic
people can be biologist, conservationist, farmer,
and gardener.
Existential intelligence is the ability to
think a bigger picture and to handle deep questions
about life and human existence. People who have
high existential intelligence have a potential career
of becoming a philosopher, a theologian, a
pastor, and a pastoral counselor.
Reciprocating Influences
By Richard Q. Bell & Robert Cairns
Richard Q. Bell (1979)
American Psychologist
Focused on the mutually interactive effects of the
mother and child.
He says that even though most of the researchers
emphasized parent’s
influence on children, in reality, the interaction
between these two is reciprocal.
• Example:
The parent is nice to his/her children, they feel
good, it
creates a more positive impression in their minds.
In return, they feel obligated to be nice to their
parents in equal measure or more.
Robert Cairns (1998)
Points out the idea of bidirectionality does not
assume that parents and children exercise equal
influence over each other.
Bidirectional – capable of reacting or functioning
in two, opposite directions
Parents has the most control of their children and
children depends on them so they don’t have equal
influences
• Example:
Parents help kids with homework, but if kids really
like a
subject, it can make parents happy and encourage
them to help more.
Reciprocal Influence
It means that a child’s behavior is influenced by
others and others influence their behavior.
•Example:
If a child is showing bad behavior, the people
around the child will treat him/her negatively. This
may then make the child exhibit more bad behavior.
It acknowledges that parents not only shape their
children but are also influenced by their children's
characteristics and behaviors, and vice versa. This
concept highlights that parenting is not a one-way
process where parents solely dictate the direction
of the relationship, but rather a dynamic and mutual
exchange.
Law of Reciprocity
States that every positive action can get a positive
reaction.
In personal relationships, reciprocity plays a crucial
role in maintaining
social harmony and trust. When people consistently
reciprocate kindness and generosity, it fosters
goodwill and mutual support.
Family System Model by Salvador Minuchin
Life of Salvador Minuchin
Salvador Minuchin (October 13, 1921 – October
30, 2017) was a family therapist born and raised in
San Salvador, Entre Ríos, Argentina. He developed
structural family therapy, which addresses
problems within a family by charting the
relationships between family members, or between
subsets of family (Minuchin, 1974). The therapist
tries to disrupt dysfunctional relationships within the
family, and cause them to settle back into a
healthier pattern.
Family System Model
The family systems model is based on the
understanding that individuals within a family are
interconnected and that the family functions as a
whole system. This model emphasizes the
importance of examining the patterns of interaction
among family members and understanding how
these patterns contribute to the overall functioning
of the family.
Key Concepts of Family System Model
Structural Approach
Minuchin focused on the structure of the family
system, examining how family members interact
with each other and the patterns that emerge. He
believed that understanding and addressing these
patterns is crucial for achieving family harmony and
resolving issues.
The Structural approach, developed by
Salvador Minuchin, is a therapeutic approach
used in family therapy. It focuses on examining and
addressing the underlying structure of a family
system to promote healthy functioning and resolve
conflicts.
Example: In a family, the parents constantly argue
and struggle for control, while the children witness
and feel caught in the middle of their disputes. The
therapist using the structural approach would focus
on understanding the patterns of interaction and
power struggles within the family. They might
explore the rigid roles and boundaries between
family members that contribute to the conflict.
Through therapy, the therapist would aim to help
the family restructure these patterns and establish
more functional ways of relating to each other.
Boundaries
Boundaries define the limits and separateness
between family members and subsystems within
the family system. Healthy boundaries promote a
sense of individuality and mutual respect, while
blurred or rigid boundaries can lead to conflicts and
dysfunction.
In the Minuchin Family system Model, Boundaries
refers to the invisible lines that define the
differentiation and separation between individuals
and subsystems within the family.
Example: In a family, one parent may have
difficulties respecting the personal space and
privacy of their teenage child. The therapist would
work with the family to establish clearer and more
appropriate boundaries between parents and
children. They may help the parents understand the
importance of allowing their child some autonomy
and privacy while still maintaining an open and
supportive relationship.
Subsystems
Minuchin observed that families naturally form
subsystems within the larger family unit. These
subsystems can be between spouses, parents and
children, or siblings. He highlighted the significance
of maintaining balanced and functional subsystems
and how disruptions within them can affect the
overall family system.
Subsystems are smaller units that exist within the
larger family system. These subsystems can be
between spouses, parents and children, or siblings.
Each subsystem has its own unique dynamics,
roles, and boundaries. The therapist identifies and
evaluates the functioning of these subsystems to
understand how they contribute to the overall family
system. By addressing imbalances or disruptions
within subsystems, the therapist aims to restore
equilibrium and promote healthier interactions
between family members.
Example: In a family, a married couple often
excludes their teenage child from decisions and
discussions, leading the child to feel isolated and
left out. The therapist would explore the dynamics
of the spouse subsystem and the parent-child
subsystem, helping the couple recognize the
impact of their exclusion and encouraging them to
involve their child in appropriate decision-making
processes. Through therapy, the therapist would
aim to create a more balanced and inclusive family
system.
Coalitions
Minuchin recognized that family members form
alliances, known as coalitions, to gain power or
control within the family. He emphasized
understanding these alliances, as they can
contribute to dysfunctional dynamics and hinder
positive change. Minuchin aimed to help families
create healthier alliances or coalitions to promote
mutual support and growth.
Coalitions refer to alliances or partnerships formed
within the family system. These alliances may
involve family members aligning with each other to
gain power, control, or support. The therapist
identifies and addresses unhealthy coalitions that
perpetuate dysfunctional patterns within the family.
By helping family members recognize and modify
these alliances, the therapist aims to promote
healthier communication, collaboration, and
problem-solving within the family.
Example: In a family, two siblings are often pitted
against each other by one of the parents, who uses
them as allies in arguments with the other parent.
The therapist would help the family recognize the
unhealthy coalition that has formed and the ways in
which it perpetuates dysfunction within the family.
They would work towards fostering healthier
alliances and promoting cooperation and
collaboration among family members.
Symmetrical and Complementary Interactions
Minuchin categorized family interactions into two
types: symmetrical and complementary.
a. Symmetrical interactions occur when
family members compete for dominance or
control, contributing to power struggles.
b. Complementary interactions involve
different levels of power or authority within
family relationships. Minuchin aimed to help
families establish healthier patterns of
complementary interactions that support
cooperation and mutual respect.
Minuchin categorized family interactions as either
symmetrical or complementary. Symmetrical
interactions occur when family members engage
in competitive behaviors, vying for power,
control, or dominance within the relationship.
Complementary interactions, on the other hand,
involve a balance of power or authority, with each
member assuming different roles within the family
system. The therapist aims to shift symmetrical
interactions towards more complementary
interactions, fostering cooperative and respectful
relationships among family members.
Example: In a family, the parent-child relationship
is characterized by constant power struggles and
attempts to gain control. The therapist would
identify the symmetrical interactions in which both
parties compete for power and dominance. They
would encourage the family to shift towards more
complementary interactions, fostering a balance of
authority while promoting mutual respect,
understanding, and shared decision-making.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Urie Bronfrenbrenner
Short Background:
Who is Urie Bronfenbrenner?
 Urie Bronfenbrenner, born on April
29, 1917 and died on September 25,
2005, was a Russian-born
Psychologist and a professor of
human development who is best
known for having developed the
ecology theory or the Ecological
Systems Theory, in which he
believed that individuals are
developing through the interaction
and context of social relationships.
Brief Explanation about Ecology:
a. study of how humans and other
living organisms interact with the
physical environment around them.
Ecological System Theory:
- Bronfenbrenner's theory looks at a
child's development within the
context of the system of
relationships that form his/her
environment. This theory is
composed of complex layers of
environment, each having an effect
on a child's development. According
to him, a child is influenced by 5
ecological forces or environmental
systems. The Microsystem,
Mesosystem, Exosystem,
Macrosystem and Chronosystem.
The Microsystem - from the word "Micro" that
means small, the first layer of Bronfrenbrenner's
Ecological theory is closest to the child and
contains the factors that he/she received from
direct contact. The microsystem circumscribes the
relationships and interaction a child has with his
surroundings. Structures of this system include a
child's family, school, friends, neighborhood, and
childcare environments.
The Mesosystem - the mesosystem represents the
interconnection between the elements that
surround the child. The second layer provides the
connection between the structures from a child's
microsystem. Examples are the relationship or
connection between parents and teachers and
relationship between the Church and his
neighborhood.
The Exosystem - the exosystem defines a child's
larger social system in which he/she doesn't
function directly. This layer involves social links
between social settings that do not involve the
child. In other words, this consists of interaction
between some of the structures of the mesosystem.
Comprises under this system are the parents'
workplace, their boss, teacher with the principal,
mass media and organizations
The Macrosystem - the broad system which
encompasses the overall influence from the
different systems that surround the child. This layer
comprises the overarching culture, values and
norms that influences or interacts with the other
systems. Examples are culture, religion, social
norms, politics and society at large that can also
give an influence to a child's development.
The Chronosystem - outermost layer that
encompasses the dimensions of time who changes
everything in a course of one's life. This may also
include some of the events that may occur
throughout the entire cycle of a child's life.
Elements such as timing of a parent's death,
divorce, or maybe internal structures like
physiological changes of a child are some
examples that complete the exosystem.

On the concept of Nature Vs. Nurture:

Urie Bronfrenbrenner's Ecological System
Development Theory perfectly portrays the concept
of Nature Vs. Nurture in the field of psychology.
This theory determines how a child grows or
develops within the context of society. In answering
this long time debate in the field of psychology,
Bronfrenbrenner suggested that the contributions of
nature and nurture cannot be separated easily
because they are a part of a system that constantly
influences each other in affecting a child's development.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of

Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory emphasizes the
role of social interactions and cultural context in the
development of cognitive abilities and knowledge.
According to Vygotsky, children learn primarily
through social interactions with more
knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers,
and peers. The cultural context in which a child
grows up also shapes their learning experiences
and influences their cognitive development.
Some of the key concepts in Vygotsky’s socio-
cultural theory include:
In conclusion, Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
of Cognitive Development emphasizes the role of
social interaction and cultural context in shaping a
child’s cognitive development. Vygotsky proposed
that social learning precedes cognitive
development and that children actively construct
knowledge through interaction with more skilled
individuals, referred to as the “more knowledgeable
other.”
1. The concept of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD): suggests that learning occurs
within the range of abilities a child can perform with
guidance. The ZPD consists of tasks a learner
cannot accomplish without assistance, tasks a
learner can accomplish with assistance, and tasks
a learner can accomplish without assistance.
2. The “more knowledgeable other”: provides
temporary support or scaffolding to help the child
perform tasks within their ZPD.
3. Culture: serves as a mediator in cognitive
development, influencing the formation and
development of specific abilities.
Overall, Vygotsky’s theory highlights the
importance of social interaction, cultural tools,
and scaffolding in facilitating cognitive
development in children.
OTHER TERMS TO FAMILIARIZE:
a. ZONE OF ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT-
represents what the child can already
accomplish on his or her own, without the
assistance from more experienced others.
b. ZONE OF EVENTUAL DEVELOPMENT-
Represents what the child cannot yet accomplish,
even with the help of someone else.
Classical Conditioning
- also called Pavlovian conditioning, is learning
through association.
- type of unconscious or automatic learning that
was first studied in the late 19th century by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
-Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian
physiologist born on September 26, 1849, in
Ryazan, Russia.
What is Classical Conditioning Theory?
- According to Classical Conditioning Theory,
behaviors are acquired by associating a neutral
stimulus with a positive one, such as Pavlov’s dogs
hearing a bell (neutral) and anticipating food
(positive). In classical conditioning, two stimuli are
associated together to produce a learned response.
[4] There are three basic stages of this process.
The most famous example of classical conditioning
was Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with dogs, who
began salivating at the sound of a bell. Pavlov
showed that when a bell was rung every time the
dog was fed, the dog learned to link the sound with
the food’s arrival. He first presented the dogs with
the sound of a bell; they did not salivate, making it
a neutral stimulus. Then he presented them with
food, resulting in salivation. The food was an
unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an
unconditioned (innate) response.
Subsequently, he repeated the process by
sounding the bell first, followed by the food
(pairing), and after several repetitions, the dogs
started salivating upon hearing the bell. At this
point, the bell had transformed into the conditioned
stimulus, and salivation had become the
conditioned response.
3 Stages in Classical Conditioning
1. Before Conditioning
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus generates
an unconditioned response. The response is
natural and in this stage, no new behavior has been
learned yet. Additionally, a neutral stimulus exists
at this time and has no effect as of yet.
•As an illustration, if you smell one of your preferred
dishes, you might instantly experience hunger. In
this case, the food’s smell serves as the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. During Conditioning
During this stage, the previously neutral stimulus
is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned
stimulus. This stage involves repeatedly pairing a
neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Eventually, the neutral stimulus becomes the
conditioned stimulus.
•In the previous scenario, let’s imagine that when
you smell one of your favorite meal, you also heard
a whistle’s sound. Even though the whistle has no
direct connection to the food’s smell, if the whistle
was paired multiple times with the smell, the whistle
sound would eventually trigger the conditioned
response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is
the conditioned stimulus.
3. After Conditioning
The conditioned stimulus in association with
unconditioned stimulus creates a new conditioned
response. The conditioned response is the
acquired reaction to a previously neutral stimulus.
• In the previous case, the conditioned response
would be experiencing hunger upon hearing the
whistle’s sound.
There are several terms to remember to further
understand classical conditioning. These are the
following:
•Unconditioned Stimulus – is a stimulus that
causes an automatic response. For example, if
feeling a cold breeze causes you to shiver, the cold
breeze is an unconditioned stimulus because it
triggers an involuntary response (shivering). Food
is the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s dog
experiment.
•Unconditioned Response – an automatic or
naturally occurring response that follows the
unconditioned stimulus. For instance, if the scent of
your favorite food makes your mouth water
uncontrollably, this salivation is considered an
unconditioned response.
•Conditioned Stimulus – a stimulus that was
originally neutral and didn’t provoke a response but
now elicits one. When it’s repeatedly presented
prior to the unconditioned stimulus (like food), it will
eventually elicit the same response. The bell that
precedes the food becomes the conditioned
stimulus.
•Conditioned Response – this is the acquired
response to the conditioned stimulus (the bell),
which frequently mirrors the same response as the
unconditioned response. Therefore, the dogs
salivated in response to the bell in the same
manner they did for the food placed before them.
•Neutral Stimulus – a stimulus that doesn’t initially
trigger a response by itself. For instance, if you
hear the sound of a fan but don’t feel the breeze, it
doesn’t evoke an immediate reaction, making it a
neutral stimulus.
•Acquisition – stage of learning process, where a
response is initially formed and steadily
established. In classical conditioning’s acquisition
phase, a neutral stimulus is repetitively associated
with an unconditioned stimulus.
•Extinction – this happens when the conditioned
stimulus is repeatedly introduced without the
unconditioned stimulus. Gradually, there will be a
decrease in the response. For instance, if the bell is
repeatedly rung without providing food, the dog
would unlearn their conditioning that the bell means
food is coming.
•Spontaneous Recovery – the increase in
responding to the CS following a pause after
extinction. For example, if you taught a dog to
salivate to the sound of a bell, then you stop
reinforcing the behavior and the response becomes
extinct. After a rest period during whichh the
conditioned stimulus is not presented, you ring the
bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the
previously learned response.
•Generalization – this refers to the ability to apply
the same response to similar things. For example,
dogs began salivating at sounds similar to bells
because they were generalizing what they learned.
•Discrimination – the opposite of generalization.
This is the capacity to distinguish when something
is similar but not exactly the same, preventing it
from producing the same response. For example, a
horn sound would not trigger salivation in the dogs.
Operant Conditioning
(Burrhus Frederic "B.F." Skinner)
B.F. Skinner
 Full name is Burrhus Frederic Skinner
 He was an American psychologist,
behaviorist, author, inventor, and social
philosopher.
 He is also known as the father of
Behaviorism
 Skinner believed that it was not really
necessary to look at internal thoughts and
motivations in order to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only
at the external, observable causes of
human behavior.
Operant Conditioning
 it is the method of learning that uses
rewards and punishment to modify behavior
 first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner,
which is why you may occasionally hear it
referred to as Skinnerian Conditioning.
 This theory of Skinner is heavily influenced
by the work of psychologist Edward
Thorndike, who had proposed what he
called the Law of Effect.
Skinner Box or also known as Operant
Conditioning Chamber
 is a controlled environment used to study
how animals learn through consequences. It
helps understand operant conditioning,
where behaviors are influenced by rewards
or punishments, affecting the likelihood of
those behaviors happening again.
Components of Operant Conditioning
 Reinforcement - it refers to the situation or
an event that strengthens or increases the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcers.
1. Positive Reinforcers - pertains to
the favorable events or outcomes
that are presented after the
behavior.
 For instance, giving praises
or rewards after showing a
sense of obedience.
2. Negative Reinforcers - pertains to
the removal of unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a
behavior.
 For instance, a parent giving
a treat to a child throwing
tantrums.
While the positive reinforcers add or do something
pleasant to encourage a behaviour, negative
reinforcers remove something unpleasant to
encourage a behavior.
 Punishment - it refers to the presentation of
an adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of punishment.
3. Positive Punishment - sometimes referred
to as punishment by application. It pertains
to the presentation of an unfavorable event
or outcome in order to weaken the response
it follows.
 For instance, spanking due
to misbehavior.
4. Negative Punishment - also known
as punishment by removal. It
pertains to the removal of a
favorable event after a certain
behavior occurs, leading to a
decrease in the likelihood of such
behaviors being repeated.
 For instance, confiscating a
child's phone after getting a
low score in its exams as a
result of constantly playing
mobile games.
While negative punishment removes something
desirable to decrease a behavior. The positive
punishment adds or does something unpleasant to
decrease a behavior.
 Extinction - refers to the gradual fading or
elimination of a learned behavior when the
reinforcement or reward is no longer
provided after the behavior.
 For instance, stopped giving treats
to a child throwing tantrums.
Reinforcement Schedules
 Continuous Reinforcement - This
schedule reinforces the desired behavior
every time it occurs. It leads to rapid
learning but can also result in quicker
extinction when the reinforcement stops.
 For instance, each correct answer in
a classroom is immediately praised.
 Interval Schedules - it rewards behavior
after a given amount of time has passed
since the previous instance of the behavior.
There are two types of interval schedules.
1. Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule -
Reinforcement is provided after a
specific time interval.
 For instance, the weekly
quizzes in a classroom that
students prepare for regularly
 2. Variable Interval (VI) Schedule -
Reinforcement is given after an
unpredictable time interval.
 For instance, surprise
quizzes given by the
professor.
 Ratio Schedules - requires a certain
number of repetitions of the behavior before
receiving the reward. There are two types of
ratio schedules.
1. Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule -
Reinforcement is delivered after a
fixed number of responses.
 For instance, a student
earning a sticker or small
prize after completing every
five math problems correctly.
2. Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule - ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM
Reinforcement is given after an
unpredictable time interval.
 For instance, students earn a
reward after participating in
oral recitation given at
irregular intervals.
WATSON’S THEORY OF BEHAVIORISM
Who is John B. Watson?
John B. Watson or John Broadus Watson was
born on January 9, 1878, in Travelers Rest, South
Carolina. He was an American psychologist and
professor at John Hopkins University. He is known
for establishing the psychological theory of
behaviorism. Because of his tumultuous upbringing
and experiences with poverty, Watson's life was
motivated to improve his status. He had been a
poor student up until this point, but his mother had
formed a few connections in Greenville and was
able to help him gain admission to Furman
University and finished his education in University
of Chicago where he began developing what would
eventually become his own theory of behaviorism.
Behaviorism states that behaviors can be
measured, trained, and changed. All behaviors are
acquired through conditioning, which occurs
through interactions in the environment. According
to behaviorism, behavior can be examined in a
systematic and observable manner with no
consideration of internal mental states. Behaviors
can be measured and trained by using punishment
and reinforcement. These are ways that people will
either decrease a non-desired behavior or increase
a desired behavior.
Conditioning in behavioral psychology is a theory
that the reaction ("response") to an object or event
(stimulus") by a person or animal can be modified
by 'learning', or conditioning.
2 Types of Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is a technique used in
behavioral training in which a naturally occurring
stimulus is paired with a response.
Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that
occurs through reinforcements and punishments for
behaviour response.
Reinforcements is used in operant conditioning to
refer to anything that increases the likelihood that a
response will occur
Punishment is used in operant conditioning to
refer to any change that occurs after a behavior
that reduces the likelihood that that behavior will
occur again in the future.
Key Principles
1. Behavior is observable and measurable.
2. Environment shapes behavior.
3. Learning is a process of conditioning
4. Behavior can be predicted and controlled.
1.Behavior is the result of environmental factors
CONTRIBUTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM
1. Emphasis on emperical methods
2. Development of behavior therapy
3. Understanding of learning and conditioning
4. Influence on other schools of psychology.
Critiques of Watson's Theory of Behaviorism
1. Oversimplifies human behavior
2. Ignores the role of genetics and biology in
shaping behavior
3. Fails to account for the complexity of human
motivation.
4. Overly deterministic
John B. Watson is well known for saying that, given
a dozen healthy children, he could turn them into
anything: physicians, attorneys, artists, beggars, or
thieves, regardless of their background or genetic
predispositions. He tested his hypothesis on 8-
month- old Albert first, and then he applied his
theory when raising his own children.
John Watson conducted the first experiment of
its kind, which is still regarded as controversial
today. Although it was unethical to use a child in a
psychological experiment, Watson was determined
to adhere to the same rules that Pavlov used to
train dogs. In his trials, Pavlov trained dogs to react
to the sound of a bell and associate it with food.
The dogs would drool every time they heard the
bell, demonstrating that they had been trained to
anticipate food.
John Watson conducted the first experiment of its
kind, which is still regarded as controversial today.
Although it was unethical to use a child in a
psychological experiment, Watson was determined
to adhere to the same rules that Pavlov used to
train dogs. In his trials, Pavlov trained dogs to react
to the sound of a bell and associate it with food.
The dogs would drool every time they heard the
bell, demonstrating that they had been trained to
anticipate food.
 Watson trained a baby to be terrified of a lab rat
through the technique of classical conditioning in
the "Little Albert" experiment. Pavlov previously
showed how genetically inherited physiologic
responses might be evoked by conditioning.
Watson postulated that, in addition to inheriting new
behaviors, we may also teach them.
In order to carry out the experiment, Watson and
Rosalie Rayner, his assistant, put the child in a
room with a free-ranging white rat. The child did not
appear afraid at first. Afterwards, Rayner used a
hammer to hit a steel bar, frightening Albert and
making him scream each time he reached out to
touch the rat. After a while, Albert made an attempt
to flee from the rat, demonstrating that he had
developed a phobia of it. After a few weeks, Albert
began to react negatively to everything furry,
demonstrating that his training had not only been
sustained but also generalized.
Watson assumed that human conduct is either a
stimulus-evoked reflex or the result of our unique
past experiences with rewards and punishments
combined with our current motivational states and
stimuli.
"The Psychological Care of Infant and Child" was
published by Watson. He counseled parents in his
book to avoid spoiling their kids by keeping
emotional distance from them and avoiding
excessive physical contact. He cautioned that
playing with kids might break their routines. A
contented child doesn't scream or ask for favors.
Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory
Edward Thorndike
 American psychologist and educational
theorist
 Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts
 His groundbreaking work in psychology and
education shaped the landscape of learning
theory
Connectionism Theory
 Learning is achieved when an individual is
able to form associations between a
particular stimulus and a response. These
are known as “habits”, and can either be
encouraged or deterred by external
parameters and the frequency an individual
is exposed to the stimulus and the
response.
 Highlights the importance of rewards and
emphasize on the necessity of practice and
repetition.
Thorndike’s Learning Laws
LAW OF EFFECT
 An individual's response to a specific
situation followed by a reward will eventually
make those responses stronger. Therefore,
the responses become habits when the
individual is presented with that particular
situation again. Additionally, if a response
deters an individual from achieving a
reward, or a “rewarding state”, then this
response becomes weaker.
LAW OF READINESS
 A series or a set of responses can be linked
together in order to achieve a goal. If the
person is prevented from achieving this
goal, this will cause “annoyance”.
LAW OF EXERCISE
 Frequently made associations become
strengthened. Likewise, rare or sporadic
associations become weaker.
Thorndike’s Learning Theory
MULTIPLE RESPONSES
 In any given situation, an individual might
react in a variety of ways if the initial
reaction does not immediately lead to a
satisfying result.
SET OF ATTITUDES
 Individuals are inclined to react in a
particular way. These reactions are unique
for species or groups of related species.
PREPOTENCY OF ELEMENTS
 Individuals are able to filter out any
irrelevant aspects of a particular situation
and respond only to significant parameters
that directly affect this situation.
RESPONSE BY ANALOGY
 Reactions from a previously experienced
situation might be transferred to a new one.
This is also called Theory of Identical
Elements.
ASSOCIATIVE SHIFTING
 Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus
might shift to a different one.
PUZZLE BOX EXPIREMENTS
 Thorndike designed the puzzle box, a
confined space with a mechanism that could
be manipulated by a cat to escape. Through
these experiments, Thorndike observed the
gradual learning process of the cats. The
Law of Effect was evident as the cats'
escape responses became more efficient
over time, showcasing the strengthening of
connections between stimuli and responses.
TRIAL-AND-ERROR LEARNING
 Thorndike's emphasis on trial-and-error
learning underscored the idea that learning
is a gradual process involving repeated
attempts and associations between stimuli
and responses. This concept was pivotal in
shaping his understanding of how
organisms learn from their experiences.
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
Edward Tolman
Edward Chace Tolman
 is an American psychologist
 born on April 14, 1886 and died on
November 19, 1959
 famous for his studies of learning in rats
using mazes and his book Purposive
Behavior in Animals and Men
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
 It is a cognitive learning theory that states
that behavioral activities have an underlying
purpose. It states that all goals of the action
guide the behavior until the goal is met.
 Also referred to as sign learning theory
  Explanation: Purposive
Behaviourism has also been referred
to as sign learning theory and is
often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman believed that learning is a
cognitive process. Learning involves
forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment
and then revealing that knowledge
through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior. Tolman’s goal was to
identify the complex cognitive
mechanisms and purposes that
guided the behavior.
 Tolman stated in his sign theory that
an organism learns by pursuing
signs to a goal, i.e., learning is
acquired through meaningful
behavior. He stressed the organized
aspect of learning: “The stimuli
which are allowed by in are not
connected by just simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing responses.
Rather the incoming impulses are
usually worked over and elaborated
in the central control room into a
tentative cognitive-like map of the
environment. And it is this tentative
map, indicating routes and paths
and environmental relationships,
which finally determine what
responses, if any, the animal will
finally make.”
Tolman's Key Concepts
1. Goal directedness
2. Cognitive maps
3. Latent Learning
4. Intervening Variables
5. Reinforcement is not essential for learning
GOAL DIRECTEDNESS
 Learning is always purposive and goal-
directed.
 An organism acts or responds for some
adaptive purpose.
 Individuals do more than merely respond to
stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, and
changing conditions, and they strive toward
goals.
 Explanation: Tolman asserted that
learning is always purposive and
goal-directed. He held the notion
that an organism acted or responded
for some adaptive purpose. He
believed individuals do more than
merely respond to stimuli; they act
on beliefs, attitudes, and changing
conditions, and they strive toward
goals. Tolman saw behavior as
holistic, purposive, and cognitive.
COGNITIVE MAPS
 This is the tendency to “learn location”.
 An organism will select the shortest or
easiest path to achieve a goal.
 Tolman has a famous experiment about rat
mazes.
 Explanation: In his most famous
experiment, one group of rats was
placed at random starting locations
in the maze but the food was always
on the same location. Another group
of rats had food placed in different
locations which always required
exactly the same pattern of turns
from their starting location. The
group that had the food in the same
location performed much better than
the other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned
the location rather than a specific
sequence of turns. This tendency to
“learn location” signified that rats
somehow formed cognitive maps
that helped them perform well in the
maze. He also found out that
organisms will select the shortest or
easiest path to achieve a goal.
 An example is: since a student
passes by the same route going to
school every day, he requires a
cognitive map of the location of his
school. So when transformation re-
routing is done, he can still figure out
what turns to make to get to school
the shortest or easiest way.
LATENT LEARNING
 A kind of learning that remains or stays
within an individual until needed.
 It is a learning that is not outwardly
manifested at once.
 According to Tolman, it can exist even
without reinforcement.
 Explanation: refers to the hidden or
latent acquisition of knowledge that
becomes apparent only when there
is an incentive or motivation to
demonstrate it. Tolman conducted
experiments with rats in mazes, and
he observed that rats seemed to
learn about the layout of the maze
even without immediate
reinforcement. The learning
remained latent until a reward or
motivation was introduced, at which
point the rats displayed their
previously acquired knowledge. This
concept challenged behaviorist
theories at the time and emphasized
the importance of cognitive
processes in learning.
 Edward Tolman's concept of latent
learning refers to the idea that
learning can occur without
immediate reinforcement and may
not be immediately expressed in
behavior. In his experiments with
rats, Tolman observed that rats in a
maze seemed to learn about the
layout of the maze even when there
was no apparent reinforcement,
such as food.
Latent learning suggests that
organisms can acquire knowledge
about their environment even in the
 absence of reinforcement or a direct
incentive. The learning remains
"latent" or hidden until a situation
arises where the acquired
knowledge becomes useful or is
reinforced.
(Optional: Tolman's work
challenged behaviorist theories
prevalent at the time, which
emphasized the importance of
reinforcement in learning. Latent
learning contributed to the
development of cognitive psychology
by highlighting the role of mental
processes and cognitive maps in
understanding how organisms learn
and navigate their surroundings.)
 Tolman demonstrated this in the rat
experiment wherein rats apparently
learned the maze by forming
cognitive maps of the maze but
manifested this knowledge of the
maze only when they needed it.
Applied to human learning, this
concept, according to Tolman, a 2-
year-old baby always sees her dad
operate a TV remote control and
observes how the TV is turned on or
how the channel is changed and
volume adjusted. After some time,
the parents are surprised that the
first time that their daughter holds
the remote control, she already
knows which buttons to press.
Through latent learning, the child
knew the skills beforehand even
though she had never done them
before. Just like other 2 year old
children, they do not know how to
read and do not understand what
they are seeing, but they know how
to operate and perform it, even
though they don't understand what
they are reading or seeing but their
skills are there.
INTERVENING VARIABLES
 Variables that are not readily seen but serve
as determinants of behavior.
 Tolman believed that learning is mediated
or is influenced by expectations,
perceptions, representations, needs, and
other internal or environmental variables.
 Explanation: Tolman argued that
there are mental processes or
cognitive factors that mediate
between stimuli and responses,
influencing behavior. In his view,
behavior cannot be fully understood
by simply associating stimuli with
responses. Intervening variables are
mental representations,
expectations, or cognitive maps that
individuals use to interpret and
navigate their environment. These
cognitive factors play a crucial role in
shaping behavior, and Tolman
emphasized the importance of
understanding these internal
processes.
(For example, in his studies with
rats, Tolman proposed that the
animals developed cognitive maps
of mazes, allowing them to navigate
based on a mental representation of
the space rather than relying solely
on trial-and-error learning. This idea
challenged the prevailing behaviorist
perspective that focused mainly on
observable stimuli and responses.)
 An example here is in his
experiment with rats, he found out
that hunger was an intervening
variable, so there are other factors
for us to learn. There are things that
push us to learn or do something, it's
not only concentrated on one, the
reward or punishment. In this part,
Tolman argues or believes that there
are other factors that are being
mediated or influenced to the
learning. Here, we have external
expectations, perceptions, needs,
and internal or environmental
variables. So he said in his
experiment, that the rats are hungry,
even though the maze is hard, they
tend to find the easy way because
they are hungry. The intervening
variable here is very important to
push you into learning or doing
something good or doing something
in your life.
REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ESSENTIAL FOR
LEARNING
 Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides
an incentive for performance.
 In his studies, he observed that a rat was
able to acquire knowledge of the way
through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive
map, even in the absence of reinforcement.
 Explanation: Edward Tolman's
concept of latent learning challenged
the prevailing behaviorist idea that
reinforcement was essential for
learning. In his experiments with rats
navigating mazes, Tolman
demonstrated that learning could
occur without immediate
reinforcement. Rats in his studies
displayed improved maze navigation
even when they initially received no
rewards, suggesting that they had
developed cognitive maps of the
maze through latent learning.
Tolman's work emphasized the
importance of cognitive processes
and mental representations in
learning, expanding beyond the strict
behaviorist focus on observable
stimuli and responses. This notion of
reinforcement not being essential for
learning contributed to the
development of cognitive
psychology.
 (1st: This is what he argues that it's
not necessary that we need
 reinforcement in learning. Like if you
achieve something, there is
reinforcement, there is reward.)
(2nd: So even if there is no
reinforcement, the rat has found its
way out of the maze through
developing a cognitive map.)
 The first group knows exactly what
to do, where to go because they
already know where the food is, it is
the easiest path and it's the only
path they can go to but there is no
learning. But the second group, on
the other hand, because they didn't
know where the food is, let's say for
10 days they are inside the maze,
everyday they have to go through
back and forth inside the maze, go
to every turn just to know exactly
where the food is, and by doing so,
they know exactly where to turn
when they want to go back or maybe
find a way out of the maze.
(Let's put it to reality, the easy path,
to those people who want an easier
path, invested a lot of money in
some business, they earn a lot of
money but in the end, did they
learn? No, why? Because all they
did was wait until their money grows
while the 2nd group, they know
exactly what to do in every sort of
situation, because they went through
a lot of hardships, a lot of troubles
just to get to where they are, they
didn't wait for anyone, to give them
the money or the amount they have
earned right now, they work their
butts off for it, they earned what they
earned today, not because they
invested their money on some
business but because they work
very hard for it.) So that's the
realization of Tolman's Behaviorism
Theory.
Tolman's Experiment
Figure 1. The maze. As you can see from the map,
the maze had lots of doors and curtains to make it
difficult for the rats to master. The blue marks
represent doors that swung in both directions,
which prevented the rat from seeing most of the
junctions as it approached. This forced the rat to go
through the door to discover what was on the other
side. The green forms show curtains. These hung
down and prevented the rat from getting a long-
distance perspective and it also meant that they
could not see a wall at the end of a wrong turn until
they had already made a choice and moved in that
direction. The rat was always in a small area,
unable to see beyond the next door or curtain, so
learning the maze was a formidable task.
Edward Tolman was studying traditional
trial-and-error learning when he realized that some
of his research subjects (rats) actually knew more
than their behavior initially indicated. In one of
Tolman’s classic experiments, he observed the
behavior of three groups of hungry rats that were
learning to navigate mazes.
The first group always received a food
reward at the end of the maze, so the payoff for
learning the maze was real and immediate. The
second group never received any food reward, so
there was no incentive to learn to navigate the
maze effectively. The third group was like the
second group for the first 10 days, but on the 11th
day, food was now placed at the end of the maze.
The delayed reward group learned the route on
days 1 to 10 and formed a cognitive map of the
maze. They took longer to reach the end of the
maze because there was no motivation for them to
perform. This shows that between stimulus (the
maze) and response (reaching the end of the
maze), a mediational process was occurring: the
rats were actively processing information in their
brains by mentally using their cognitive map
(which they had latently learned).
As you might expect when considering the
principles of conditioning, the rats in the first group
quickly learned to negotiate the maze, while the
rats of the second group seemed to wander
aimlessly through it. The rats in the third group,
however, although they wandered aimlessly for the
first 10 days, quickly learned to navigate to the end
of the maze as soon as they received food on day
11. By the next day, the rats in the third group had
caught up in their learning to the rats that had been
rewarded from the beginning.
It was clear to Tolman that the rats that had
been allowed to experience the maze, even without
any reinforcement, had nevertheless learned
something, and Tolman called this latent learning.
Latent learning is learning that is not reinforced and
not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.
Tolman argued that the rats had formed a
“cognitive map” of the maze but did not
demonstrate this knowledge until they received
reinforcement.
PROCEDURE
In their study, 3 groups of rats had to find
their way around a complex maze. At the end of the
maze, there was a food box. Some groups of rats
got to eat the food, some did not, and for some
rats, the food was only available after 10 days.
 Group A - REWARDED (Food on every
trial)
 Group B - DELAYED REWARD (No food
until trial/day 11)
 Group C - NO REWARD (No food on any
trial)
Hierarchy of Needs
By: Abraham Maslow
Who is Abraham Maslow? /Facts about Maslow:
Abraham Maslow was an American
psychologist who developed a hierarchy of
needs to explain human motivation. His theory
suggested that people have a number of basic
needs that must be met before people move up the
hierarchy to pursue more social, emotional, and
self-actualizing needs. During the 1950s, Maslow
became one of the founders and driving forces
behind the school of thought known as humanistic
psychology.
His contributions to psychology:
His theories focused on the positive aspects of
human nature. His work also influenced how we
see mental health and lastly, his work continues to
exert an influence today for behavioral studies.
In order to better understand what motivates
human beings, Maslow proposed that human
needs can be organized into a hierarchy. Which
eventually led to the creation of what we all know
today as the hierarchy of needs. This hierarchy
ranges from more concrete needs such as food and
water to abstract concepts such as self-fulfillment.
What Is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
In order to better understand what motivates
human beings, Maslow proposed that human
needs can be organized into a hierarchy. This
hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such
as food and water to abstract concepts such as
self-fulfillment. According to Maslow, when a lower
need is met, the next need on the hierarchy
becomes our focus of attention.
These are the five categories of needs according to
Maslow:
Physiological Needs
The physiological needs include those that
are vital to survival. These are biological
requirements for human survival. Example:
Food, Water, Breathing, Shelter, Clothing, Warmth,
Sex , and Homeostasis.
Maslow considered physiological needs to
be the most essential of our needs. If someone is
lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try
to meet these physiological needs first. For
example, if someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard
to focus on anything else besides food. According
to Maslow, some of these needs involve our efforts
to meet the body’s need for homeostasis; that is,
maintaining consistent levels in different bodily
systems. In addition to the basic requirements of
nutrition, air, and temperature regulation,
physiological needs also include shelter and
clothing. Maslow included sexual reproduction in
this level of the hierarchy as well, since it is
essential to the survival and propagation of the
species. The human body cannot function optimally
if physiological needs are not satisfied.
Security and Safety Needs
Once people’s physiological requirements
are met, the next need that arises is a safe
environment. People want to experience order,
predictability, and control in their lives. Some of the
basic security and safety needs include: Safety
against accidents and injury, Health and wellness
and Financial security.
Our safety needs are apparent even early in
childhood, as children have a need for safe and
predictable environments and typically react with
fear or anxiety when these are not met. Safety
needs can be fulfilled by the family and society.
Finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health
care, contributing money to a savings account, and
moving to a safer neighborhood are all examples of
actions motivated by security and safety needs.
Together, the safety and physiological
levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs make up
what is often referred to as "basic needs."
Love and Belonging
These social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy
include love, acceptance, and belonging. At this
level, the need for emotional relationships drives
human behavior. This refers to a human emotional
need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating,
connectedness, and being part of a group. Some of
the things that satisfy this need include: Friendship,
Romantic attachments, Family relationships, and
Social groups. These provide intimacy, trust,
acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and
love.
It includes our need to feel that we belong to
a social group. Importantly, this need encompasses
both feeling loved and feeling love towards others.
Love and belonging needs also impacts well-being.
For example, having social connections is related
to better physical health and, conversely, feeling
isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging needs) has
negative consequences for health and well-being.
In order to avoid loneliness, depression, and
anxiety, it is important for people to feel loved and
accepted by others. Personal relationships with
friends, family, and lovers play an important role, as
does involvement in groups.
Esteem
Our esteem needs involve the desire to
feel good about ourselves. This includes self-
worth, accomplishment, and respect.
According to Maslow, esteem needs include two
components:
I. Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, independence). This involves feeling self-
confidence and feeling good about oneself.
II. Desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige). This involves feeling valued
by others; that is, feeling that our achievements and
contributions have been recognized by other
people.
Esteem presents the typical human desire
to be accepted, valued by others, and feel that they
are making a contribution to the world. People often
engage in a profession or hobby to gain
recognition. These activities give the person a
sense of contribution or value. When people’s
esteem needs are met, they feel confident and see
their contributions and achievements as valuable
and important. However, when their esteem needs
are not met, they may experience feelings of
inferiority.
Together, the esteem and love and
belonging make up what is known as the
"psychological needs" of the hierarchy.
Self-Actualization
At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are
the self-actualization needs. Self-actualization
refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are
living up to our potential. It is the highest level in
Maslow’s hierarchy, and refers to the realization
of a person’s potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
personal growth, and peak experiences.
This level of need refers to what a person’s
full potential is and the realization of that potential.
Maslow describes this level as the desire to
accomplish everything that one can, and “to
become everything one is capable of becoming”.
One unique feature of self-actualization is that it
looks different for everyone. For one person, self-
actualization might involve helping others; for
another person, it might involve achievements in an
artistic or creative field. Essentially, self-
actualization means feeling that we are doing what
we believe we are meant to do.
 According to Maslow, achieving self-
actualization is relatively rare; he did believe that
all of us experience transitory moments (known as
‘peak experiences’) of self-actualization. Such
moments are difficult to achieve and maintain
consistently.
Summary
To briefly summarize everything that has been
stated, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is the only
humanistic theory among the ten theories in this
Unit. It is organized into five essential ranges from
which each human must possess.
At the bottom sits the most important of all,
the physiological needs of human beings. This
includes the physical necessities of men including
but is not limited to food, shelter, and sexual needs.
Following the physiological needs is security. This
encompasses the need for a safer environment and
security from accidents. Together, the physiological
needs and the safety needs of human beings make
up what we all know as basic needs.
Following security is the need for love and
belonging. Us humans are social beings, we
already know that. Thus, isolation is rare
meanwhile interaction among peers and loved ones
are common in order for relationship bonds to be
strong. The fourth range in Maslow’s hierarchy is
Esteem. This refers to valuing oneself including
respect and accomplishments. According to him,
there are two components of esteem needs,
namely; Esteem for oneself involves feeling self-
confidence and feeling good about oneself) and
Desire for reputation and respect from others
(feeling that our achievements and contributions
have been recognized by other people). Love and
Belonging, together with esteem, are known as the
psychological needs of human beings.
At the top-most portion of Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs sits self-actualization. This
refers to the feeling of fulfillment; when one realizes
their potential. However, self-actualization
according to Maslow is rare for he believed that
each of us experience transitory moments or peak
experiences in which one has already achieved
their best potential and has difficulty in being
consistent.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
What is Gestalt?
-Gestalt is a German word and is applied on
Gestalt psychology that roughly means
"configuration" or the way things are put together to
form a whole object
-Max Wertheimer is considered as Gestalt
Psychology's founding father.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGISTS
 Max Wertheimer
 Wolfgang Köhler
 Kurt Koffka
GESTALT LAWS OF LEARNING
LAW OF SIMILARITY
-Grasping things which are similar.
-Elements that looks like each other are more likely
to be organized with one another.,
-An object revives another object which resembles
it.
LAW OF PROXIMITY
-The law of proximity claims that individual
elements that are closer together are perceived as
belonging together.
LAW OF CLOSURE
-The Gestalt law of closure states that the human
mind seeks to create coherence. If presented with a
stimulus such as an image that contains missing
elements, the mind will fill in those gaps to create
the perception of a completed image.
No Familiar Shape
LAW OF CONTINUITY
-The Gestalt principle of continuity states that when
individual elements of a visual image are aligned in
a way that suggests a continuous line, they will be
perceived as an integrated whole.
INSIGHT LEARNING
Insightful learning
-is a type of learning or problem solving that
happens all of a sudden through understanding the
relationships of various parts of a problem rather
than through trial and error. Kohler called this
cognitive process insight learning.
-This was observed in the experiments of Wolfgang
Kohler in 1900s involving chimpanzees
Wolfgang Köhler and his contribution to Insight
Learning
He is a psychologist who conducted experiments in
which insight learning was observed in
animalbehavior.
KOHLER'S 4 STAGE MODEL OF INSIGHT
LEARNING
4 Stage Model Of Insight Learning
Preparation: Learners encounter the problem and
begin to survey all relevant information and
materials. They process stimuli and begin to make
connections.
Incubation: Learners get frustrated and may even
seem to observers as giving up. However, their
brains carry on processing information
unconsciously.
Insight: The learner finally achieves a
breakthrough, otherwise called an epiphany or
'Aha' moment. This insight comes in a flash and is
often a radical reorganization of the problem. It is a
discontinuous leap in understanding rather than
continuous with reasoning undertaken in the
preparation phase.
Verification: The learner now formally tests the
new insight and sees if it works in multiple different
situations. Mathematical insights are formally
proved.
KOHLER'S EXPERIMENT (1945)
In this scenario, a banana was placed outside the
chimpanzee's cage. Inside the cage, there were
two sticks, one larger and one smaller. The smaller
stick had a hollow end where the larger stick could
be inserted to make a longer stick. Initially, the
chimpanzee attempted to use each stick separately
to reach the banana but was unsuccessful.
However, the chimpanzee had a moment of insight
and realized that by joining the two sticks together,
it would be able to reach the banana. By cleverly
combining the sticks, the chimpanzee was able to
successfully retrieve the banana. This observation
illustrates the chimpanzee's problem-solving.
Sultan who was the most intelligent among Kohler's
chimpanzees could solve all the problems. Other
chimpanzees could only solve the problem only
when they saw Sultan solving it.
KOHLER'S EXPERIMENT (1945)
In this experiment, Kohler observed the efforts of
Sultan, a chimpanzee, as he tried to reach bananas
placed out of his reach. Sultan initially tried to jump
for the bananas but failed. He then looked around
and brought a box to climb on. However, this
attempt also failed. Sultan continued to analyze the
situation and brought another box, attempting to
stack it on top of the first one.
Unfortunately, he couldn't successfully do so.
Sultan persisted in observing the situation and
eventually arranged the boxes in the correct
sequence, with the larger box at the bottom and the
smaller one on top. With this arrangement, he was
able to climb up the boxes and successfully reach
the bananas. When Kohler conducted the same
experiment a few days later, Sultan immediately
understood the situation and placed the boxes in
the correct sequence to retrieve the bananas.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THEORY
ALBERT BANDURA
I. Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura, (born December 4, 1925, Mundare,
Alberta, Canada—died July 26, 2021, Stanford,
California, U.S.), Canadian-born American
psychologist and originator of social cognitive
theory who is probably best known for his modeling
study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll”
experiment, which demonstrated that children can
learn behaviours through the observation of adults.
II. What Is Observational Learning?
Observational learning is the process of learning
by watching the behaviors of others. The
targeted behavior is watched, memorized, and then
mimicked.
Also known as shaping and modeling,
observational learning is most common in children
as they imitate behaviors of adults.
While at times, we intentionally observe experts to
learn new information, observational learning isn’t
always intentional. Especially in young children.
Example: A child may learn to swear or smoke
cigarettes by watching adults. They are continually
learning through observation, whether the target
behavior is desirable or not.
III. What is a model?
A model is the person performing the task being
imitated. In the example of a child learning to
swear, the model is the parent that said the swear
word. The child is using their parent as a model that
they observe performing a behavior.
What makes a good model?
Humans don’t just imitate anyone. Most often, we
mimic people that:
 Are similar to us
 Are in high-status positions
 Are experts or knowledgeable
 Are rewarded for their behaviors
 Provide us with nurturing (parents or
guardian-figures)
IV. Four Processes of Observational
Learning
According to Bandura’s research, there are four
processes that influence observational learning:
 Attention
 Retention
 Reproduction
 Motivation
1. Attention
To learn, an observer must pay attention to
something in the environment. They must
notice the model and the behavior
occurring. Attention levels can vary based
on the characteristics of the model and
environment – including the model’s degree
of likeness, or the observer’s current mood.
In humans, it is likely the observer will pay
attention to behaviors of models that are
-
high-status, talented, intelligent, or similar to
the observer in any way.
Example: For example, if you want to
become a VP at your company, it makes
sense that you’d observe the current VP’s
(or other renowned VP’s in your industry)
and try to mimic their behavior.
2. Retention
Simple attention is not enough to learn a
new behavior. An observer must also retain,
or remember, the behavior at a later time.
To increase chances of retention, the
observer must structure the information in
an easy-to-remember format. Maybe they
use a mnemonic device. Or form a daily
learning habit.
The behavior must be easily remembered
so the action can be performed with little or
no effort.
Example: Using our VP example above,
let’s say the current VP is giving a
company-wide presentation. You notice that
they are calm, confident, engaging, and use
 eye contact. You make a list of these
attributes and remember them for the next
time you give a presentation.
3. Reproduction
The behavior is remembered. But can it be
performed in real-life?
Reproduction is the process where the
observer must be able to physically perform
the behavior in the real-world. Easier said
than done.
Often, producing a new behavior requires
hours of practice to obtain the skills. You
can’t just watch your VP give a brilliant
company-wide presentation, then use only
the observed tactics in your own
presentation 20-minutes later. Those skills
take years to craft and perfect.
Example: Using our VP example again,
you’ve observed and identified four skills
that the current VP uses during
presentations. To be able to perform these
skills yourself, you need to deliberately
practice these skills. Maybe you hold small
team meetings to test your skills. Or you ask
team members for feedback on your
presenting skills. In a few months, you will
have sharpened your presenting skills and
may be ready to produce a behavior similar
to the current VP.
4. Motivation
All learning requires some degree of
personal motivation. For observational
learning, the observer must be motivated to
produce the desired behavior.
Sometimes this motivation is intrinsic to the
observer. Other times, motivation can come
in the form of external reinforcement –
rewards and punishments
V. The Bobo Doll Experiment
Bandura’s classic Bobo Doll experiment
showed that children would mimic violent
behaviors, simply by observing others.
Video link: https://youtu.be/dmBqwWlJg8U?
si=iNVzdTzvGbyQ_vq0
In the experiment, children were shown a video
where a model would act aggressively toward an
inflatable doll – hitting, punching, kicking, and
verbally assaulting the doll. There were three
different endings:
 The model was punished for their behavior
 The model was rewarded for their behavior
 There were no consequences
After watching the model, children were given a
Bobo doll, identical to that in the video. Their
behaviors were observed.
Researchers found that children were more likely to
mimic violent behaviors when they observed the
model receiving a reward, or when no
consequences occurred. On the flip side – children
that observed the model being punished for
violence showed less actual violence toward the
doll.
VI. Real life Examples of Observational
Learning
 A child watches their mother eat dinner with
a fork. They observe the behavior and
quickly learn how to use a fork themselves.
 A high-school basketball player watches
Stephen Curry shoot free-throws. They
observe details such as the number of ball
dribbles and hand follow through patterns,
then try to mimic the behavior themselves.
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
(JEROME BRUNER)
The American psychologist Jerome Bruner,
strongly influenced by the work of Russian
psychologist Lev Vygostky, further developed and
applied his ideas in the field of education. Bruner
declared that Vygotsky (go to Lev Vygotsky’s
Theory of Social Development) has convinced him
about the impossibility of understanding the
concept of human development in any other way
than as a process of assistance, of collaboration
between child and adult, where the adult is taking
up the role of a sociocultural mediator. Due to its
distinct features, we consider the theory to be a
sociocultural constructivist one.
INTRODUCTION
Bruner believed that when children start to
learn new concepts, they need help from teachers
and other adults in the form of active support. To
begin with, they are dependent on their adult
support, but as they become more independent in
their thinking and acquire new skills and
knowledge, the support can be gradually faded.
This form of structured interaction between the
child and the adult is reminiscent of the scaffolding
that supports the construction of a building. It is
gradually dismantled as the work is completed.
In a very specific way, scaffolding represents a
reduction in the many choices a child might face, so
that they become focused only on acquiring the skill
or knowledge that is required. The simplistic
elegance of Bruner’s sociocultural theory means
that scaffolding can be applied across all sectors,
for all ages and for all topics of learning.
Principles of the learning process:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the
experiences and contexts that make the
student willing and able to learn
(readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it
can be easily grasped by the student
(spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to
facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the
gaps (going beyond the information
given).
4. The progression of rewards as well as
punishments
SCAFFOLDING
The notion of scaffolding developed by Jerome
Bruner is deeply related to Vygotsky’s concept of
zone of proximal development and describes the
ensemble of guiding and supporting interactions
offered by a an adult or guardian (it can be a
different child which possess a higher level of
competency) meant to help the child organise his
behaviours so as to become apt in solving a
problem which he previously could not solve on his
own.
The process of scaffolding implies six
interdependent elements:
1. the engagement of the subject in the task of
learning
2. reducing the difficulties
3. maintaining the focus on the objectives
4. signaling the determined characteristics
5. controlling frustration – in order to prevent
the errors the child makes from becoming a
feeling of failure and resignation
6. demonstrating or presenting models.
MODES OF MENTAL REPRESENTATION
Bruner’s sociocultural constructivist theory
suggests it is effective when faced with new
material to follow a progression from enactive to
iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true
even for adult learners.
Moreover, his work also implies that a learner
even of a very young age is capable of learning any
material so long as the instruction is organised
appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs
of Piaget (read Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive
Development) and other stage theorists (see all
Stage Theories).
ENACTIVE REPRESENTATION (ACTION-
BASED)
The first kind of memory. This mode is used
within the first year of life (corresponding
with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage). Thinking is
based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn
by doing, rather than by internal representation (or
thinking).
It involves encoding physical action based
information and storing it in our memory. For
example, in the form of movement as a muscle
memory, a baby might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.
Plus, this mode continues later in many physical
activities, such as learning to ride a bike.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks
(typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower)
that they would find difficult to describe in iconic
(picture) or symbolic (word) form.
IONIC REPRESENTATION (IMAGE-BASED)
Information is stored as sensory images (icons),
usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For
some, this is conscious; others say they don’t
experience it.
This may explain why, when we are learning a
new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany the verbal information.
Thinking is also based on the use other mental
images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.
SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION (LANGUAGE-
BASED)
We can think of it as the force which moves
development along. Piaget believed that cognitive
development did not progress at a steady rate, but
rather in leaps and bounds.
Symbolic representation develops last. It is
where information is stored in the form of a code or
symbol, such as language. This mode is acquired
around six to seven years-old (corresponding
to Piaget’s concrete operational stage).
In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily
as words, mathematical symbols, or in other
sociocultural symbol systems, such as music.
Sociocultural and other types of symbols are
flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered,
classified etc., so the user isn’t constrained by
actions or images (which have a fixed relation to
that which they represent).
Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can
deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of
disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot
be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Equilibration is the force which drives the
learning process as we do not like to be frustrated
and will seek to restore balance by mastering the
new challenge (accommodation). Once the new
information is acquired the process of assimilation
with the new schema will continue until the next
time we need to make an adjustment to it.
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
ROBERT GAGNE
Robert Gagné was an influential American
educational psychologist who made significant
contributions to the field of instructional design and
learning theory.
Born on August 21, 1916, in North Andover,
Massachusetts, Gagné dedicated his career to
understanding how people learn and developing
effective instructional strategies.
FACT 1
Gagné's work focused on identifying the conditions
necessary for productive learning and how to
structure instruction to maximize learner
engagement and retention.
FACT 2
Gagné is best known for his work on the Conditions
of Learning and the Nine Events of Instruction. His
theories and models have had a significant impact
on instructional design, curriculum development,
and teaching practices.
FACT 3
Gagné's research focused on the process of
learning and the various factors that influence
learning outcomes.
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
Conditions of Learning refers to the set of
circumstances or factors that facilitate effective
learning. This concept was developed by Robert
Gagné, a renowned educational psychologist.
Gagné identified five categories of conditions of
learning.
5 CATEGORIES OF CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
•Internal Conditions
•External Conditions
•Learning Tasks Conditions
•Social Context
•Instructional Events
INTERNAL CONDITIONS
These refer to the learner's internal readiness and
cognitive processes, such as prior knowledge,
motivation, and intellectual abilities.
Learners need to have the necessary foundational
knowledge and skills, as well as the motivation to
engage in the learning process.
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS
These involve the external environment in which
learning takes place. This includes the physical
setting, resources, and tools available to support
learning. A conducive learning environment should
be organized, free from distractions, and provide
access to appropriate instructional materials.
LEARNING TASKS CONDITIONS
These conditions relate to the nature and
characteristics of the learning tasks or activities.
The tasks should be clear, meaningful, and aligned
with the learning objectives. They should also be
appropriately challenging to engage learners'
cognitive processes and promote active learning.
SOCIAL CONTEXT
This refers to the influence of social interactions
and collaboration on learning. Learning is often
enhanced when learners have opportunities to
engage with peers, discuss ideas, and receive
feedback from others. Collaborative activities,
group discussions, and cooperative learning
methods can create a supportive social context that
promotes learning.
LEARNING TASKS CONDITIONS
These conditions relate to the nature and
characteristics of the learning tasks or activities.
The tasks should be clear, meaningful, and aligned
with the learning objectives. They should also be
appropriately challenging to engage learners'
cognitive processes and promote active learning.
SOCIAL CONTEXT
This refers to the influence of social interactions
and collaboration on learning. Learning is often
enhanced when learners have opportunities to
engage with peers, discuss ideas, and receive
feedback from others. Collaborative activities,
group discussions, and cooperative learning
methods can create a supportive social context that
promotes .
INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS
These are the specific strategies and techniques
used by the instructor to facilitate learning. Gagné
outlined the "Nine Events of Instruction," a
systematic approach that includes gaining
attention, informing learners of objectives,
presenting new content, providing guidance,
eliciting performance, giving feedback, assessing
performance, enhancing retention and transfer, and
providing additional practice as needed.
NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
1. GAIN ATTENTION OF THE STUDENTS
Ensure the learners are ready to learn and
participate in activities by presenting a stimulus to
capture their attention
2. INFORM LEARNER'S OF THE OBJECTIVES
Inform students of the objectives or outcomes for
the course and
individual lessons to help them understand what
they are expected to
learn and do. Provide objectives before instruction
begins.
3. STIMULATE RECALL OF PRIOR LEARNING
Help students make sense of new information by
relating it to something they already know or
something they have already experienced.
4. PRESENT THE CONTENT/STIMULUS
Use strategies to present and cue lesson content to
provide more effective instruction. Organize and
group content in meaningful ways, and provide
explanations after demonstrations.
5. PROVIDE LEARNING GUIDANCE
Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning
content and of
resources available. In other words, help students
learn how to learn.
6. ELICIT PERFORMANCE (PRACTICE)
Have students apply what they have learned to
reinforce new skills and knowledge and to confirm
correct understanding of course concepts.
7. PROVIDE FEEDBACK
Provide timely feedback of students’ performance
to assess and facilitate learning and to allow
students to identify gaps in understanding before it
is too late.
8. ASSESS PERFORMANCE
Test whether the expected learning outcomes have
been achieved on
previously stated course objectives.
9. ENHANCE RETENTION AND TRANSFER
Help learners retain more information by providing
them opportunities to connect course concepts to
potential real-world applications