Ebook Elementary Geometry For College Students PDF Full Chapter PDF

Elementary Geometry for College
Students - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/elementary-geometry-for-college-students-ebook-
pdf/
7E
Elementary
Geometry
for College Students
Daniel C. Alexander
Parkland College, Professor Emeritus
Geralyn M. Koeberlein
Mahomet-Seymour High School,
Mathematics Department Chair, Retired
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Elementary Geometry for College Students, © 2020, 2015, 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Seventh Edition
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage
Daniel C. Alexander, Geralyn M. Koeberlein
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
Product Director: Mark Santee permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner.
Product Manager: Spencer Arritt
Product Assistant: Amanda Rose
Marketing Manager: Shannon Hawkins For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Cengage Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Learning Designer: Mona Zeftel or support.cengage.com.
Content Manager: Michael Lepera

For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all
IP Analyst: Reba Fredericks requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.
IP Project Manager: Carly Belcher
Production Service/Compositor: Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949251

Lumina Datamatics, Inc.
Art Directors: Vernon Boes, Diana Graham Student Edition:

ISBN: 978-1-337-61408-5
Text and Cover Designer: Terri Wright
Cover Image: Imagine China/Newscom Loose-leaf Edition:

ISBN: 978-0-357-02216-0
Cengage
20 Channel Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA
Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more
than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at:
www.cengage.com.
Cengage products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access

your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course,
visit www.cengage.com.
Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 03 Print Year: 2019
This edition is dedicated to our spouses, children, and grandchildren.
Dan Alexander and Geralyn Koeberlein
Letter from the Authors
The primary aim of this textbook has always been to provide college students with a thorough
knowledge of the subject matter of geometry. We thank all those instructors who agreed with
our approach to the development of geometry. Further, we applaud all those students who have
persevered (with our textbook as the vehicle) and achieved a substantial knowledge of geome-
try; in fact, it has been said that there is no royal road (easy way) to geometry.
When we began formulating the first edition of this textbook, we sought to achieve and
maintain many qualities throughout future editions. One of the foremost goals that we sought
was that of creating a logical and orderly development of geometry. Although we have man-
aged goal one successfully, we also believe that we have improved our presentation with time:
formal logical and visual reasoning have been apparent through previous editions. In effect, a
student of geometry must “see” to believe.
A second goal was to find the perfect choice of words essential in guiding the student
down the path to geometry. For the student to read and fully understand the notions found in
this development, it was generally necessary to illustrate these terms visually.
A third goal of our textbook has been to provide examples and practice (exercise sets)
that would reinforce the embedded concepts. While the textbook provides abundant practice,
further exercises can be found in the Student Study Guide. Many examples, features, and exer-
cises demonstrate applications of geometry in the real world. In exercise sets, problems are
ordered from basic to intermediate and then challenging.
In this seventh edition, we have at times clarified a definition by a change in wording or
by an example/illustration. In some cases, we have found a clearer (more direct path) to one of
the many principles of geometry. Through modifying an explanation, we facilitated the reason-
ing process used to understand and formulate proofs, solve problems, and handle real-world
applications. Such tools enable students to use (1) intuition to guess results, (2) induction to
test these outcomes, and (3) deduction to prove the relationships found in geometry. To rein-
force the student’s knowledge of geometry, we have developed a textbook that may preview a
concept or recall/review (such as review exercises at a chapter’s end). Within a section, topics
are often accompanied by hints, recalls, and guides designed to provide insights into the steps
in an example, the plan for a proof, or the solution of an exercise.
For students to reach the lofty goals of this textbook, it is essential that they enter the study
with open minds and accept the challenge. Successful students will develop a knowledge of
geometry and the associated skills to allow them to advance their mathematical and related
disciplines.
Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein

Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xii
Foreword xiii
Index of Applications xv
P Preliminary Concepts 1
P.1 Sets and Geometry 2 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: One-to-One
P.2 Statements and Reasoning 8 Correspondence 26
P.3 Informal Geometry and Measurement 16 ■■ Summary 26
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Our Greek Heritage 25 ■■ Review Exercises 28

■■ Chapter P Test 30
1 Line and Angle Relationships 31

1.1 Early Definitions and Postulates 32 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Development of
1.2 Angles and Their Relationships 41 Geometry 69
1.3 Introduction to Geometric Proof 49 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Patterns 70
1.4 Relationships: Perpendicular Lines 56 ■■ Summary 71
1.5 The Formal Proof of a Theorem 63 ■■ Review Exercises 74
■■ Chapter 1 Test 76
2 Parallel Lines 79
2.1 The Parallel Postulate and Special Angles 80 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Euclid 126
2.2 Indirect Proof 89 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Non-Euclidean
2.3 Proving Lines Parallel 95 Geometries 126
2.4 The Angles of a Triangle 101 ■■ Summary 128
2.5 Convex Polygons 108 ■■ Review Exercises 131
2.6 Symmetry and Transformations 116 ■■ Chapter 2 Test 133
3 Triangles 135
3.1 Congruent Triangles 136 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Archimedes 174
3.2 Corresponding Parts of Congruent ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Geodesic Dome 175
Triangles 145 ■■ Summary 175
3.3 Isosceles Triangles 153 ■■ Review Exercises 177
3.4 Basic Constructions Justified 161
3.5 Inequalities in a Triangle 167
vi CONTENTS
4 Quadrilaterals 181
4.1 Properties of a Parallelogram 182 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Square Number as
4.2 The Parallelogram and Kite 191 Sums 214
4.3 The Rectangle, Square, and Rhombus 198 ■■ Summary 215
4.4 The Trapezoid 206 ■■ Review Exercises 217
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Thales 214 ■■ Chapter 4 Test 218
5 Similar Triangles 221

5.1 Ratios, Rates, and Proportions 222 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Ceva’s Proof 269
5.2 Similar Polygons 229 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Generating Pythagorean
5.3 Proving Triangles Similar 237 Triples 270
5.4 The Pythagorean Theorem 246 ■■ Summary 271
5.5 Special Right Triangles 254 ■■ Review Exercises 273
5.6 Segments Divided Proportionally 261 ■■ Chapter 5 Test 275
6 Circles 277
6.1 Circles and Related Segments and Angles 278 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Sum of Interior Angles of
6.2 More Angle Measures in the Circle 287 a Polygon 313
6.3 Line and Segment Relationships in the ■■ Summary 313
Circle 297 ■■ Review Exercises 315
6.4 Some Constructions and Inequalities ■■ Chapter 6 Test 317
for the Circle 306
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Circumference of the
Earth 312
7 Locus and Concurrence 319

7.1 Locus of Points 320 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Nine-Point
7.2 Concurrence of Lines 329 Circle 345
7.3 More About Regular Polygons 337 ■■ Summary 346
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Value of p 344 ■■ Review Exercises 348
8 Areas of Polygons and Circles 351

8.1 Area and Initial Postulates 352 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Another Look at the
8.2 Perimeter and Area of Polygons 362 Pythagorean Theorem 392
8.3 Regular Polygons and Area 372 ■■ Summary 393
8.4 Circumference and Area of a Circle 378 ■■ Review Exercises 395
8.5 More Area Relationships in the Circle 385 ■■ Chapter 8 Test 397
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Pythagoras 391
CONTENTS vii
9 Surfaces and Solids 399

9.1 Prisms, Area, and Volume 400 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Birds in Flight 439
9.2 Pyramids, Area, and Volume 409 ■■ Summary 439
9.3 Cylinders and Cones 419 ■■ Review Exercises 440
9.4 Polyhedrons and Spheres 429 ■■ Chapter 9 Test 442
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of René
Descartes 438
10 Analytic Geometry 443

10.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System 444 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: The Banach-Tarski
10.2 Graphs of Linear Equations and Slope 452 Paradox 492
10.3 Preparing to Do Analytic Proofs 460 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: The Point-of-Division
10.4 Analytic Proofs 468 Formulas 492
10.5 Equations of Lines 474 ■■ Summary 493
10.6 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate ■■ Review Exercises 494
System 481 ■■ Chapter 10 Test 495
11 Introduction to Trigonometry 497

11.1 The Sine Ratio and Applications 498 ■■ pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS: Radian Measure of
11.2 The Cosine Ratio and Applications 506 Angles 530
11.3 The Tangent Ratio and Other Ratios 512 ■■ Summary 531
11.4 Applications with Acute Triangles 521 ■■ Review Exercises 532
■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Sketch of Plato 529 ■■ Chapter 11 Test 533
Appendices
APPENDIX A: Algebra Review 535

APPENDIX B: Summary of Constructions, Postulates,
Theorems, Lemmas, and Corollaries 563
Answers
Selected Exercises and Proofs 569
Glossary 591
Index 595
Preface
The authors’ primary goal is that of helping and encouraging students of the seventh edition
of Elementary Geometry for College Students to learn and use the terminology of geometry,
explore the principles of geometry, develop strong reasoning skills, gain new skills in prob-
lem-solving, and find solutions for real-world applications. We hope not only to introduce stu-
dents to geometry, but to have them respect and enjoy the subject matter.
The authors have developed the textbook in a logical order that is complete with fea-
tures that are intuitive and motivating. Perhaps the most significant feature of this textbook
is that it provides seemingly countless visual illustrations; of course, the picture may very
well be worth a thousand words.
We, the authors, truly believe that the student who successfully completes the geome-
try coursework with this textbook will be able to, at a future date, recognize and recall the
relationships of geometry, understand and justify the connections between certain proper-
ties, and extend and apply these principles.
Justification of a principle will be done in a formal two-column form, a formal para-
graph form, or in the less formal “picture proof” format.
We are well aware that the completion of a proof is quite the challenge for most students.
With this in mind, we hope to illustrate the power of the proof so that the student gains an
appreciation for this power. To begin, we ask that the student simply follow the illustrated
proof, reading it step-by-step. Reading the proof in reverse order enables the student to answer
the question, “Where are we coming from?” Eventually, the student provides missing pieces
(statements and reasons) of the proof. In time, the student realizes the need to order and justify
the steps of the proof. Of course, the ultimate goal is that the student writes the complete proof.
The authors believe the logic found in development of geometry extends to other disciplines;
for instance, consider writing a good paragraph in literature or a powerful subroutine in com-
puter science. One should recognize that the principles, the thoughts, and the reasoning that
lead to a proof are also used in the solution of any problem or application.
OUTCOMES FOR THE STUDENT

■■ Mastery of essential geometric concepts, for further intellectual and vocational
endeavors
■■ Preparation of the student to transfer and continue the study of mathematics and
related disciplines
■■ Understanding of the need for step-by-step reasoning for success in geometry and
other disciplines
■■ Development of their interest in geometry through activities, features, and
problem-solving
FEATURES OF THE SEVENTH EDITION

■■ Inclusion of Chapter P, which provides an expanded introduction of set concepts
and formal reasoning
■■ Increased attention to continuity and discontinuity of geometric figures
■■ Expanded coverage of point paths characterized as straight, curved, circular, or
scattered
■■ Revision of existing exercise sets as well as the inclusion of over 150 new exercises
■■ Expanded coverage of select topics, such as the discussion of overlapping congru-
ent triangles
■■ Greater attention to the congruence of quadrilaterals.
■■ Revision of select paragraphs and the addition of examples in order to clarify
concepts and approaches
ix
x Preface
TRUSTED FEATURES
Full-color format aids in the development of concepts, solutions, and investigations
throughout all figures and graphs. The authors have ensured that color in all figures is
both accurate and instructionally meaningful.
Reminders found in the text margins provide a convenient recall mechanism.
Discover activities emphasize the importance of induction in the development of
geometry.
Geometry in Nature and Geometry in the Real World demonstrate geometry found
in everyday life.
Overviews in chapter-ending material organize important properties and other infor-
mation from the chapter.
An Index of Applications calls attention to the practical applications of geometry.
A Glossary of Terms at the end of the textbook provides a quick reference of geom-
etry terms.
Chapter-opening photographs highlight subject matter for each chapter.
Warnings alert students to common pitfalls.
Chapter Summaries review the chapter, preview the chapter to follow, and provide a
list of important concepts found in the current chapter.
Perspective on History provides students with biographical sketches and background
leading to geometric discoveries.
Perspective on Applications explores classical applications and proofs.
Chapter Reviews provide numerous practice problems to help solidify student under-
standing of chapter concepts.
Chapter Tests provide students the opportunity to prepare for exams.
Formula pages at the front of the book list important formulas with relevant art to
illustrate.
Reference pages at the back of the book summarize the important abbreviations and
symbols used in the textbook.
Student Resources
■■ The Student Study Guide with Solutions Manual (978-0-357-02212-2) provides
step by step solutions to select odd-numbered exercises from the text. Select solu-
tions for additional exercise sets are provided within the study guide. Complete
solutions are available on the instructor’s website.
■■ www.webassign.com
Prepare for class with confidence using WebAssign from Cengage Elementary
Geometry for College Students, Seventh Edition. This online learning platform
fuels practice, so you truly absorb what you learn—and are better prepared come
test time. Videos and tutorials walk you through concepts and deliver instant feed-
back and grading, so you always know where you stand in class. Focus your study
time and get extra practice where you need it most. Study smarter with WebAssign!
Ask your instructor today how you can get access to WebAssign, or learn about
self-study options at www.webassign.com.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
■■ www.webassign.com/cengage
WebAssign from Cengage Elementary Geometry for College Students, Seventh
Edition, is a fully customizable online solution for STEM disciplines that empow-
ers you to help your students learn, not just do homework. Insightful tools save
you time and highlight exactly where your students are struggling. Decide when
and what type of help students can access while working on assignments—and
incentivize independent work so help features aren’t abused. Meanwhile, your
Preface xi
students get an engaging experience, instant feedback, and better outcomes. A total
win-win!
To try a sample assignment, learn about LMS (Learning Management System)
integration, or connect with our digital course support, visit www.webassign.com/
cengage.
■■ Complete Solutions Manual provide solutions to all the exercises in the book,
alternatives for order of presentation of the topics included, and suggestions for
teaching each topic.
■■ Cognero (Included on the Instructor Companion Website) Cengage Learning Test-
ing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to author, edit,
and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions; create
multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver test from your LMS, your class-
room, or wherever you want.
Instructor Website
Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific
lecture and class tools is available online at www.cengage.com/login. Here you can
access and download PowerPoint presentations, images, and more.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Spencer Arritt, Michael Lepera, and Mona Zeftel at Cengage
for their efforts in making the seventh edition of the textbook a reality. In addition, we
would like to recognize and thank those who made earlier editions of this textbook possi-
ble: Beth Dahlke, Dawn Nuttall, Florence Powers, Lynn Cox, Marc Bove, Maureen Ross,
Melissa Parkin, Noel Kamm, Rita Lombard, and Theresa Grutz.
We express our gratitude to reviewers of the current edition and previous editions:
Houssam M. Al-Basha, Lincoln Land Community College
Paul Allen, University of Alabama
Catherine Banks, Texas Woman’s University
Jane C. Beatie, University of South Carolina at Aiken
Dr. Michaela Bertch, Cathedral Catholic High School
John Bialas, Joliet Junior College
Steven Blasberg, West Valley College
Barbara Brown, Anoka Ramsey Community College
Patricia Clark, Indiana State University
Joyce Cutler, Framingham State College
Walter Czarnec, Framingham State College
Joseph Dethrow, John A. Logan College
Kahroline di Passero, Moorpark Community College
Darwin G. Dorn, University of Wisconsin–Washington County
William W. Durand, Henderson State University
Zoltan Fischer, Minneapolis Community and Technical College
Kathryn E. Godshalk, Cypress College
Chris Graham, Mt. San Antonio Community College
Sharon Gronberg, Southwest Texas State University
Geoff Hagopian, College of the Desert
Edith Hays, Texas Woman’s University
Elizabeth Hicks, Delaware Technical Community College
Ben L. Hill, Lane Community College
Mary Hito, Los Angeles Valley College
George L. Holloway, Los Angeles Valley College
Leigh Hollyer, University of Houston–Central Campus
Tracy Hoy, College of Lake County
Greg Jamison, Fresno City College
Kenneth Lee Jones, Elizabeth City State University
Jennifer La Fleur, Harford Community College
Josephine G. Lane, Eastern Kentucky University
John C. Longnecker, University of Northern Iowa
Erin C. Martin, Parkland College
Nicholas Martin, Shepherd College
Saburo Matsumoto, College of the Canyons
Jill McKenney, Lane Community College
James R. McKinney, Cal Poly at Pomona
Iris C. McMurtry, Motlow State Community College
William McNeary, Southeast Missouri State University
Tigran Mkrtchyan, Los Angeles Mission College
Jack Morrell, Atlanta Metropolitan State College
Michael Naylor, Western Washington University
Maurice Ngo, Chabot College
Ellen L. Rebold, Brookdale Community College
Lauri Semarne, Los Angeles, California
Patty Shovanec, Texas Technical University
Marvin Stick, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Joseph F. Stokes, Western Kentucky University
Kay Stroope, Phillips Community College–University of Arkansas
Dr. John Stroyls, Georgia Southwestern State University
Karen R. Swick, Palm Beach Atlantic College
Steven L. Thomassin, Ventura College
Bettie A. Truitt, Black Hawk College
Jean A. Vrechek, Sacramento City College
Michael D. Yarbrough, Cosumnes River College
Tom Zerger, Saginaw Valley State University
xii
Foreword
For the seventh edition of Elementary Geometry for College Students, the topics that com-
prise a minimal course include most of Chapters 1–6 and Chapter 8. For a more compre-
hensive course, the inclusion of Chapters 1–8 is recommended. Chapter P is recommended
for students who have not had an introduction to sets and methods of reasoning. Consider-
ing time constraints in the course content, these topics could be treated as optional:
■■ Section 2.6 Symmetry and Transformations
■■ Section 3.4 Basic Constructions Justified
■■ Section 3.5 Inequalities in a Triangle
■■ Section 5.6 Segments Divided Proportionally
■■ Section 6.4 Some Constructions and Inequalities for the Circle
■■ Section 7.1 Locus of Points
■■ Section 7.2 Concurrence of Lines
■■ Section 7.3 More About Regular Polygons
■■ Section 8.5 More Area Relationships in the Circle
■■ Section 10.6 The Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
To determine whether the study of Chapter P should be excluded (included), an
instructor (or student) should consider the simplicity (difficulty) of the chapter test found
at the end of Chapter P. Considering that this textbook may be used for a course of 3, 4, or
5 credit hours, the following diagram indicates the possible orders in which the chapters of
the textbook can be used:
l ➝ 2 ➝ 3 ➝ 4 ➝ 5 ➝ 6 ➝ 7(or 8) ➝ 8 ➝ (and/or 9 and/or 10 and/or 11)
For students who need further review or explanation of related algebraic topics, con-
sider those found in Appendix A:
A.1 Algebraic Expressions
A.2 Formulas and Equations
A.3 Inequalities
A.4 Factoring and Quadratic Equations
A.5 The Quadratic Formula and Square Root Properties
Sections A.4 and A.5 include these methods of solving quadratic equations: the fac-
toring method, the square roots method, and the Quadratic Formula.
Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein
xiii
Index of Applications
A Cliffs, 511 Gasoline tanks, 408

Aircraft, 107, 186, 275, 296, 511, 514, Clock, 115, 282, 286 Gate, 184
528, 530 Construction, 34, 38, 152, 541 Gazebo, 341
Allocation of supplies, 228 Containers, 229 Gears, 125, 299, 306, 384
Altitude, 107, 296, 520 Conic sections, 174, 438 Geoboard, 356, 462, 464
Aluminum cans, 230, 420, 427 Copy machines, 228 Geodesic dome, 175
Antenna, 252 Courtyards, 384 Germany, 221
Amusement parks, 286, 384 Goats, 391
Apartment buildings, 512, 515 D Golden Ratio, 227
Aquariums, 408 Deck, 360 GPS, 443
Architecture, 135, 181 Detours, 39 Grade, 454, 533
Astronomy, 69 Dials, 125 Great Pyramids, 214
Automobiles, 125, 172, 210, 224 Dice, 431, 436, 442 Groceries, 222, 260, 537
Disaster Response Agency, 336 Gurney (stretcher), 196
B Digital (Laser) tools, 35, 43, 57, 406 Guy wire, 252, 503
Ball, 434, 436 Distributing companies, 172, 336 Gymnasiums, 384
Balloons, 252, 505, 528 Doors, 51, 200
Barn, 213, 391 Drawbridge, 252–253 H
Baseball, 38, 115, 132, 529 Drainage, 408–409 Hanging sign, 49
Bavaria, 221 Driveways, 397 Headlight, 326
Banach-Tarski paradox, 492 Drug manufacturing, 441 Helicopters, 512, 520
Beach tent, 360 Drywall, 398 Hex bolt, 530
Beam, 533 Ductwork, 388 Highway, 505
Bearing, 25, 190 DVD player, 107 Hillside, 532
Billiards, 44 Hinge, 149
Binoculars, 296 E Holding patterns, 530
Birds, 439 Earth, 312 Hong Kong, 135
Blocks, 1 Electrician, 228, 383 Horizons, 296
Blueprints, 229, 236 Enemy headquarters, 528 Hotel, 296
Boards, 541, 551 Essing, 221 Hot-air balloons, 252, 533
Boating, 252, 260, 505 Exhaust chute, 418 Houses, 359, 408, 520
Bookcase, 158 Exit ramps, 391
Boxes, 405, 408, 541 I
Braces, 158, 205, 388 F Ice cream cone, 437
Bridges, 31, 79, 152, 212, 221, 252 Farming, 371, 433 Icicles, 58
Bullets, 529 Ferris wheel, 161, 384, 529 Illusions, 10, 31
Bunker Hill Bridge, 79 Fertilizer, 396 Insulation, 408
Butterflies, 117 Firefighters, 171, 520 Intelligence tests, 70
Fishing vessels, 497, 518 Ironing board, 196
C Flagpole, 234 Islands, 107
Calendars, 436 Flight, 439
Carousels, 385 Floor, 112, 371 J
Carpenters, 101, 157, 166, 168, 196, 259 Foundation, 1, 190 Joggers, 260
Carpet, 359, 384, 396, 397 Fold-down bed, 195 Joint savings, 261
Catapult, 174 Fountain, 277
Ceiling fans, 286 Foyer, 418 K
Cement block, 441 Furniture, 327 Kite, 192, 236, 252, 505, 534
Center of mass, 334 France, 319
Cereal boxes, 407 Freeways, 391 L
Chain belt, 299 Fuel tanks, 428 Ladders, 81, 213, 249, 505, 512
Chateau de Villandry, 319 Lamppost, 107, 236
Chambered nautilus, 230 G Lawn roller, 428
Chemical mixtures, 267 Garage doors, 236 Leonard P. Zakim Bridge, 79
China, 139 Garages, 511 Letters, 117–118
Church steeple, 415, 418 Garden plots, 319, 371 Level, 91
Clay pigeons, 529 Gasoline consumption, 222 Light fixtures, 208
xv
xvi Index of Applications
Lighthouse, 497, 518 Plastic pipe, 441 Storage tanks, 427, 428
Logos, 119, 123, 125, 203, 390 Plumb, 101, 168 Streetmaps, 190
Lookout tower, 520 Point-of-Division Formulas, 492–493 Surveyors, 296, 533
Los Angeles, 107, 351 Pond, 245 Suspension bridge, 212
Lug bolts, 115, 286 Pontusval Lighthouse, 497 Swimming pool, 213
Pools, 213, 396 Swing set, 193, 526, 527
M Popcorn container, 428
Magic squares, 202 Poster paper, 334 T
Magic triangles, 171 Probability, 431 Tabletops, 115, 385
Manufacturing, 149, 172, 233 Pulleys, 125, 300–301, 384 Tangrams, 208
Maps, 107, 171, 190, 449 Pump, 442 Tape measure, 35
Margarine tub, 428 Teepee, 427
Measuring wheel, 381 R Television (room) size, 232,
Meters, 125 Rafters, 528 233, 236
Mexico, 399 Railroads, 206 Tents, 360
Mirrors, 94 Ramp, 206, 259, 391 Tessellations, 376
Miters, 51 Recipes, 228, 267 Tethers, 391
Murphy bed, 195 Red Cross, 173 Tiles, 112, 376
Remodeling, 363 Tire jack, 200
N Roadway, 33, 152, 505 Tornado, 173, 336
NASA, 290 Roofline, 107, 213, 505, 534 Tracks, 228, 384
Natural gas, 125 Roofs, 107, 213, 359, 511 Travel speed, 190, 260
Nautilus (chambered), 230 Rope fastener, 69 Treadmill, 305
Nevada, 212 Rowboat, 505 Trees, 236
Nine-point circle, 345–346 Tower, 503
S Trapeze, 209
Salaries, 228 Triangular numbers, 70
O
Satellite, 357, 384 Tripod, 37
Observation, 275
Satellite dishes, 296, 326 Trough, 441
Observatory, 437
Seamstress, 228
Oil refinery, 428
Search and rescue, 512, 520 U
Orange juice container, 229, 427
Seascape, 296 Unit cost, 273
Origami, 429
Secretaries, 228
Shadows, 236
P V
Sharpshooters, 529
Painting, 359, 384, 437 Vacuum cleaners, 305
Ships, 275, 296
Parallelogram Law, 187, 190 Shoplifters, 94
Patio door, 200 Shorelines, 107 W
Patterns, 70 Shuttle, 290 Wall, 205
Pegboards, 356 Sidewalks, 376 Wallpaper, 395
Penrose stairs, 10 Signs, 49, 115 Washers, 382
Pentagon, 354 Ski lift, 513, 514 Weather map, 3
Periscope, 94 Soccer balls, 436, 437 Wheel, 115, 286
Picnic table, 115 Spindles, 426 Windows, 138
Pie chart, 386 Square numbers, 70, 214–215 Windshield wipers, 391
Piers, 252 St. Louis, 13, 324–325 Wood chipper, 418
Pills, 441 Staircase, 96 Woodwork, 363
Pipes, 390, 441 Starfish, 114 Wrench, 296, 530
Pitch (of roof), 454, 504 Stars, 296, 541
Pittman Dowell Residence, 351 Statistics, 386 Y
Pizza, 384, 390 Steeple, 415, 418 Yogurt container, 10, 428
Planetarium, 175, 296 Storage sheds, 398 Yucatan peninsula, 399
7E
Elementary
Geometry
for College Students
Preliminary Concepts P
iStock.com/actual_size
CHAPTER OUTLINE
P.1 Sets and Geometry Foundations ! The building blocks for the study of geometry can be
P.2 Statements and found in the early chapters. A firm foundation is essential for the building
Reasoning
of knowledge in geometry or any other field. However, you may already
P.3 Informal Geometry
be familiar with the concepts in Chapter P; if so, begin your study with
and Measurement
■ PERSPECTIVE
Chapter 1. In Section P.1, we introduce the notion of sets (collections of
ON HISTORY: objects). Sets of points form all geometric figures. For instance, lines,
Our Greek Heritage angles, triangles, and circles are sets of points. Regarding the geometric
■ PERSPECTIVE ON figures described above, we will study them, reason about them, and thus
APPLICATIONS: One-to- develop their properties. In Section P.2, we introduce three types of reason-
One Correspondence
ing that are fundamental to the development of geometry. The process of
■ SUMMARY
developing valid properties about geometric figures occurs in this order:
1. We have an idea (intuitive reasoning).
2. We repeatedly test the idea (inductive reasoning) to be sure that it is
credible.
3. We verify the idea/relationship as a necessary conclusion by piecing
together, in order, claims that we have already established.
Many fundamental concepts of geometry are introduced informally in
Section P.3.
1
2 CHAPTER P ■ Preliminary Concepts
P.1 Sets and Geometry

key concepts
Set Point Paths (Straight, Line Segment, Line, Ray Disjoint Sets
Element Curved, Circular, Intersection and Union of Venn Diagrams
Finite and Infinite Scattered) Sets Equivalent Sets
Sets Between Empty Set Universe
Subset Continuous/Discontinuous Angle Complement of Set
SETS AND SETS OF NUMBERS

A set is any collection of objects, such as a collection of numbers or a collection of points. The
objects in a set are known as the elements of the set. Some sets are collections of numbers
such as the set of natural numbers or counting numbers N 5 51,2,3,4, c6, which is read
“the set containing 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.” Another well-known set is R 5 5real numbers6,
the set of numbers on the number line; the real numbers include positives and negatives,
whole numbers, common fractions, and irrational numbers such as !2 and p. Decimal forms
for common fractions terminate or repeat, while those for irrational numbers do n either. In
the following example, a calculator is used to find decimal forms.
Example 1
Find the decimal forms for these numbers:

3 3
a) b) c) !2 d) p
4 11
SOLUTION
3 3
a) 5 0.75 b) 5 0.2727 c
4 11
c) !2 5 1.4142135 c d) p 5 3.1415926 c
Some sets are finite; such sets have a countable number of elements. At times, we use
the symbol N{A} to represent the number N of elements in a finite set A; for instance,
N51,2,36 5 3. Many sets are infinite; these sets have an uncountable number of
elements (too many elements to count).
Example 2
Are these sets finite or infinite?

a) V 5 {vowels} 5 {a,e,i,o,u} b) N 5 {natural numbers}
The Student Study Guide (SSG) will
provide additional practice.
SOLUTION
a) V is finite; V has 5 elements, expressed by the statement N5V6 5 5.
SSG Exs. 1, 2 b) N is infinite; there is no largest counting number.
P.1 ■ Sets and Geometry 3
When every element in one set belongs to another set, the first set is called a subset of
the second set. For instance, if A is the set A 5 51,2,36, then A is a subset of N, the set
of natural numbers (counting numbers); in symbols, A ⊆ N.
NOTE: The open part of the subset symbol is toward the larger set.
SETS OF POINTS
Geometry in Nature In geometry, a point has location but does not have size. A
71 A point is shown as a dot and is generally named by an upper-
case letter such as A. In Figure P.1, we see points A, B, and C. C
70 When many points appear together, a pattern or path is often B
75 159
73 formed. Some of those paths are characterized in Figure P.2.
Figure P.1
79 147 In Figure P.2(a), (b), and (c), you may think of the path in
75 much the same way that you would “stepping stones”; however
Source: MarylandWx.com
83 151
74 5 Figure P.2(d) does not create a path.
46 122
38 6
G20
The blue “dots” represent showers—

evidently of a “scattered” nature. (a) straight (b) curved (c) circular (d) scattered
Figure P.2
When we consider three of the points on a straight path (shown on a line), we generally
describe one point as being between the remaining two points; that does not necessarily
R S T
mean halfway between the other points.
Figure P.3 In Figure P.3, point S lies between points R and T.
A line is formed when an infinite number of points follow a straight path. One char-
acteristic of the line is that between any two points, there is always another point. The
infinite set of points that form the line is so dense that the line is said to be continuous.
B C Thus, a line can be drawn without lifting<the> pencil from the paper.
Figure P.4 In Figure P.4, line BC (in symbols, BC ) is named by two points B and C on the line.
Some subsets of the line are also shown in Figure P.5.
Name in words Symbols Endpoint(s)
Line segment BC BC or CB B and C B C
Ray BC BC B B C
Ray CB CB C B C
Figure P.5
Later, we will use a ruler to measure (find the length of) a line segment; however, a line or
ray does not have a length.
In Figure P.2, the paths created by the points display a quality known as discontinuous.
We now recall those paths in Figure P.6(a), (b), and (c), but display them with the
quality known as continuous. This continuity would be like following a road rather than
stepping stones.
(a) straight (b) curved (c) circular

SSG Exs. 3–5 Figure P.6
INTERSECTION AND UNION OF SETS

DEFINITION
The set of elements that are common to (belong to both) sets P and Q is known as the
intersection of P and Q. The symbol for this intersection is P d Q.
Geometry in the Real World Example 3

Mattis Ave.
Where A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find the intersection A d B. Also, find N5A d B6.
SOLUTION Because 2 and 4 are the only elements that appear in both sets, A d B 5 52,46.
Bradley Ave. Because A d B contains 2 elements, we say that N5A d B6 5 2.
< > < > D

< > the< intersection
In Figure P.7, > of AB and CD is point A
In the real world, the common E; that is, AB d CD 5 E. E
part of two roads is known as their
A set containing no elements is called the empty B
intersection.
set and is represented by the symbol ∅; for instance, C
B
the set of counting numbers between < > 4< and
> 5 is the
empty set. Also, the two lines AB and < > CD< in> Figure
A
D
P.8 have no points in common; thus, AB d CD 5 ∅. Figure P. 7
Two sets that have no elements in common are also known as disjoint sets. For
C example, the sets C 5 51,36 and D 5 52,46 are disjoint sets.
Figure P. 8
DEFINITION
The set of elements that are in set P, set Q, or both sets P and Q is known as the union of
Warning P and Q. The symbol for the union of sets P and Q is P < Q.
We will describe a set by one of the
following: empty, finite, or infinite. For
clarification, a finite set has a count-
ing number 51,2,3,4,c6 of elements Example 4
while the empty set has 0 elements.
Where A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find the union A < B. Also, find N5A < B6.
SOLUTION Combining all elements in A and B, we have A < B 5 51,2,3,4,6,86.

Because A < B contains 6 elements, we have N5A < B6 5 6.
> union> of two rays

In geometry, we will define an angle as the A
>
with a common >
endpoint. In Figure P.9, BA and BC are known
as rays; BA < BC 5 ∠ABC, where ∠ABC is read “angle ABC” B
SSG Exs. 5–8 and traces a path from A to B, and then from B to C.
C
The fact that every angle has two sides can be expressed
by writing N{sides of an angle} 5 2. Later we will measure an Figure P. 9
angle by using an instrument called the protractor.
SETS AND VENN DIAGRAMS

Sets of objects are sometimes represented by geometric figures such as circles or rectan-
gles. These figures are known as Venn Diagrams in honor of their creator, John Venn, an
Englishman who lived from 1834 a.d. to 1923 a.d. If we represent sets by A and B, there are
several possible relationships, as shown in Figure P.10. When the figures representing the
two sets intersect, we sometimes say that the Venn Diagrams overlap; see Figure P.10(b).
Two sets that have exactly the same elements are known as equivalent sets. The two
sets E 5 52,4,6,86 and F 5 5even numbers between 1 and 96 are equivalent, written
E 5 F. When the two sets are equivalent, only one set is shown (but labeled twice), as in
Figure P.10(d).
A is a subset of B A and B intersect A and B are disjoint A and B are equivalent

A A
B BA BA BA A
BBA

BAB A
A
BB
A

BAB
A A
B BA BA B
AA BAB AB A A B A A BB BA A B A
BB AB ABA AB B A B B
(a)(a) (a) (a) (b)(b) (b) (b) (c)(c) (c) (c) (d)(d) (d) (d)
Figure P.10
Example 5
Which relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, equivalent) exists between these sets?
a) A 5 51,2,36; B 5 5counting numbers less than 46
b) C 5 52,4,6,86; D 5 5all even numbers6
c) E 5 52,3,5,7,116; F 5 5single digit counting numbers6
d) G 5 5all even numbers6; H 5 5all odd numbers6
SOLUTION
a) Because B 5 51,2,36, sets A and B are equivalent; that is, A 5 B.
b) Because D 5 5c,26,24,22,0,2,4,6,8,10, c6, C is a subset of D; that is,
C ⊆ D.
c) Because F 5 51,2,3,4,c,96, E d F 5 52,3,5,76; that is, E and F intersect.
SSG Exs. 9, 10 d) Because no even number is odd, G d H 5 ∅; these sets are disjoint.
In some discussions, the term universe is used to describe a set that contains all of
the elements and subsets under discussion. In the form of a Venn Diagram, all subsets
appear within the universe (or universal set). In Figure P.11, let D 5 5dogs6, while
P 5 5pomeranians6, C 5 5collies6, and B 5 5beagles6. In Figure P.11, D is the univer-
sal set containing the disjoint subsets P, C, and B.
P
B
Figure P.11
In geometry, we will use the notion of a universe many times, but perhaps without
calling so much attention to it. For instance, the universe implied in Chapter 3 will be
T 5 5triangles6. A triangle, as you may very well know, has 3 sides that are line seg-
ments. In that chapter, many subsets will be considered: triangles with 2 sides of equal
length, triangles with 3 sides of equal length, triangles in which one of the angles formed is
known as a right angle, and so on. In Chapter 4, we will focus upon Q 5 5quadrilaterals6,
figures with 4 line segment sides; some of these are squares and others rectangles. Where
P is a subset of the universe U, we define a related concept.
DEFINITION
The complement of set P, a subset of universe U, is the set that contains the elements of
U that are not in P. The symbol ,P represents the complement of P.
SSG Exs. 11, 12 The shaded region in Figure P.12 represents the complement of P. Informally, the comple-
ment is the portion of U not in P.
Figure P.12
Exercises P.1
1. Is the set named empty, finite, or infinite? 8. Let A, B, and C lie on a
a) N 5 5counting numbers6 straight line as shown. A B C
b) V 5 5vowels6 Classify these claims as Exercises 7, 8
c)
P 5 5points in the intersection of two disjoint sets6 true or false.
a) There is no point that lies between A and B.
2. Is the set named empty, finite, or infinite?
b) AB has endpoints A and B.
a) L 5 5points on a line6
B 5 5baseballs used in a major league game6
b) 9. Given A 5 51,2,3,46, B 5 52,4,6,86, and C 5 51,3,5,7,96.
N 5 5negative numbers that are larger than 56
c) Find:
a) A d B
3. Where possible, use the symbol ⊆ to join the two sets.
b) B < C
V 5 5vowels6; L 5 5letters in the alphabet6
a)
c) 1A d B2 d 1B < C2
b) A 5 51,2,3,46; B 5 52,4,6,86
10. Consider sets A, B, and C from Exercise 9. Find:
4. Where possible, use the symbol ⊆ to join the two sets.
a) A < B
a)
P 5 5all pages in this book6;
b) B d C
T 5 5page 10 of this book6
c) 1A ∪ B2 d 1A ∪ C2
b)
P 5 5points on a circular path P6;
E 5 5points A and B that lie on the circular path P6 11. For the sets given in Exercise 9, is there a “distributive rela-
tionship for union with respect to intersection”? That is, does
5. Which type of path (straight, curved, circular, or scattered) is
A < 1B d C2 5 1A < B2 d 1A < C2?
determined by:
a) a roller coaster? 12. For the sets given in Exercise 9, is there a “distributive rela-
b) a pencil? tionship for intersection with respect to union”? That is, does
c) a carousel? A d 1B < C2 5 1A d B2 < 1A d C2?
d) darts thrown at a dartboard?
6. Which type of path (straight, curved, circular, or scattered) is
< > < > 13 to< 16,
For Exercises > consider the figure with the circle and
lines AB , CE , and GF . Classify the following claims as true or
determined by: false.
a) pepper sprinkled on a steak?
C
b) a Ferris wheel? < > circle and
13. The
D
F
c) a ruler? AB intersect in B
E
d) the path of a snake? two points. H
< > < >
7. Let A, B, and C lie on a straight line as shown near 14. CD d GF 5 E
Exercise 8. Classify these claims as true or false. 15. Two lines must G A
> between A and C.
a) B lies intersect in one
b) AB is a ray with endpoint B. point. Exercises 13–16
< >
16. The circle and CE intersect in point D. 28. With P and Q subsets of U (as shown), shade , 1P d Q2.
17. Use the angle symbol 1∠2 and 29. The figures below are triangles. Find:
> three> letters to name the angle
formed by the two rays CD and CE (rays not shown). N5sides in a triangle6.
18. Use the angle symbol 1∠2 >and three> letters to name the angle
formed by the two rays EF and EG (rays not shown).
19. What relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, or equivalent)
can be used to characterize the two sets shown in the Venn
30. The figures below are quadrilaterals. Find:
Diagram?
N5sides in a quadrilateral6.
A B
B
A
(a) (b) 31. If N5A6 5 3 and N5B6 5 5, what is:

a) the smallest number possible for N5A d B6?
20. What relationship (subset, intersect, disjoint, or equivalent)
b) the largest number possible for N5A < B6?
can be used to characterize the two sets shown in the Venn
Diagram? 32. If N5A6 5 3 and N5B6 5 5, what is:
a) the largest number possible for N5A d B6?
b) the smallest number possible for N5A < B6?
A B A B Exercises 33–38 are based on the principle
N1A < B2 5 N5A6 1 N5B6 2 N1A d B2.
33. If N5A6 5 7 and N5B2 5 7 and N1A < B2 5 7, how are A
(a) (b)
and B related?
21. If A 5 51,2,3,46 and B 5 52,4,6,86, find: 34. If N5A6 5 7 and N5B6 5 3 and N1A < B2 5 10, how are
a) N5A6 A and B related?
b) N5B6
c) N1A d B2 35. An interview of 50 women in a residential subdivision
d) N1A < B2 reveals that 21 are gardeners while 32 are avid readers. How
many are both gardeners and avid readers?
22. If A 5 5vowels6 and B 5 5letters in the word “spare”6,
find: 36. At a liberal arts school, a survey of 100 students indicates
a) N5A6 that 68 enjoy their English class while 47 enjoy their math-
b) N5B6 ematics class. How many of these students enjoy both their
c) N1A d B2 English class and their mathematics class?
d) N1A < B2 37. Alekzio, a librarian at the city library, is reshelving books.
23. Find a universe for the set {algebra, geometry, trigonometry, He replaces 47 mysteries and 69 romance novels; of these,
calculus}. 32 were cross-listed as both mystery and romance. How
many books did Alekzio reshelve in all?
24. Find a universe for the set {apples, bananas, pears, peaches,
strawberries}. 38. At “It’s a Small World,” dance classes and gymnastics
classes are offered to preschool-age children. For the fall
25. Where P 5 51,3,5,7,96 and U 5 51,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,96, classes, 65 preschoolers are enrolled in dance classes and
find ,P. 58 are enrolled in gymnastics classes. Of those students,
26. Where C 5 5consonants6 and U 5 526 letters of the 26 were enrolled in both dance and gymnastics classes.
alphabet}, find ,C. How many total students were enrolled?
27. With P and Q subsets

U
of U (as shown), shade
, 1P < Q2. P
Q
Exercises 27, 28
P.2 Statements and Reasoning

key concepts
Statement Disjunction Reasoning Valid and Invalid
Variable Conditional Statement Intuition Arguments
Negation (Implication) Induction Law of Detachment
Compound Statement Hypothesis Deduction Counterexample
Conjunction Conclusion
Statements
DEFINITION
A statement is a set of words and/or symbols that collectively make a claim that can be
classified as true or false.
EXAMPLE 1
e 1
Sid
Classify each of the following as a true statement, a false statement, or neither.
Side 2
1. 4 1 3 5 7
Figure P.13 2. An angle has two sides. (See Figure P.13.)
3. Robert E. Lee played shortstop for the Yankees.
4. 7 6 3 (This is read “7 is less than 3.”)
5. Look out!
Solution 1 and 2 are true statements; 3 and 4 are false statements; 5 is not a
statement.
Some statements contain one or more variables; a variable is a letter that represents
a number. The claim “x 1 5 5 6” is called an open sentence or open statement because
it can be classified as true or false, depending on the replacement value of x. For instance,
x 1 5 5 6 is true if x 5 1; for x not equal to 1, x 1 5 5 6 is false. Some statements
containing variables are classified as true because they are true for all replacements. Con-
sider the Commutative Property of Addition, usually stated in the form a 1 b 5 b 1 a.
In words, this property states that the same result is obtained when two numbers are added in
either order; for instance, when a 5 4 and b 5 7, it follows that 4 1 7 5 7 1 4.
The negation of a given statement P makes a claim opposite that of the original state-
ment. If the given statement is true, its negation is false, and vice versa. If P is a statement,
we use ~P (which is read “not P”) to indicate its negation.
EXAMPLE 2
Give the negation of each statement.

a) 4 1 3 5 7 b) All fish can swim.
Solution
a) 4 1 3 ≠ 7 ( ≠ means “is not equal to.”)
b) Some fish cannot swim. (To negate “All fish can swim,” we say that at least one
fish cannot swim.)
A compound statement is formed by combining other statements used as “building

blocks.” In such cases, we may use letters such as P and Q to represent simple statements.
P.2 ■ Statements and Reasoning 9
For example, the letter P may refer to the true statement “4 1 3 5 7,” and the letter Q
TABLE P.1
to the false statement “Babe Ruth was a U.S. president.” The statement “4 1 3 5 7 and
The Conjunction
Babe Ruth was a U.S. president” has the form P and Q, and is known as the conjunction of
P Q P and Q P and Q. The statement “4 1 3 5 7 or Babe Ruth was a U.S. president” has the form P
or Q, and is known as the disjunction of statement P and statement Q. A conjunction is true
T T T only when P and Q are both true. A disjunction is false only when P and Q are both false.
T F F See Tables P.1 and P.2.
F T F
F F F EXAMPLE 3
Assume that statement P and statement Q are both true.

TABLE P.2
The Disjunction P: 4 1 3 5 7
Q: An angle has two sides.
P Q P or Q
Classify the following statements as true or false.
T T T 1. 4 1 3 ≠ 7 and an angle has two sides.
T F T 2. 4 1 3 ≠ 7 or an angle has two sides.
F T T
Solution Statement 1 is false because the conjunction has the form “F and T.”
F F F
Statement 2 is true because the disjunction has the form “F or T.”
The statement “If P, then Q,” known as a conditional statement (or implication), is
classified as true or false as a whole. A statement of this form can be written in equivalent
forms; for instance, the conditional statement, “If an angle is a right angle, then it measures
90 degrees” is equivalent to the statement, “All right angles measure 90 degrees.”
Example 4
Classify each conditional statement as true or false.

1. If an animal is a fish, then it can swim. (States, “All fish can swim.”)
2. If two sides of a triangle are equal in length, then two angles of the triangle are
equal in measure. (See Figure P.14.)
5 in. 5 in. 5 in. 1068 5 in.
378 378
8 in. 8 in.
Figure P.14
3. If Wendell studies, then he will receive an A on the test.
Solution Statements 1 and 2 are true. Statement 3 is false; Wendell may study yet
not receive an A.
In the conditional statement “If P, then Q,” P is the hypothesis and Q is the conclu-
sion. In statement 2 of Example 4, we have
Hypothesis: Two sides of a triangle are equal in length.
Conclusion: Two angles of the triangle are equal in measure.
For the true statement “If P, then Q,” the hypothetical situation described in P implies the
conclusion described in Q. This type of statement is often used in reasoning, so we turn
SSG Exs. 1–7 our attention to this matter.
Geometry in the Real World Reasoning

Success in the study of geometry requires vocabulary development, attention to detail and
order, supporting claims, and thinking. Reasoning is a process based on experience and
principles that leads to a conclusion. The following types of reasoning are used to develop
mathematical principles.
1. Intuition an inspiration leading to the statement of a theory

2. Induction an organized effort to test and validate the theory
3. Deduction a formal argument that proves the tested theory
◆ Intuition
We are often inspired to think and say, “It occurs to me that. . . .” With intuition, a sudden
insight allows one to make a statement without applying any formal reasoning. When intuition
is used, we sometimes err by “jumping” to conclusions.
Geometry in the Real World
In a cartoon, the character having
the “bright idea” (using intuition) is Example 5
shown with a light bulb next to his or
her head. Figure P.15 is called a regular pentagon because its five sides have equal lengths and its
five interior angles have equal measures. What do you suspect is true of the lengths of
the dashed parts of lines from B to E and from B to D?
B
Solution Intuition suggests that the lengths of the dashed parts of lines (known as
diagonals of the pentagon) are the same.
Note 1: Using induction (and a ruler), we can verify that this claim is true. We will
A C discuss measurement with the ruler in more detail in Section P.3.
Note 2: Using methods found in Chapter 3, we could use deduction to prove that the
two diagonals do indeed have the same length.
E D The role intuition plays in formulating mathematical thoughts is truly significant. But to
have an idea is not enough! Testing a theory may lead to a revision of the theory or even
Figure P.15
to its total rejection. If a theory stands up to testing, it moves one step closer to becoming
mathematical law.
◆ Induction
Discover We often use specific observations and experiments to draw a general conclusion. This type of
reasoning is called induction. As you would expect, the observation/experimentation process
An optical illusion known as “Penrose
stairs” is shown below. Although com-
is common in laboratory and clinical settings. Chemists, physicists, doctors, psychologists,
mon sense correctly concludes that meteorologists (weather forecasters), and many others use collected data as a basis for draw-
no such stairs can be constructed, ing conclusions. In our study of geometry, the inductive process generally has us use a ruler or
what unusual quality appears to be a protractor (to measure angles).
true of the stairs drawn?
Example 6
While in a grocery store, you examine several 6-oz cartons of yogurt. Although the
flavors and brands differ, each carton is priced at 95 cents. What do you conclude?
ANSWER
The stairs constantly rise or descend. Conclusion Every 6-oz carton of yogurt in the store costs 95 cents.
Example 7
In a geometry class, you have been asked to measure the three interior angles of each
triangle in Figure P.16. You discover that triangles I, II, and IV have two angles (as
marked) that have equal measures. What may you conclude?
Conclusion The triangles that have two sides of equal length also have two angles
of equal measure.
3 cm 1 cm
II
5 in.
3 in.
3 cm III
4 cm
4 cm
I 4 in.
5 in. 6 ft
5 in. 3 ft
2 cm IV V
7 in. 7 ft
Figure P.16
Note: The protractor, used to support the conclusion above, will be discussed in
Section P.3.
◆ Deduction
DEFINITION
Deduction is the type of reasoning in which the knowledge and acceptance of selected
assumptions guarantee the truth of a particular conclusion.
In Example 8, we illustrate a valid argument, a form of deductive reasoning used

frequently in the development of geometry. In this form, at least two statements are treated
as facts; these assumptions are called the premises of the argument. On the basis of the
premises, a particular conclusion must follow. This form of deduction is called the Law of
Detachment.
Example 8
If you accept the following statements 1 and 2 as true, what must you conclude?
1. If a student plays on the Rockville High School boys’ varsity basketball team,
then he is a talented athlete.
2. Todd plays on the Rockville High School boys’ varsity basketball team.
Conclusion Todd is a talented athlete.
To more easily recognize this pattern for deductive reasoning, we use letters to represent
statements in the following generalization.
Law of Detachment
Let P and Q represent simple statements, and assume that statements 1 and 2 are true. Then a
valid argument having conclusion C has the form
1. If P, then Q
2. P } premises
C. 6Q } conclusion
NOTE: The symbol [ means “therefore.”
In the preceding form, the statement “If P, then Q” is often read “P implies Q.” That is,
when P is known to be true, Q must follow.
Example 9
Is the following argument valid? Assume that premises 1 and 2 are true.
1. If it is raining, then Tim will stay in the house.
2. It is raining.
C. 6Tim will stay in the house.
Conclusion The argument is valid because the form of the argument is

1. If P, then Q
2. P
C. 6Q
with P 5 “It is raining,” and Q 5 “Tim will stay in the house.”
Example 10
Is the following argument valid? Assume that premises 1 and 2 are true.
1. If a man lives in London, then he lives in England.
2. William lives in England.
C.
6 William lives in London.
Conclusion The argument is not valid. Here, P 5 “A man lives in London,” and
Q 5 “A man lives in England.” Thus, the form of this argument is
1. If P, then Q
2. Q
C. 6P
To represent a valid argument, the Law of Detachment would require that the first state-
ment has the form “If Q, then P.” Even though statement Q is true, it does not enable us to
draw a valid conclusion about P. Thus, we have an invalid argument. Of course, if William
lives in England, he might live in London; but he might instead live in Liverpool, Manches-
ter, Coventry, or any of countless other places in England. Each of these possibilities is a
counterexample disproving the validity of the argument. Remember that deductive reason-
ing is concerned with reaching conclusions that must be true, given the truth of the premises.
Warning
Valid Argument Invalid Argument
In the box, the argument on the left is
1. If P, then Q 1. If P, then Q
valid and patterned after Example 9.
The argument on the right is invalid; 2. P 2. Q
this form was given in Example 10. C. 6Q C. 6P
We will use deductive reasoning throughout our work in geometry. For example, suppose
that you know these two facts:
SSG Exs. 8–12 1. If an angle is a right angle, then it measures 90°.
2. Angle A is a right angle.
Because the form found in statements 1 and 2 matches the form of the valid argument, you
may draw the following conclusion.
C. Angle A measures 90°.
Venn Diagrams
As described in Section P.1, sets of objects are often represented by Venn Diagrams. In
a Venn Diagram, each set is represented by a closed (bounded) figure such as a circle or
P
rectangle. If statements P and Q of the conditional statement “If P, then Q” are represented
Q
by sets of objects P and Q, respectively, then the Law of Detachment can be justified by a
geometric argument. When a Venn Diagram is used to represent the statement “If P, then
If P, then Q. Q,” it is absolutely necessary that circle P lies in circle Q; that is, P is a subset of Q. (See
Figure P.17 Figure P.17.)
Example 11
Use Venn Diagrams to verify Example 8.

T
Solution Let B 5 students on the Rockville High varsity boys’ basketball team.
Let A 5 people who are talented athletes.
B
To represent the statement “If a basketball player (B), then a talented athlete (A),”
A we show B within A. In Figure P.18 we use point T to represent Todd, a person on the
basketball team (T in B). With point T also in circle A, we conclude that “Todd is a
Figure P.18 talented athlete.”
The statement “If P, then Q” is sometimes expressed in the form “All P are Q.” For instance,
the conditional statement of Examples 8 and 11 can be written “All Rockville High School
basketball players are talented athletes.” Venn Diagrams can also be used to demonstrate
that the argument of Example 10 is not valid. To show the invalidity of the argument in
Discover Example 10, one must show that an object in Q may not lie in circle P. (See Figure P.17.)
in the St. Louis area, an interview of
In Exercises 33–38 of Section P.1, we applied the following principle:
100 sports enthusiasts shows that
N5P < Q6 5 N5P6 1 N5Q6 2 N5P d Q6.
74 support the Cardinals baseball
team and 58 support the Blues Consider the Discover activity at the left.
hockey team. All of those interviewed
We now use a reasoning approach with Venn Diagrams in order to verify this prin-
support one team or the other or
both. How many support both teams?
ciple. In this situation, we assume that P and Q have elements in common; however, the
ANSWER
statement above remains true even if P and Q are disjoint sets.
In Figure P.19, the number of elements shown in the light blue region is x, the number
32; 74 1 58 2 100
of elements shown in the gold region is z, and the number of elements shown in the red
region is y.
P Q P Q P Q
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure P.19
Considering Figure P.19, we find that N5P6 5 x 1 y, N5Q6 5 y 1 z, and N5P d Q6 5 y.

We can now verify the statement N5P < Q6 5 N5P6 1 N5Q6 2 N5P d Q6.
N5P < Q6 5 1x 1 y2 1 1y 1 z2 2 y
or x 1 2y 1 z 2 y or x 1 y 1 z,
SSG Exs. 13–15 which is the number of elements shown in P < Q.
Exercises P.2
In Exercises 1 and 2, which sentences are statements? If a 17. All squares are rectangles.
sentence is a statement, classify it as true or false.
18. Base angles of an isosceles triangle are congruent.
1. a) Where do you live?
b) 4 1 7 ≠ 5. In Exercises 19 to 24, classify each statement as true or false.
c) Washington was the first U.S. president. 19. If a number is divisible by 6, then it is divisible by 3.
d) x 1 3 5 7 when x 5 5.
20. Rain is wet and snow is cold.
2. a) Chicago is located in the state of Illinois.
b) Get out of here! 21. Rain is wet or snow is cold.
c) x 6 6 (read as “x is less than 6”) when x 5 10. 22. If Jim lives in Idaho, then he lives in Boise.
d) Babe Ruth is remembered as a great football player.
23. Triangles are round or circles are square.
In Exercises 3 and 4, give the negation of each statement.
24. Triangles are square or circles are round.
3. a) Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean.
b) All jokes are funny. In Exercises 25 to 32, name the type of reasoning (if any) used.
4. a) No one likes me. 25. While participating in an Easter egg hunt, Sarah notices that
b) Angle 1 is a right angle. each of the seven eggs she has found is numbered. Sarah
concludes that all eggs used for the hunt are numbered.
In Exercises 5 to 10, classify each statement as simple,
26. You walk into your geometry class, look at the teacher, and
conditional, a conjunction, or a disjunction.
conclude that you will have a quiz today.
5. If Alice plays, the volleyball team will win.
27. Lucy knows the rule “If a number is added to each side of
6. Alice played and the team won. an equation, then the new equation has the same solution
set as the given equation.” Given the equation x 2 5 5 7,
7. The first-place trophy is beautiful.
Lucy concludes that x 5 12.
8. An integer is odd or it is even.
28. You believe that “Anyone who plays major league base-
9. Matthew is playing shortstop. ball is a talented athlete.” Knowing that Duane Gibson has
just been called up to the major leagues, you conclude that
10. You will be in trouble if you don’t change your ways.
Duane Gibson is a talented athlete.
In Exercises 11 to 18, state the hypothesis and the conclusion 29. As a handcuffed man is brought into the police station, you
of each statement. glance at him and say to your friend, “That fellow looks
11. If you go to the game, then you will have a great time.
guilty to me.”
30. While judging a science fair project, Mr. Cange finds that
12. If two chords of a circle have equal lengths, then the arcs of
the chords are congruent. each of the first 5 projects is outstanding and concludes that
all 10 will be outstanding.
13. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular, then
31. You know the rule “If a person lives in the Santa Rosa
the parallelogram is a rhombus.
Junior College district, then he or she will receive a tuition
5 d , where b ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0, then a # d 5 b # c.
a c
14. If b break at Santa Rosa.” Emma tells you that she has received
15. Corresponding angles are congruent if two parallel lines are
a tuition break. You conclude that she resides in the Santa
cut by a transversal. Rosa Junior College district.
32. Before Mrs. Gibson enters the doctor’s waiting room, she
16. Vertical angles are congruent when two lines intersect.
concludes that it will be a long wait.
In Exercises 33 to 36, use intuition to state a conclusion. 42. If a person attends college, then he or she will be a suc-
cess in life. Kathy Jones attends Dade County Community
33. You are told that the opposite angles formed when two lines
College. Conclusion?
cross are vertical angles. In the figure, angles 1 and 2 are
vertical angles. Conclusion? 43. All mathematics teachers have a strange sense of humor.
A Alex is a mathematics teacher. Conclusion?
1 2 44. All mathematics teachers have a strange sense of humor.

M Alex has a strange sense of humor. Conclusion?
B
45. If Stewart Powers is elected president, then every school
Exercises 33, 34
will have internet access. Every school has internet access.
34. In the figure, point M is called the midpoint of line segment Conclusion?
AB. Conclusion?
46. If Tabby is meowing, then she is hungry. Tabby is hungry.
35. The two triangles shown are similar to each other. Conclusion?
Conclusion?
47. If a person is involved in politics, then that person will be in
the public eye. June Jesse has been elected to the Missouri
state senate. Conclusion?
48. If a student is enrolled in a literature course, then he or she
will work very hard. Bram Spiegel digs ditches by hand
six days a week. Conclusion?
36. Observe (but do not measure) the following angles.
Conclusion? 49. If a person is rich and famous, then he or she is happy.
Marilyn is wealthy and well known. Conclusion?
50. If you study hard and hire a tutor, then you will make
3 4 an A in this course. You make an A in this course.
Conclusion?
In Exercises 37 to 40, use induction to state a conclusion. In Exercises 51 to 54, use Venn Diagrams to determine whether
37. Several movies directed by Lawrence Garrison have the argument is valid or not valid.
won Academy Awards, and many others have received 51. 1) If an animal is a cat, then it makes a “meow” sound.
nominations. His latest work, A Prisoner of Society, is to 2) Tipper is a cat.
be released next week. Conclusion? C) Then Tipper makes a “meow” sound.
38. On Monday, Matt says to you, “Andy hit his little sister
52. 1) If an animal is a cat, then it makes a “meow” sound.
at school today.” On Tuesday, Matt informs you, “Andy 2) Tipper makes a “meow” sound.
threw his math book into the wastebasket during class.” On C) Then Tipper is a cat.
Wednesday, Matt tells you, “Because Andy was throwing
peas in the school cafeteria, he was sent to the principal’s 53. 1) All Boy Scouts serve the United States of America.
office.” Conclusion? 2) Sean serves the United States of America.
C) Sean is a Boy Scout.
39. While searching for a classroom, Tom stopped at an instructor’s
office to ask directions. On the office bookshelves are books 54. 1) All Boy Scouts serve the United States of America.
titled Intermediate Algebra, Calculus, Modern Geometry, Linear 2) Sean is a Boy Scout.
Algebra, and Differential Equations. Conclusion? C) Sean serves the United States of America.
40. At a friend’s house, you see several food items, including In Exercises 55 and 56, P is a true statement, while Q and R
apples, pears, grapes, oranges, and bananas. Conclusion? are false statements. Classify each of the following statements
as true or false.
In Exercises 41 to 50, use deduction to state a conclusion,
if possible. 55. a) (P and Q) or ~R
b) (P or Q) and ~R
41. If the sum of the measures of two angles is 90°, then these
angles are called “complementary.” Angle 1 measures 27° 56. a) (P and Q) or R
and angle 2 measures 63°. Conclusion? b) (P or Q) and R
P.3 Informal Geometry and Measurement

key concepts
Point Midpoint Trisect Compass
Line Congruent Straight angle Constructions
Collinear Points Protractor Right Angle Circle
Vertex Parallel Intersect Arc
Line Segment Bisect Perpendicular Radius
In geometry, the terms point, line, and plane are described but not defined. Other concepts
that are accepted intuitively, but never defined, include the straightness of a line, the flat-
ness of a plane, the notion that a point on a line lies between two other points on the line,
A
and the notion that a point lies in the interior or exterior of an angle. Some of the terms
found in this section are formally defined in later sections of Chapter 1. The following are
B
descriptions of some of the undefined terms.
C
A point, which is represented by a dot, has location but not size; that is, a point has
Figure P.20 no dimensions. An uppercase italic letter is used to name a point. Figure P.20 shows points
A, B, and C.
The second undefined geometric term is line. A line is an infinite set of points. Given
any two points on a line, there is always a point that lies between them on that line. Lines
have a quality of “straightness” that is not defined but assumed. Given several points on a
line, these points form a straight path. Whereas a point has no dimensions, a line is one-
dimensional; that is, the distance between< >any two points on a given line can be measured.
A B Line AB, represented symbolically by AB , extends infinitely far in opposite directions, as
(a) suggested by the arrows on the line. A line may also be represented by a single lowercase
letter. Figure P.21(a) and (b) show the lines AB< and > m. When a lowercase letter is used to
m name a line, the line symbol is omitted;< >that is, AB and m can name the same line.
(b) Note the position of point X on AB in Figure P.21(c). When three points such as A,
X, and B are on the same line, they are said to be collinear. In the order shown, which is
A X B symbolized A-X-B or B-X-A, point X is said to be between A and B. When a drawing is not
(c) provided, the notation A-B-C means that these points are collinear, with B between A and
C. When a drawing is provided, we assume that all points in the drawing that appear to be
collinear are collinear, unless otherwise stated. Figure P.21(d) shows that A, B, and C are
A B C
collinear; in Figure P.22(a), points A, B, and C are noncollinear.
(d)
At this time, we informally introduce some terms that will be formally defined later.
Figure P.21 You have probably encountered the terms angle, triangle, and rectangle many times. An
example of each is shown in Figure P.22.
D W X
C
1
B E F Z Y
A
Angle ABC Triangle DEF Rectangle WXYZ
(a) (b) (c)
Figure P.22
Using symbols, we refer to Figure P.22(a), (b), and (c) as ∠ABC, △DEF, and `WXYZ,
respectively. Some caution must be used in naming figures; although the angle in Figure
P.22(a) can be called ∠CBA, it is incorrect to describe the angle as ∠ACB because that order
implies a path from point A to point C to point B . . . a different angle! In ∠ABC, the point B
P.3 ■ Informal Geometry and Measurement 17
B at which the sides meet is called the vertex of the angle. Because there is no confusion
regarding the angle described, ∠ABC is also known as ∠B (using only the vertex) or as ∠1.
The points D, E, and F at which the sides of △DEF (also called △DFE, △EFD, etc.) meet
are called the vertices (plural of vertex) of the triangle. Similarly, W, X, Y, and Z are the verti-
ces of the rectangle; the vertices are named in an order that traces the rectangle.
A line segment is part of a line. It consists of two distinct points on the line and all
points between them. (See Figure P.23.) Using symbols, we indicate the line segment by
C BC; note that BC is a set of points but is not a number. We use BC (omitting the segment
Figure P.23
symbol) to indicate the length of this line segment; thus, BC is a number. The sides of a
triangle or rectangle are line segments.
Example 1
Can the rectangle in Figure P.22(c) be named a) `XYZW? b) `WYXZ?
Solution
a) Yes, because the points taken in this order trace the figure.
b) No; for example, WY is not a side of the rectangle.
Discover
Measuring Line Segments
In converting from U.S. units to the
metric system, a known conversion is The instrument used to measure a line segment is a scaled straightedge such as a ruler,
the fact that 1 inch < 2.54 cm. What a yardstick, or a meter stick. Line segment RS (RS in symbols) in Figure P.24 measures
is the “cm” equivalent of 3.7 inches?
5 centimeters. Because we express the length of RS by RS (with no bar), we write
ANSWER
9.4 cm RS 5 5 cm.
To find the length of a line segment using a ruler:

1. Place the ruler so that “0” corresponds to one endpoint of the line segment.
2. Read the length of the line segment by reading the number at the remaining endpoint of
the line segment.
Because manufactured measuring devices such as the ruler, yardstick, and meter stick may
lack perfection or be misread, there is a margin of error each time one is used. In Figure P.24,
for instance, RS may actually measure 5.02 cm (and that could be rounded from 5.023 cm,
etc.). Measurements are approximate, not perfect.
R S
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
CENTIMETERS
Figure P.24
When “0” is not placed at the endpoint of the line segment, the length of the line seg-
ment is the positive difference between the numbers found at its endpoints.
In Example 2, a ruler (not drawn to scale) is shown in Figure P.25. In the drawing, the
distance between consecutive marks on the ruler corresponds to 1 inch. The measure of a
line segment is known as linear measure.
Example 2
In rectangle ABCD of Figure P.25, the line segments AC and BD shown are the diago-
nals of the rectangle. How do the lengths of the diagonals compare?
A D
C
B
Figure P.25
Solution As shown on the ruler, AC 5 10″. As intuition suggests, the lengths of the
diagonals are the same, so it follows that BD 5 10″.
Note: In linear measure, 10″ means 10 inches, and 109 means 10 feet.
A B C
Figure P.26 In Figure P.26, point B lies between A and C on AC. If AB 5 BC, then B is the
midpoint of AC. When AB 5 BC, the geometric figures AB and BC are said to be
congruent; in effect, geometric figures are congruent when one can be placed over the
other (a perfect match). Numerical lengths may be equal, but the actual line segments
(geometric figures) are congruent. The symbol for congruence is _; thus, AB _ BC if
B is the midpoint of AC. Example 3 emphasizes the relationship between AB, BC, and
AC when B lies between A and C.
Example 3
SSG Exs. 1–8 In Figure P.27, the lengths of AB and BC are AB 5 4 and BC 5 8. What is AC, the
length of AC?
A B C
Figure P.27
Solution As intuition suggests, the length of AC equals AB 1 BC.

Thus, AC 5 4 1 8 5 12.
Discover Measuring Angles

The word geometry means the
Although we formally define an angle in Section 1.2, we consider it intuitively at this time.
measure (from metry) of the earth
(from geo). Words that contain meter
An angle’s measure depends not on the lengths of its sides but on the amount of open-
also suggest the measure of some ing between its sides. In Figure P.28, the arrows on the angles’ sides suggest that the sides
quantity. What is measured by each extend indefinitely.
of the following objects?
odometer, pedometer, thermometer,

altimeter, clinometer, anemometer M
ANSWER
A
wind speed
temperature, altitude, angle of inclination,
Vehicle mileage, distance walked,
1
B C N Q
(a) (b)
Figure P.28
The instrument shown in Figure P.29 (and used in the measurement of angles)
is a protractor. For example, we would express the measure of ∠RST by writing
m∠RST 5 50°; this statement is read, “The measure of ∠RST is 50 degrees.” Measuring
the angles in Figure P.28 with a protractor, we find that m∠B 5 55° and m∠1 5 90°. If
90
0 50 R the degree symbol is missing, the measure is understood to be in degrees; thus, m∠1 5 90.
13 In practice, the protractor shown in Figures P.29 and P.30 will measure an angle that is
greater than 0° but less than or equal to 180°.
20
S T To find the degree measure of an angle using a protractor:
Figure P.29 1. P lace the notch of the protractor at the point where the sides of the angle meet
(the vertex of the angle). See point S in Figure P.30.
2. Place the protractor along a side of the angle so that the scale reads “0.” See point T
in Figure P.30 where we find “0” on the outer scale.
3. Using the same (outer) scale, read the angle size by reading the degree measure that
corresponds to the second side of the angle.
Warning
Example 4
Many protractors have dual scales, as
shown in Figure P.30. To measure the
For Figure P.30, find the measure of ∠RST.
angle, one must calculate the positive
difference between two numbers on
the same (inner or outer) scale.
80 90 100
70 100 80 110
110 70 12
60 0 60 0
12 13
50 0 50 0
13
R
14 0
14 0
0
4
4
0
15 0
15 0
0
3
3
0
160
20
160
20
170
170
10
10
180
180
0
0
S
Figure P.30
Solution Using the protractor, we find that the measure of angle RST is 31°.
(In symbols, m∠RST 5 31° or m∠RST 5 31.)
Some protractors show a full 360°; such a protractor is used to measure an angle
whose measure is between 0° and 360°. An angle whose measure is between 180° and
360° is known as a reflex angle.
Just as measurement with a ruler is not perfect, neither is measurement with a protractor.
The lines on a sheet of paper in a notebook are parallel. Informally, parallel lines lie
on the same page and will not cross over each other even if they are extended indefinitely.
We say that lines / and m in Figure P.31(a) are parallel; note here the use of a lowercase
letter to < name
> a line. We< say> that line segments are parallel if they are parts of parallel
lines; if RS is parallel to MN, then RS is parallel to MN in Figure P.31(b).
R S
M N
(a) (b)
Figure P.31
The relationship between the parallel lines in Figure P.31(a) can be characterized by the
statement / d m 5 ∅.
Example 5
In Figure P.32, the sides of angles ABC and DEF are parallel (AB to DE and BC to EF).
Use a protractor to decide whether these angles have equal measures.
C D
E
F
A B
Figure P.32
Solution The angles have equal measures. Both measure 44°.
Two angles with equal measures are said to be congruent. In Figure P.32, we see that
∠ABC _ ∠DEF. In Figure P.33, ∠ABC _ ∠CBD.
A In Figure P.33, angle ABD has been separated into smaller angles ABC and CBD; if
the two smaller angles are congruent (have equal measures), then angle ABD has been
bisected. In general, the word bisect means to separate a line segment (or an angle) into
C two parts of equal measure; similarly, the word trisect means that the line segment (or
338 angle) is separated into three parts of equal measure.
338 Any angle having a 180° measure is called a straight angle, an angle whose sides are in
B
D opposite directions. See straight angle RST in Figure P.34(a). When a straight angle is bisected,
Figure P.33 as shown in Figure P.34(b), the two angles formed are right angles (each measures 90°).
When two lines have a point in common, as in Figure P.35, they are said to intersect.
When two lines intersect and form congruent adjacent angles, they are said to be perpendic-
ular. In Figure P.35, lines r and t are perpendicular if ∠1 _ ∠2 or ∠2 _ ∠3, and so on.
1808
r
R S T
(a)
t
V 1 2
4 3
908 908
R S T
(b)
Figure P.35
Figure P.34
Example 6
In Figure P.35, suppose that a) ∠3 _ ∠4 b) ∠1 _ ∠4 c) ∠1 _ ∠3. Are lines r

and t perpendicular?
SSG Exs. 9–13 Solution a) Yes b) Yes c) The lines could be perpendicular, but not necessarily.
Constructions
Another tool used in geometry is the compass. This instrument, shown in Figure P.36, is
used to draw circles and parts of circles known as arcs.
The ancient Greeks insisted that only two tools (a compass and a straightedge) be
used for geometric constructions, which were idealized drawings assuming perfection in
the use of these tools. The compass was used to create “perfect” circles and for marking
off segments of “equal” length. The straightedge could be used to draw a straight line
Figure P.36 through two designated points.
A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from a particular
Center O
point (known as the “center” of the circle). The part of a circle between any two of its
points is known as an arc. Any line segment joining the center to a point on the circle is a
radius (plural: radii) of the circle. See Figure P.37.
Construction 1, which follows, is quite basic and depends only on using arcs of the
same radius length to construct line segments of the same length. The arcs are created by
O using a compass. Construction 2 is more difficult to perform and explain, so we will delay
Radius OB
its explanation to a later chapter (see Section 3.4).
B
A
Arc AB Construction 1 Construct a segment congruent to a given segment.
Figure P.37 given: AB in Figure P.38(a)
A B Construct: CD on line m so that CD _ AB (or CD 5 AB)
Construction: With your compass open to the length of AB, place the
(a)
stationary point of the compass at C and mark off a length equal to AB at
point D, as shown in Figure P.38(b). Then CD 5 AB.
C m
A B C D
A B (a) (b)
Figure P.38
D
The following construction is shown step by step in Figure P.39. Intuition suggests
(b)
that point M in Figure P.39(c) is the midpoint of AB.
C
Construction 2 Construct the midpoint M of a given line segment AB.
A M B given: AB in Figure P.39(a)

Construct: M on AB so that AM 5 MB
Construction: Figure P.39(a): Open your compass to a length greater than
D one-half of AB.
(c)
Figure P.39(b): Using A as the center of the arc, mark off an arc that extends
both above and below segment AB. With B as the center and keeping the
Figure P.39
same length of radius, mark off an arc that extends above and below AB so
that two points (C and D) are determined where the arcs cross.
Figure P.39(c): Now draw CD. The point where CD crosses AB is the
SSG Exs. 14–17 midpoint M.
Example 7
In Figure P.40, M is the midpoint of AB.

A M B
a) Find AM if AB 5 15.
Figure P.40
b) Find AB if AM 5 4.3.
c) Find AB if AM 5 2x 1 1.
Solution
1
a) AM is one-half of AB, so AM 5 72 .
b) AB is twice AM, so AB 5 2(4.3) or AB 5 8.6.
c) AB is twice AM, so AB 5 2(2x 1 1) or AB 5 4x 1 2.
The technique from algebra used in Example 8 and also needed for Exercises 47 and
48 of this section depends on the following properties of addition and subtraction.
If a 5 b and c 5 d, then a 1 c 5 b 1 d.
Words: Equals added to equals provide equal sums.
5 2
Illustration: Since 0.5 5 10 and 0.2 5 10 , it follows that
5 2 7
0.5 1 0.2 5 10 1 10 ; that is, 0.7 5 10 .
If a 5 b and c 5 d, then a 2 c 5 b 2 d.
Words: Equals subtracted from equals provide equal differences.
5 2
Illustration: Since 0.5 5 10 and 0.2 5 10 , it follows that
5 2 3
0.5 2 0.2 5 10 2 10 ; that is, 0.3 5 10 .
Example 8
x y In Figure P.41, point B lies on AC between A and C. If AC 5 10 and AB is 2 units longer
A B C than BC, find the length x of AB and the length y of BC.
Figure P.41
Solution
Because AB 1 BC 5 AC, we have x 1 y 5 10.
Because AB 2 BC 5 2, we have x 2 y 5 2.
Adding the left and right sides of these equations, we have
x 1 y 5 10
x 2 y 5 2
2x 5 12 so x 5 6.
If x 5 6, then x 1 y 5 10 becomes 6 1 y 5 10 and y 5 4.
SSG Exs. 18, 19 Thus, AB 5 6 and BC 5 4.
Exercises P.3
Note: Exercises preceded by an asterisk are of a more challenging nature.
1. If line segment AB and line segment CD are drawn to 2. If angles ABC and DEF were measured with a protractor,
scale, what does intuition tell you about the lengths of these what does intuition tell you about the degree measures of
segments? these angles?
A B
A D
C D
B E
C F
3. How many endpoints does a line segment have? How many 17. Judging from the ruler shown (not to scale), estimate the
midpoints does a line segment have? measure of each line segment.
a) AB b) CD
4. Do the points A, B, and C appear to be collinear?
A B
B
A
C D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
Exercises 4–6 E F
5. How many lines can be drawn that contain both points A and B? G H
How many lines can be drawn that contain points A, B, and C?
Exercises 17, 18
6. Consider noncollinear points A, B, and C. If each line must
18. Judging from the ruler, estimate the measure of each line
contain two of the points, what is the total number of lines
segment.
that are determined by these points?
a) EF b) GH
7. Name all the angles in the figure.
19. Judging from the protractor provided, estimate the measure
C of each angle to the nearest multiple of 5° (such as, 20°,
D 25°, 30°, etc.).
a) m∠1 b) m∠3
B
A
80 90 100
70 100 80 110
70
8. Which of the following measures can an angle have? 60 0
12
110 12
60 0
13
23°, 90°, 200°, 110.5°, 215° 50 0
13
50 0
14 0
14 0
0
4
4
0
9. Must two different points be collinear? Must three or more
15 0
15 0
0
points be collinear? Can three or more points be collinear?
3
3
3
0
4
160
20
160
20
10. Which symbol(s) correctly expresses the order in which the
2
170
170
10
10
points A, B, and X lie on the given line, A-X-B or A-B-X?
180
180
0
0
A X B
Exercises 19, 20
11. Which symbols correctly name the angle shown? ∠ABC,
∠ACB, ∠CBA 20. Using the drawing for Exercise 19, estimate the measure
of each angle to the nearest multiple of 5° (such as, 20°, 25°,
A
30°, etc.).
a) m∠2 b) m∠4
21. Consider the square at the right, RSTV. V T
B
C It has four right angles and four sides
of the same length. How are sides RS
12. A triangle is named ∆ABC. Can it also be named ∆ACB?
and ST related? How are sides RS and
Can it be named ∆BAC?
VT related?
13. Consider rectangle MNPQ. Can it also be named rectangle
22. Square RSTV has diagonals RT and R S
PQMN? Can it be named rectangle MNQP?
SV (not shown). If the diagonals are Exercises 21, 22
14. Suppose ∠ABC and ∠DEF have the same measure. Which drawn, how will their lengths compare?
statements are expressed correctly? Do the diagonals of a square appear to be perpendicular?
a) m∠ABC 5 m∠DEF b) ∠ABC 5 ∠DEF
23. Use a compass to draw a circle. Draw a radius, a line
c) m∠ABC _ m∠DEF d) ∠ABC _ ∠DEF
segment that connects the center to a point on the circle.
15. Suppose AB and CD have the same length. Which state- Measure the length of the radius. Draw other radii and find
ments are expressed correctly? their lengths. How do the lengths of the radii compare?
a)
AB 5 CD b) AB 5 CD
24. Use a compass to draw a circle of radius 1 inch. Draw a
c) AB _ CD d) AB _ CD
chord, a line segment that joins two points on the circle.
16. When two lines cross (intersect), they have exactly one point Draw other chords and measure their lengths. What is the
in common. In the drawing, what is the point of intersection? largest possible length of a chord in this circle?
How do the measures of ∠1 and ∠2 compare?
M R Q
1 2
P N
25. The sides of the pair of angles are parallel. Are ∠1 and ∠2 32. In the rectangle shown, what is true of the lengths of each
congruent? pair of opposite sides?
R S
2
1
V T
26. The sides of the pair of angles are parallel. Are ∠3 and ∠4
congruent? 33. A line segment is bisected if its two parts have the same length.
Which line segment, AB or CD, is bisected at point X?
3 A 3c C
m m
3c
4 3c
m m
X
5c
B
27. The sides of the pair of angles are perpendicular. Are ∠5 D
and ∠6 congruent?
34. An angle is bisected if its two parts have the same measure.
6
Use three letters to name the angle that is bisected.
A
5
C
10 D
10
28. The sides of the pair of angles are perpendicular. Are ∠7 15
B
and ∠8 congruent? E
In Exercises 35 to 38, with A-B-C on AC, it follows that

7 AB 1 BC 5 AC.
8
A B C
Exercises 35–38
29. On a piece of paper, use your compass to 35. Find AC if AB 5 9 and BC 5 13.
construct a triangle that has two sides of 36. Find AB if AC 5 25 and BC 5 11.
the same length. Cut the triangle out of the
paper and fold the triangle in half so that 37. Find x if AB 5 x, BC 5 x 1 3, and AC 5 21.
the congruent sides coincide (one lies over 38. Find an expression for AC (the length of AC) if AB 5 x and
the other). What seems to be true of two BC 5 y.
angles of that triangle?
39. ∠ABC is a straight angle. Using your protractor, you
30. On a piece of paper, use your protractor to draw a triangle can show that m∠1 1 m∠2 5 180°. Find m∠1 if
that has two angles of the same measure. Cut the triangle out m∠2 5 56°.
of the paper and fold the triangle in half so that the angles of
equal measure coincide (one lies over the other). What seems D
to be true of two of the sides of that triangle?
1 2
A B C
Exercises 39, 40
40. Find m∠1 if m∠1 5 2x and m∠2 5 x.
(HINT: See Exercise 39.)
31. A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that contains one pair of

In Exercises 41 to 44, m/1 1 m/2 5 m/ABC.
parallel sides. Which sides of the trapezoid MNPQ appear 41. Find m∠ABC if m∠1 5 42° and
to be parallel? m∠2 5 29°. A
M N D
42. Find m∠1 if m∠ABC 5 68° and
m∠1 5 m∠2. 1
2
43. Find x if m∠2 5 x, m∠1 5 2x 1 3, B C
Q P Exercises 41–44
and m∠ABC 5 72°.
44. Find an expression for m∠ABC if m∠1 5 x and m∠2 5 y.

■ Perspective on History 25
45. A compass was used to mark off three congruent segments, For Exercises 49 and 50, use the following information.
AB, BC, and CD. Thus, AD has been trisected at points B Relative to its point of departure or some other point of refer-
and C. If AD 5 32.7, how long is AB? ence, the angle that is used to locate the position of a ship or
airplane is called its bearing. The bearing may also be used to
A B C D E describe the direction in which the airplane or ship is moving.
46. Use your compass and straightedge to bisect EF.
By using an angle between 0 8 and 90 8, a bearing is mea-
sured from the North-South line toward the East or West. In
E F the d iagram, airplane A (which is 250 miles from Chicago’s
O’Hare airport’s control tower) has a bearing of S 538 W.
*47. In the figure, m∠1 5 x and m∠2 5 y. If x 2 y 5 24°,
find x and y. 49. F ind the bearing of airplane B relative to the control tower.
50. Find the bearing of airplane C relative to the control tower.
(HINT: m∠1 1 m∠2 5 180°.)
N
1 2 22
mi
A B C
300
*48. In the drawing, m∠1 5 x and m∠2 5 y. If control
m∠RSV 5 67° and x 2 y 5 17°, find x and y. tower
W E
(HINT: m∠1 1 m∠2 5 m∠RSV.)
24
mi
0 325
25 mi
R
53
C
A
1 T
S
2
V
S
Exercises 49, 50
pERSPECTIVE on History
OUR GREEK HERITAGE textbook for the student of geometry. Due to the vast content of
In the word geometry, the prefix “geo” refers to the earth, while geometry knowledge and the challenges found in its relation-
the suffix “metry” refers to measure. Thus, our study of geometry ships, Euclid, a teacher with compassion, is credited with the
enables us to measure on the earth and from the earth as well. Much statement “There is no royal road to geometry.” In contrast to
of the geometry knowledge and technique that we study today Euclid, Archimedes (287 b.c.–212 b.c.) was practical, a mechan-
can be traced to the ancient Greeks. Thales (640 b.c.–550 b.c.), ical engineer, and an inventor of numerous mechanisms whose
known as one of the seven sages of Greece, founded the earli- designs depended upon a vast knowledge of geometry. Among
est school of mathematics. Some of the earliest collections of Archimedes’s discoveries were a method for the detection of
mathematical knowledge were written by Eudemus (around gold (or lack thereof), the use of mirrors to create heat, the use
325 b.c., a pupil of Aristotle), Geminus (around 50 b.c., com- of cogs and screws to move large masses, and the catapult as
paring methods of proof used by Greek geometers), and Pro- a weapon. Although the development of geometry continues to
clus (around 450 a.d., commenting upon Euclid’s Elements). this day, many of the ideas that you find in this textbook can be
Euclid (330 b.c.–275 b.c.) was credited with the title “Father attributed to the ancient Greeks mentioned herein.
of Geometry” in that he formalized its study in his Elements, a
pERSPECTIVE on ApplicationS
One-to-One Correspondence They knew that someone was still waiting for them in
the blind. It was only after they reached 16 men that the
As small children, we were taught to countc1, 2, 3, and so on.
crows lost count.
With time, we began to count objects by associating these count-
ing numbers in order and one count for each distinct object in a Source: Nancy Bennett, “Crows Can Count—at Least to 16.” Capper’s
set—a concept known as one-to-one correspondence. Children Farmer, January 2006. https://www.cappersfarmer.com/humor-and-
count the number of My Little Ponies or Hot Wheels or Blu-Ray nostalgia/crows-can-count---at-least-to-16
discs or video games. Looking out the patio door while holding
More scientifically, researchers at the University of Tübingen
his grandson, a grandfather asks the grandson, “How many birds
found that crows are very smart birds. They can use tools much
are on the bird feeder? ”; Old enough to utilize the notion of one-
like humans to solve some problems that are too tough for five-
to-one correspondence, the grandson correctly says that there
year-old children.
are three birds on the feeder. See Figure P.42.
Next, we consider the uncommon question, “Can birds
also count people?” Here’s a story, showing that at least some
of them can:
Ancha Chiangmai/Shutterstock.com
A farmer in England found that every day when he went
into his blind in the field, the crows would stay away. But
once he left, they would fly into the fields and feed. He
brought a friend with him one day to follow him into the
blind, thinking the crows would spot one of them leaving
and then come down to eat his crops, thinking that no one
was watching.
But the crows knew that a second man was still
in the blind. The next day they tried it with another Figure P.42
man, then another. The crows counted and subtracted.
Summary
A Look Back at Chapter P include undefined terms, defined terms (definitions), postulates
(statements that are accepted as true), and theorems (statements
This preliminary chapter was included for those students who have that we can verify are true). Undefined terms provide the building
not studied sets, set relationships, statements and types of reasoning, blocks necessary to define other terms. Postulates also provide
and finally some basic terms from geometry. Of course, geometric a basis for those theorems that we will “prove” in this and later
figures are sets of points. In later chapters, the principles of geom- chapters.
etry will be written in the form of statements. Types of reasoning,
particularly deduction, will be extremely important in developing
and verifying those geometric properties that will be called theo-
Key Concepts
rems. Basic terms such as line, angle, and triangle were included in
the final section; these, and many other terms, will be given a more
formal treatment in Chapter 1. In Chapter P, we also considered the P.1
use of tools such as the ruler, protractor, and compass. Set • Element • Finite and lnfinite Sets • Subset • Point Paths
(Straight, Curved, Circular, Scattered) • Between •
Continuous/Discontinuous • Line Segment, Line, Ray •
A Look Ahead to Chapter 1 Intersection and Union of Sets • Empty Set • Angle •
Disjoint Sets • Venn Diagrams • Equivalent Sets • Universe •
Our chapter begins with the fact that geometry is a mathemat-
Complement of Set
ical system. The four components of any mathematical system
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“You had better not say any more,” she interrupted; “you will only
make matters worse.” Then added with a dawning smile, “It is what I
always do myself. I speak from experience.”
“Promise me one thing,” he urged—“that you will not drop me
when you are weeding out your acquaintance.”
“Pray, why should I drop you? My new rule does not apply to you.
Are you a millionaire?” And she broke into a laugh.
A keener observer than the young lady would have noticed a
shade of embarrassment in his glance as, after a moment’s
hesitation, he said—
“I am quite an old Indian friend now, at any rate—almost your first
acquaintance.”
“Yes, I admit all that; but you must not presume on our ancient
friendship. I warn you solemnly that the next time you laugh at me—
laugh until you actually cry—our relations will be—strained.”
It was becoming dark, the fires were visibly increasing on the

distant hills, the first mess bugle had gone. There was a general
getting into rickshaws, and calling for ponies, and presently the club
was empty, the formidable verandahs deserted, and all the red-
capped little tennis-boys went trooping home.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE TABLE OF PRECEDENCE.
Time wore on; Honor was becoming familiarized with her new
surroundings, had picked up some useful Hindustani words, made a
round of calls, and shown that she had no mean skill at tennis. And
Mrs. Brande had demonstrated that she was not a woman of words
only. She had given young Jervis a general and urgent invitation to
her house—moreover, he found favour in her husband’s eyes. He
was a fine, well-set-up, gentlemanly young fellow, a keen tennis
player, with no haw-haw humbug about him, therefore the
Honourable Pelham heartily endorsed his wife’s hospitality.
As for Captain Waring, alas! the three days’ travelling intimacy—
like steamer friendships—had flickered, and flickered, and sunk
down, and died. Mrs. Brande’s state-dinners were unimpeachable,
but desperately dull; and she was not in the “smart” set; her niece
was far too downright and raw; her sincere grey eyes had a way of
looking at him that made him feel uncomfortable—a blasé, world-
battered, selfish mortal. She had a sharp tongue, too, and no
fortune; therefore he went over to the enemy’s camp, and followed
the standard of Mrs. Langrishe.
The first grand entertainment at which Honor had appeared was a

large, solemn dinner-party, given by the chief medical officer in
Shirani. There were to be thirty guests. This much Mrs. Brande’s
cook had gleaned from Mrs. Loyd’s khansamah when he came to
borrow jelly-tins and ice-spoons. Mrs. Brande delighted in these
formal dinners, where she could enjoy herself most thoroughly as
chief guest and experienced critic; and she looked forward to this
feast with what seemed to her niece an almost infantile degree of
glee and happy anticipation.
Mr. Brande was absent, but even had he been at home he was
never enthusiastic respecting these functions. His wife had
complained to Mrs. Sladen, “that he got into his evening clothes and
bad humour at one and the same time,” save when he dined at
home.
“You will wear your white silk, Honor,” observed her aunt, “and I
my new pink brocade, with the white lace. I’m really curious to see
what sort of a turn-out Mrs. Loyd will have. She has the Blacks’ old
cook, and they never gave a decent dinner; but then Mrs. Black was
stingy—she grudged a glass of wine for sauce, and never allowed
more than half an anna a head for soup-meat. Now Mrs. Loyd is
getting up fish from Bombay, so I fancy she means to do the thing
properly. Have you ever been to a dinner-party, child?”
“No; not what you would call a party—six at the most; but I have
come in after dinner.”
“Fie! fie! that is poor fun,” cried Mrs. Brande, with great scorn. “I
should just like to see any one asking my niece to come after dinner!
I wonder who will take you in? I know most of the people who are
going, for I always read their names in the peon’s book when I get
invitations. There will be Captain Waring, and young Jervis, and Sir
Gloster Sandilands. I hope Captain Waring will take you in.”
“Oh, I hope not, aunt; he and I do not suit one another at all.”
“Why not?” rather sharply.
“I’ve not sufficient ‘go’ in me. I can’t talk about the people he
knows. I’m not smart, or up to date. I can’t say amusing things like
Miss Paske; I am merely a stupid little country mouse!”
“And she is a little cat!” with a quick nod. “Well, I must say I’d fifty
times rather have Jervis myself. He has such nice manners—
different to other young men, who come to my house, and eat and
drink of the best, and scarcely look at me afterwards. There was that
Thorpe; he never even got off his chair when I spoke to him at the
club. I know I’m not a lady born—my father was a wheelwright—but
he and his had been in the same place three hundred years. Still, I
have my feelings, and that Thorpe, though he may be a lord’s son, is
no gentleman. He thought I was deaf, and I heard him say to a man,
when I was on his arm—
“‘I’m going to supper the old girl.’
“‘Not this old girl, thank you, sir,’ said I, and I drew back and went
and sat down again. ’Ow he does ’ate me, to be sure. Well, Honor, I
wish you a pleasant partner, for these dinners are long affairs.”
“Are they indeed, aunt? I am sorry to hear it.”
“If they bring the entrées in after the joint, which is new-fashioned
and leading to mistakes, we are stuck for two mortal hours. These
native servants are the ten plagues of Egypt. Once—oh lor! I shall
never forget the lady’s face—I saw a man handing round mashed
potatoes as an entrée—all alone! Once I saw a wretch offering
mustard in a breakfast-cup, and the mistress having splendid silver
cruet-stands. Of course he had some spite against her. It’s on these
occasions they pay you out, when they know you are tied hand and
foot. As for myself, I am all right, being senior lady—the doctor takes
me. Mrs. Langrishe for once will be nowhere, for the Loyds (she
being a commissioner’s daughter) know what’s what. They have the
rules of precedence at their fingers’ ends, but anyway I can always
lend them this,” and she took up a book bound in blue paper, and
began to read aloud—
“‘All wives take place according to the rank assigned to their
respective husbands.’ Do they indeed!” she snorted. “I’d like to know
how many times Mrs. Langrishe has walked through that rule? Now
my husband, being a member of council, comes next to a bishop. Do
you see, Honor?”
“Yes, Aunt Sara.”
“Whilst Mrs. Langrishe ranks below political agents of twelve
years’ standing. And I’m not at all sure that she ought to go in before
the educational department, second class.”
“No, aunt,” replied Honor, endeavouring to look wise, and
marvelling much at Mrs. Brande’s enthusiasm. Her colour had risen,
her eyes shone, as she energetically brandished the pamphlet in her
hand.
The great day arrived at last. People in Shirani did not give long
invitations, and Mrs. Brande, in her new pink brocade, wearing all
her diamonds, and a cap with three lofty pink plumes, departed in
good time along with her niece, who wore her new white silk, and
brought her violin—by special request.
Mrs. Loyd received them with effusion, the room was half full of
the élite of Shirani wearing their best clothes, and their blandest
official manners. Honor noticed Major and Mrs. Langrishe, Sir
Gloster Sandilands, Captain Waring, Mr. Jervis, Captain Noble, the
Padre and his wife, the Cantonment Magistrate and his wife, the
Colonel commanding the Scorpions, and many others. It was a most
solemn official party. Presently the dining-room door was flung wide,
and a magnificent servant salaamed and said—
“Khana, mez pur;” i.e. “dinner is served.”
Mrs. Brande half rose from her seat, and smiled encouragingly at
her host.
But—what was this? He was offering his arm to an insignificant
little person in black, who was barely thirty years of age, and a
complete stranger! Mrs. Brande, as she subsequently expressed it,
“turned goose-flesh all over.”
What an affront, before the whole station, or at least the best part
of it; and there was Mrs. Langrishe looking at her with, oh! such an
odious smile. Well, at any rate she would not give her the
satisfaction of seeing her break down or fly out. That smile was a
stimulant, and rising, after some moments’ distinctly perceptible
hesitation—during which the spectators almost held their breath—
she accepted the escort of the gentleman who had humbly bowed
himself before her, and with a dangerous-looking toss of her plumes,
surged slowly into the dining-room.
She was conducted to a conspicuous place; but what of that?
Nothing—no, not even a gilded chair, with a coronet on the back,
would now appease or please her. Declining soup with a haughty
gesture, she leant back and gazed about her scornfully. Yes, there
was a distinct smell of Kerosine oil—one of the Khitmatghars wore a
dirty coat; that was Mrs. Sladen’s claret jug, and most of the forks
were borrowed. As for the dinner, she sent away dish after dish with
ill-concealed contempt, slightly varying the monotony of this
proceeding by leaving conspicuous helpings untasted on her plate—
knowing well, that such behaviour is pain and grief to a hostess.
Even the host noticed her scanty appetite, and remarked in his loud
cheery voice—
“Why, Mrs. Brande, you are eating nothing.”
“Indeed,” she leant forward and called out, “I’m so far from you, I
wonder you can notice it;” adding to this extremely ungracious reply,
“I’ve no appetite this evening,” and she flung herself once more back
in her chair, and waved her fan to and fro, passionately—not to say
furiously.
There, to aggravate her still further, was that Lalla Paske opposite,
sitting between Sir Gloster and Captain Waring, and ogling and
carrying on. Little reptile! she would like to throw a plate at her.
Honor was on Sir Gloster’s other hand, looking, as her aunt mentally
noted, very “distangay” and animated. The baronet seemed to be
greatly struck, and talked away incessantly; and this was the one
miserable crumb of comfort on which the poor lady dined!
Honor was not too engrossed with her own affairs not to notice
that her aunt appeared most dreadfully put out about something, and
was looking exceedingly flushed and angry.
In fact, Miss Paske—good-natured, kind little soul—leant over, and
said to her, “Have you noticed Mrs. Brande? Does she not look
extraordinary? Her face is so red, and swelled up, I really believe
she is going to have a fit of some sort! She is neither eating nor
speaking.”
However, during dessert Mrs. Brande found her tongue. There
was a general discussion on the subject of Christian names, and
some one said that “Honor was a nice old-fashioned one.”
“Oh,” cried Lalla, “I think it hideous! You don’t mind, do you, Miss
Gordon? How angry I should have been if my godfathers and
godmothers had given it to me! It has such an abrupt sound, and is
so very goody-goody.”
Mrs. Brande, who had hitherto refused to talk to her neighbour,
even in the most ordinary way, to discuss the weather, the great
diamond case, or the state of the rupee, now suddenly burst out—
“Anyway, it has a decent meaning; and if it is goody-goody, yours
is not. I believe there was once a Miss Rooke, who had the same
name, and was fond of play-acting and singing, and by all accounts
no great shakes.”
In just alarm, Mrs. Loyd made a hasty signal, and the ladies arose
as if worked by one spring, and departed into the drawing-room in a
body. Mrs. Brande immediately seated herself in a large armchair,
where she sat aloof and alone, looking stern and unapproachable,
as she slowly turned over an album of photographs. The book was
upside down, but this was evidently immaterial.
Vainly did Mrs. Loyd come and stand before her, and abase
herself; vainly did she endeavour to propitiate her. Poor deluded little
woman!—it was mere waste of time and breath to praise Mrs.
Brande’s dress, Mrs. Brande’s niece, or even to beg for a recipe for
chutney.
“I can give you a recipe for manners,” observed the outraged
matron, in an awful tone; “I will send you the table of precedence,
and I will write to you to-morrow.”
On hearing this terrible threat, Mrs. Loyd’s blood ran cold,—for she
was a woman of peace,—and at this juncture the men appeared
slouching in by twos and threes—as is their wont. They discovered
the ladies scattered in couples about the room, all save one, who sat
in solitary majesty.
Captain Waring sauntered over to Lalla, and remarked, as he
glanced significantly at Mrs. Brande, who was motionless as a cloud
on a hot summer’s day—a cloud charged with electricity, “When I
look round I am inclined to say with the kind-hearted child, when he
was shown Doré’s picture, ‘There is one poor lion who has got no
Christian!’”
“She is by no means so badly off as you imagine,” rejoined Lalla
with a demure face. “She has nearly eaten the hostess—does she
not look ferocious? Whom shall we throw to her for a fresh victim?
She is frightfully angry because she was not taken in to dinner first.
Poor creature, she has so very little dignity, that she is always taking
the greatest care of it. Hurrah! Hurrah! She is actually going. Oh, I
am enormously amused.”
Yes, Mrs. Brande had already risen to depart. If not taken in first,
she was firmly resolved to take this matter into her own hands, and
to be the first to leave.
It was in vain that meek Mrs. Loyd pleaded that it was only half-
past nine, that every one was looking forward to hearing Miss
Gordon play, that she had promised to bring her violin.
“Surely, Mrs. Brande, you will not be so cruel as to take her away
and disappoint the whole company!” urged Mrs. Loyd pathetically. “I
am told that her violin-playing is marvellous.”
“The company have seen Miss Gordon’s aunt playing second
fiddle all the evening, and that must content them for the present,”
retorted Mrs. Brande, who was already in the verandah, robed in a
superb long cloak, the very fur of which seemed to catch something
of its owner’s spirit, and to bristle up about her ears, as with a
sweeping inclination, and beckoning to Honor to follow her, she
swept down the steps.
All the way home, and as they rolled along side by side, Mrs.
Brande gave vent to her wrath, and allowed her injured feelings fair
play. “Precedence” was her hobby, her one strong point. A woman
might rob her, slander her, even strike her, sooner than walk out of a
room before her. She assured her awestruck niece that she would
write to “P.” before she slept that night, and unless she received an
ample apology, the matter should go up to the Viceroy! What was the
use of people getting on in the service, and earning rewards by
years of hard work in bad climates and deadly jungles, if any one
who liked might kick them down the ladder, as she had been kicked
that evening!
“What,” she angrily continued, with voice pitched half an octave
higher, “was the value of these appointments, or was it child’s play,
and a new game? It would be a dear game to some people!”
She arrived at this conclusion and her own door simultaneously,
and flinging off her wrap, and snatching a lamp from a terrified
khitmatghar (who saw that the Mem Sahib was “Bahout Kuffa”), she
hurried into her husband’s sanctum, and returned with a book.
“What was that person’s name, Honor?” she inquired; “did you
happen to hear it?—the woman who was taken in first?”
“Mrs. Ringrose, I believe.”
“Ringrose, Ringrose,” hunting through the leaves with feverish
haste. “Ye-es, here it is.”
“James—Walter—Ringrose—he is a member of council in
Calcutta, and just one week senior to P.!” and she gazed at her niece
with a face almost devoid of colour, and the expression of a naughty
child who is desperately ashamed of herself. “So I’ve been in a
tantrum, and missed my dinner and a pleasant evening, all for
nothing! Well, to be sure, I’ve been a fine old fool,” throwing the book
on the table. “But what brings Calcutta people up here?” she
demanded pettishly.
“I think she is sister to some one in Shirani, and her husband has
gone on to the snows, and left her here. Dear Aunt Sara,” continued
Honor playfully, “why do you trouble your head about precedence?
How can it matter how you go in to a meal, or where you sit?”
“My dear child, it’s in my very blood. I can’t help it; it is meat and
drink to me; it is what a lover is to a girl, a coronet to a duchess, a
medal to a soldier—it’s the outward and visible sign of P.’s deserts—
and mine. And the sight of another woman sitting in my lawful place
just chokes me. ‘A woman takes rank according to her husband,’ that
seemed to be ringing in my ears all the evening. How was I to know
her husband was in council too? However, I went in to dinner, that’s
one comfort.” (It had not been much comfort to her cavalier). “At first
I was in two minds to go straight home. I remember hearing of three
ladies at a party, who each expected to go in with the host, and when
he took one, the others got up and walked off supperless.”
“I think they were extremely foolish—they ought to have taken
each other in arm-in-arm; it’s what I should have done,” said Honor
emphatically.
“Yes, young people don’t care; but I can no more change than a
leopard his skin, and a nigger his spots—well, you know what I
mean. I am not always such a stickler, though—for instance, this
very winter, when I happened to go into the ladies’ club at Alijore,
and no one stood up to receive me, I took no notice, though I was so
hurt that I scarcely closed an eye that night. Kiss me, dearie, and
forgive me, as one of the party, for breaking up so early, and spoiling
every one’s pleasure” (a supreme flight of imagination). “Maybe
some day you will be touchy too.”
“Perhaps I may, but not about rank and precedence. Surely there
is no precedence in heaven.”
“I’m not so certain of that,” rejoined Mrs. Brande; “an archangel is
above an angel. However, I may leave my proud thoughts behind, for
I shall have a lowly place—if I ever get there at all. Now, dear, I’m
just starving; a morsel of fish and a spoonful of aspic was all I had.
So call Bahadar Ali to get me some cold turkey and ham, and a
glass of claret. Maybe you would take a pick too?”
“No indeed, thank you. I had a capital dinner.”
“And you found your partner pleasant?—a rising young civilian. I
nursed him through typhoid, and I know him well. He draws twelve
hundred a month. If you married him you would take the pas of Mrs.
Langrishe.”
“Dear Auntie,” bursting out into a peal of laughter, “how funny you
are! I am not going to marry any one; you must deliver me at home a
single young woman.”
“What nonsense! However,” as if struck by a happy thought, “you
might be engaged and still single; I saw you talking to Sir Gloster
——”
“Yes, he is rather agreeable—he was telling me about his tour
among the old cities of the Deccan. And——”
“And I noticed Miss Lalla trying to put in her spoon. What a
pushing little monkey she is—her aunt’s very double!”
To show her penitence, instead of the letter she had threatened—

which lay like a nightmare on poor Mrs. Loyd—Mrs. Brande sent
restitution the next day in the form of a dozen pine-apples and a
basket of fresh eggs. They were gladly accepted as peace-offerings,
and Mrs. Loyd heard no more about “the table of precedence.”
CHAPTER XIX.
LET US TELL THE TRUTH.
A month had elapsed, and Shirani was as full and as gay as Miss
Paske had predicted—there were dinners, dances, balls, theatricals,
and picnics.
Visitors had shaken down into sets, and discovered whom they
liked and whom they did not like. In a short hill season there is no
time to waste on long-drawn-out overtures to acquaintance; besides,
in India, society changes so rapidly, and has so many mutual friends
—the result of so many different moves—that people know each
other as intimately in six months as they would in six years in
England. There were “sets” in Shirani, though not aggressively
defined: the acting and musical set, which numbered as stars Miss
Paske and Mr. Joy; also Captain Dashwood, of the Dappled
Hussars; Mrs. Rolland, who had once been a matchless actress, but
was now both deaf and quarrelsome; and many other lesser lights.
Then there was the “smart” set, headed by Mrs. Langrishe, who
wore dresses more suitable to Ascot than the Hymalayas; drank tea
with each other, dined with each other—talked peerage, and
discussed London gossip; looked down on many of their neighbours,
and spoke of them as being “scarcely human,” and were altogether
quite painfully exclusive.
There was the “fast” set—men who played high at the club, betted
on races in England (per wire); enjoyed big nights and bear fights,
and occasionally went down without settling their club account!
And even Mrs. Brande had a set—yes, positively her own little
circle for the first time in her life—and was a proud and happy
woman.
“It made a wonderful difference having a girl in the house,” she
remarked at least twice a day to “P.,” and “P.,” strange to say,
received the well-worn observation without a sarcastic rejoinder.
Certainly Honor had made a change at Rookwood. She had
prevailed on her aunt to allow her to cover the green rep drawing-
room suite with pretty cretonne, to banish the round table with its
circle of books dealt out like a pack of cards, to arrange flowers and
grasses in profusion, and to have tea in the verandah. Honor played
tennis capitally, and her uncle, instead of going to the club,
inaugurated sets at home, and these afternoons began to have quite
a reputation. There were good courts, good players—excellent
refreshments. Mrs. Brande’s strawberries and rich yellow cream
were renowned; and people were eager for standing invitations to
Rookwood “Tuesdays” and “Saturdays.” Besides Mr. Brande and his
niece—hosts in themselves—there were Sir Gloster, Mrs. Sladen,
the Padré and his wife, and young Jervis, who were regular
habitués. There were tournaments and prizes, and a briskness and
“go” about these functions that made them the most popular
entertainments in Shirani, and folk condescended to fish
industriously for what they would once have scorned, viz.:
—“invitations to Mother Brande’s afternoons.”
Captain Waring was tired of Shirani, though he had met many pals
—played polo three times a week, and whist six times, until the small
hours. Although invited out twice as much as any other bachelor, and
twice as popular as his cousin, indeed he and his cousin—as he
remarked with a roar of laughter—“were not in the same set.”
(Nor, for that matter, were Mrs. Langrishe and her niece in the
same set; for Lalla was “theatrical” and her aunt was “smart.”)
Captain Waring and his companion lived together in Haddon Hall,
with its world-wide reputation for smoking chimneys; but although
they resided under the same roof, they saw but little of one another.
Waring had the best rooms, an imposing staff of crest-emblazoned
servants. Jervis lived in two small apartments, and the chief of his
retinue was a respectable grey-bearded bearer, Jan Mahomed by
name, who looked cheap. Jervis spent most of his time taking long
walks or rides—shooting or sketching with some young fellows in the
Scorpions—or up at Rookwood, where he dined at least thrice a
week and spent all his Sundays, and where he had been warmly
received by Ben, and adopted into the family as his “uncle”! No
words, however many and eloquent, could more strongly indicate
how highly he stood in Mr. and Mrs. Brande’s good graces. To be
Ben’s “uncle” almost implied that they looked upon him as an
adopted son.
Frequently days elapsed, and Clarence and his companion
scarcely saw one another, save at polo. Mark kept early hours and
was up betimes—indeed, occasionally he was up and dressed ere
his cousin had gone to bed.
One afternoon, however, he found him evidently awaiting his
arrival, sitting in the verandah, and not as usual at the club card-
table.
“Hullo, Mark! what a gay young bird you are, always going out,
always on the wing—never at home!”
“The same to you,” said the other cheerily.
“Well, I just wanted to see you and catch you for a few minutes,
old chap. I’m getting beastly sick of this place—we have been here
nearly six weeks—I vote, as the policeman says, we ‘move on.’”
“Move where?” was the laconic inquiry.
“To Simla, to be sure! the club here is just a mere rowdy pot-
house. I never saw such rotten polo! My best pony is lame—gone in
the shoulder. I believe that little beggar Byng stuck me; and besides
this, Miss Potter—the girl with the black eyes and twelve hundred a
year—is going away.”
“To Simla?” expressively.
“Yes. She does not want to move, but the people she is with, the
Athertons, are off, and of course she is bound to go with them. That
girl likes me—she believes in me.”
“Do you think she believes that you are what they call you here, a
millionaire?”
“What a grossly coarse way of putting it! Well, I should not be
surprised if she did!”
“Then if that is the case, don’t you think the sooner you undeceive
her the better!”
“Excellent high-minded youth! But why?”
“Because it strikes me that we have played this little game long
enough.”
“And you languish for the good old board ship and Poonah days
over again! Shall we publish who is really who, in the papers, and
send a little ‘para’ to the Pioneer?” with angry sarcasm.
“No; but don’t you see that when I took what you called a ‘back
seat,’ I never supposed it would develop into a regular sort of society
fraud, or lead us on to such an extent. I’m always on the point of
blurting out something about money, and pulling myself up. If I speak
the truth people will swear I am lying. I don’t mind their thinking me
an insignificant, idle young ass; but when they talk before me of dire
poverty, and then pause apologetically—when they positively refrain
from asking me to subscribe to entertainments or charities—I tell you
I don’t like it. I am a rank impostor. There will be an awful explosion
some day, if we don’t look out.”
“A pleasant explosion for you. Surely you are not quite such a fool
as to suppose that any one would think the worse of you because
you are a rich man.”
Mark’s thoughts wandered to Honor Gordon, and he made no
answer.
“We have gone too far to go back,” continued Waring,
impressively, “at least as far as Shirani is concerned. We might shift
our sky and go to Simla, and then after a time allow the truth to ooze
out.”
“I am desperately sorry I ever tampered with the truth,” cried the
other, starting to his feet and beginning to walk about the verandah.
“I have never told a direct lie, and no one has ever suspected me—I
have not a rich air, nor the tastes of a wealthy man; now, you”—
suddenly halting before Clarence, and looking him all over—“have
both.”
“True, oh king! and people jumped at their own conclusions. Can
we help that? It has given me a ripping good time, and saved you a
lot of bother and annoyance. Why, the girl in the plaid waistcoat
would have married you months ago.”
“Not she! I’m not so easily married as all that!” rejoined the other
indignantly.
“I am much relieved to hear it. I am glad you remember Uncle
Dan’s instructions. I was afraid they were beginning to slip out of
your head, and bearing them in mind, I think the sooner, for all
parties, that you clear out of Shirani the better.”
“I am not going to budge,” said Jervis resolutely; “and you know
the reason.”
Waring blew away a mouthful of smoke, and then drawled out
—“Of course—Miss Gordon.”
“No; my father,” reddening like a girl. “You know he lives within
forty miles of this, and that was what made me so keen to come to
Shirani.”
“Yes, I understand perfectly; and so keen to stay!”
“I wrote to him,” ignoring this innuendo, “and said I would wait on
here till October, hoping to see him.”
“You’ll never see him,” now bringing a volume of smoke down his
nostrils.
“Time will tell—I hope I shall.”
“And time stands still for no man! The Athertons and Miss Potter
start in ten days, and I shall accompany them; there is nothing like
travelling with a young lady for advancing one’s interests—as you
know, my boy. Now, don’t be angry. Yes, I’m off. I’m not heir to a
millionaire, and I must consult my interests. If you will take my
advice, you will join the little party.”
“No, thank you; I shall stay here.”
“Do you mean to say that you will stick to this dead-and-alive place
for the next four months?”
“I do—at any rate till my father sends for me”—and he paused for
a second—“or until the end of the season.”
“In fact, in plain English, until the Brandes go down,” repeated
Clarence significantly; and rising, and tossing away the end of his
cigarette, he strolled over to the adjacent mess.
CHAPTER XX.
MISS PASKE DEFIES HER AUNT.
Mrs. Langrishe gave an exceedingly languid acquiescence to the

constant remark, “What a charming girl Miss Gordon is! and what a
favourite she has become! Her aunt and uncle are quite devoted to
her.” She was thinking sadly on these occasions of her own niece,
Lalla, who danced like a fairy, or moonbeams on the sea, who was
always surrounded at balls, whose banjo playing and smart sayings
made her indispensable; no entertainment was considered complete
without Miss Paske.
These social triumphs were delightful; but, alas! the fair Lalla was
Joie de rue, douleur de maison, and her aunt, who smiled so
complacently in public when congratulated on her young relative’s
social successes, knew in her heart that that same relative had
proved a delusion and a cruel fraud. Fanny had been much cleverer
than she supposed in passing on a veritable infliction—a very base
little counterfeit coin. It was true that Fanny had not actually lied in
her description. Lalla was good-looking, piquante, accomplished,
and even-tempered; but an uneven temper would have been far
easier to cope with. When remonstrated with, or spoken to sharply,
the young lady merely smiled. When desired not to do such and
such a thing, she did it—and smiled. When her aunt, on rare
occasions, lost her temper with her, she positively beamed. She
never attempted to argue, but simply went her own way, as steadily
obdurate as a whole train of commissariat mules.
She was distinctly forbidden to go to Sunday picnics, but went to
them nevertheless. She was requested not to sit in “kala juggas”
(dark corners) at balls. Mrs. Langrishe might have saved her breath,
for at balls, if she happened by chance to glance into one, she was
almost certain to see some young man in company with her
incorrigible niece, who would nod at her with a radiant expression,
and laughingly refuse to go home.
Poor Mrs. Langrishe! she could not make a scene. Lalla, crafty
Lalla, was well aware that her aunt would patiently submit to any
private indignity sooner than the world should suspect that her niece
was wholly out of hand, and that she could not manage her. Miss
Paske traded comfortably on this knowledge, until she nearly drove
her stately chaperon crazy.
The young lady was determined to be amused, and to make the
best of life, and possibly to marry well. She treated herself in her
aunt’s house as an honoured and distinguished guest—ordered the
servants about, upset existing arrangements, and asked men
constantly to lunch or tea, or—oh, climax!—dinner. If remonstrated
with, she merely remarked, with her serene, bewitching smile—
“Oh, but, darling”—she always called Mrs. Langrishe “darling,”
even at the most critical moments—“I always did it at Aunt Fanny’s!
she never objected; she was so hospitable.”
She gave no assistance in the house, and usually sat in her own
room curling her fringe, studying her parts, or writing letters. Her
chief intimate was Mrs. Dashwood, who had been on the stage, and
the men of the theatrical set; and she blandly informed her horrified
chaperon that she had been considered the fastest girl in India, and
gloried in the distinction.
“In Calcutta they called me ‘the sky-scraper,’” she added, with a
complacent laugh.
What was to be done? This was a question Mrs. Langrishe put to
Granby, and then to herself. Never, never had she spent such a
miserable time as during this last two months. To be flouted,
mocked, and ordered about under her own roof; to be defied,
caressed, and called endearing names by a penniless, detestable
minx, who was dependent on her even for money for postage
stamps and offertory! Should she pay her passage and pack her off
home? No, she would not confess herself beaten—she, the clever
woman of the family! She would marry the little wretch well—in a
manner that would redound to her own credit—and then wash her
hands of her for ever.
The first series of theatricals were an immense success. Miss

Paske was the principal lady in the piece, and looked charming from
across the footlights. Captain Waring, who was fond of the stage,
had gone behind the scenes, and painted Lalla’s pert little face at her
own request, which same civility occasioned considerable
heartburning and jealousy among the other ladies, especially as the
result was a complete artistic triumph.
Every one was carried away by the Prima Donna’s vivacious
acting and sprightly dancing, which was both dashing and graceful—
in short, the very poetry of motion. Her dress, too—what there was of
it—was perfect in every detail. Skirt-dancing was as yet in its infancy
—a lady figurante was a rare spectacle on an Indian stage, and the
novel and astonishing character of the performance swept the
spectators off their feet, and Lalla and Toby Joy shared the honours
of the night between them.
Mrs. Langrishe was secretly horrified. She had only seen Lalla’s
costume in the piece; Lalla and the Dirzee (whom she entirely
monopolized) had composed it together—she had planned, he had
carried out her sketch. There had been mysterious conferences and
tryings on, from which her aunt had been rigidly excluded, and Mrs.
Langrishe was much too proud to affect an interest or curiosity in the
matter; but in her wildest moments she had never dreamt of the
character of the dress—or its limits!
As she sat in the front row, gazing at the waving arms and supple
limbs of her odious niece, little did her neighbours guess that a social
martyr was among them,—a martyr whose sufferings were still
further aggravated by the self-satisfied smirk and airy kiss the fair
dancer had deigned to fling her!
Afterwards, when Lalla, closely cloaked and hooded, was
modestly receiving the congratulations of her friends, she remarked

Ebook Elementary Geometry For College Students PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Elementary Geometry For College Students PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elementary Geometry for College

Students - eBook PDF

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Product Assistant: Amanda Rose

Content Manager: Michael Lepera

IP Project Manager: Carly Belcher

Production Service/Compositor: Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949251

Art Directors: Vernon Boes, Diana Graham Student Edition:

Cover Image: Imagine China/Newscom Loose-leaf Edition:

Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

Cengage products are represented in Canada by

To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access

Printed in the United States of America

Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein

■■ pERSPECTIVE on History: Our Greek Heritage 25 ■■ Review Exercises 28

1 Line and Angle Relationships 31

5 Similar Triangles 221

7 Locus and Concurrence 319

8 Areas of Polygons and Circles 351

9 Surfaces and Solids 399

10 Analytic Geometry 443

11 Introduction to Trigonometry 497

APPENDIX A: Algebra Review 535

OUTCOMES FOR THE STUDENT

FEATURES OF THE SEVENTH EDITION

l ➝ 2 ➝ 3 ➝ 4 ➝ 5 ➝ 6 ➝ 7(or 8) ➝ 8 ➝ (and/or 9 and/or 10 and/or 11)

Daniel C. Alexander and Geralyn M. Koeberlein

A Cliffs, 511 Gasoline tanks, 408

P.1 Sets and Geometry

SETS AND SETS OF NUMBERS

Find the decimal forms for these numbers:

Are these sets finite or infinite?

The blue “dots” represent showers—

Line segment BC BC or CB B and C B C

(a) straight (b) curved (c) circular

INTERSECTION AND UNION OF SETS

Geometry in the Real World Example 3

< > < > D

SOLUTION Combining all elements in A and B, we have A < B 5 51,2,3,4,6,86.

> union> of two rays

SETS AND VENN DIAGRAMS

A is a subset of B A and B intersect A and B are disjoint A and B are equivalent

(a) (b) 31. If N5A6 5 3 and N5B6 5 5, what is:

27. With P and Q subsets

P.2 Statements and Reasoning

Give the negation of each statement.

A compound statement is formed by combining other statements used as “building

Assume that statement P and statement Q are both true.

Classify each conditional statement as true or false.

5 in. 5 in. 5 in. 1068 5 in.

3. If Wendell studies, then he will receive an A on the test.

Geometry in the Real World Reasoning

1. Intuition an inspiration leading to the statement of a theory

In Example 8, we illustrate a valid argument, a form of deductive reasoning used

Conclusion Todd is a talented athlete.

Conclusion The argument is valid because the form of the argument is

Use Venn Diagrams to verify Example 8.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Considering Figure P.19, we find that N5P6 5 x 1 y, N5Q6 5 y 1 z, and N5P d Q6 5 y.

1 2 44. All mathematics teachers have a strange sense of humor.

P.3 Informal Geometry and Measurement

Can the rectangle in Figure P.22(c) be named a) `XYZW? b) `WYXZ?

To find the length of a line segment using a ruler:

3. If Wendell studies, then he will receive an A on the test.

1. Intuition an inspiration leading to the statement of a theory

1 2 44. All mathematics teachers have a strange sense of humor.

31. A trapezoid is a four-sided figure that contains one pair of