MOD 6: ACID/BASE

PROPERTIES OF
ACIDS AND BASES
IQ1: WHAT IS AN ACID AND BASE?
1.1 NOMENCLATURE AND
PROPERTIES OF
COMMON INORGANIC
ACIDS AND BASES
Acids = substances that dissociate in water
to produce hydrogen (hydronium ions)
Bases = substances that produce hydroxide
ions in solution

Hydrochloric acid HCl Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Nitric acid HNO3 Potassium oxide K2O
Acetic acid CH3COOH ammonia NH3
Carbonic acid H2CO3

PROPERTIES:

ACIDS BASES
pH < 7 pH > 7
Sour Bitter
Corrosive Caustic (ability to burn or corrode organic
tissue)
Dissociate in water, releasing H+ ion Accept H+ ions
(proton)
React with bases to produce salt React with acids to produce a salt
Turn blue litmus red Turn red litmus blue
Conduct electricity in solution (electrolyte) Conduct electricity in solution (electrolyte)
Stinging/burning sensation Slippery feel
NEUTRAL:

 Red and blue litmus paper not affected by neutral compounds

 Tend to be harmless
 E.g pure compounds – H2O

1.2 INVESTIGATION TO DEMONSTRATE PREP AND

USE OF INDICATORS AS ILLUSTRATORS OF
CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
AND BASES AND THEIR REVERSIBLE
REACTIONS
1. Finely chop up some red cabbage
2. Place cabbage in mortar
3. Add 20mL methylated spirit
4. Use pestle to grin up red cabbage
5. Decant the coloured liquid (this is indicator)
6. In a dimple tray combine small volume of indicator with few drops of following test
solutions
- Acetic acid
- Ammonia
- HCl
- NaOH
- Sodium bicarbonate solution
1.3 PRODUCTS OF ACID RXNS + BALANCED EQNS

ACIDS + BASES  e.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

net ionic:
SALT + WATER
(neutralisation)

ACIDS + METAL e.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

HYDROXIDE 
SALT + WATER
ACIDS + METAL e.g. 2HNO3(aq) + CuO(s) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
OXIDE  SALT +
WATER
ACIDS + 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g)
CARBONATES 
SALT + H2O + CO2
ACID + e.g. 2HCl(aq) + 2NaHCO3(aq) → 2H2O + 2NaCl(aq) + 2CO2(g)
HYDROGEN
CARBONATE 
SALT + H2O + CO2
ACID + AMMONIA ammonia = weak base therefore used to neutralise acids
 AMMONIUM
SALT
DILUTE ACID + e.g. 2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
METAL  SALT +
HYDROGEN GAS
(Not a neutralisation
rxn)

1.4 APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRALISATION RXNS IN

EVERYDAY LIFE AND INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

EVERYDAY LIFE

1. maintaining health of system and regulated by naturally occurring processes

- stomach produces HCl to aid in digesting food and kills harmful
microorganisms swallowed
o if upset system  too much HCl produced and end with
heartburn/indigestion
o fixed using antacid (containing base e.g. magnesium hydroxide)
neutralises excess acid
- digestive tract – acidic component in partially digested food from stomach
neutralised by bile produced by liver
o alkaline enviro needed for enzymes of small intestine to work best
and for nutrients to be absorbed through intestinal wall
2. food and drinks – acidic (apples, tea, carbonated drinks)
3. acid produced when bacteria in mouth from consumption of sugar
4. toothpaste – alkaline
- neutralises acids in mouth
- removes food particles that produce acids when they decay
5. acid/base spills cleaned by neutralisation rxn with appropriate reactant
- solid sodium hydrogen carbonate used
- As a solid, it helps
contain an acid spill
rather than increase size
of spill
- ■ As a weak base,
it will minimise heat
released in a
neutralisation reaction
- ■ As a carbonate, it
will react with acid to
produce CO2 in addition
to salt
- and water, and by
producing more
reactants, heat energy
released from a
- neutralisation reaction is
reduced since some heat
energy is stored in the
- chemical bonds of CO2
- As a solid, it helps
contain an acid spill
rather than increase size
of spill
- ■ As a weak base,
it will minimise heat
released in a
neutralisation reaction
- ■ As a carbonate, it
will react with acid to
produce CO2 in addition
to salt
 - and water, and by
producing more
reactants, heat energy
released from a
- neutralisation reaction is
reduced since some heat
energy is stored in the
- chemical bonds of CO2
o as a solid  contains acid spill rather than inc size of spill
o as weak base  minimise heat released in neutralisation rxn
o as carbonate  reacts with acid to produce CO2, salt and water
and by producing more reactants, heat energy released from
neutralisation rxn reduced since some heat energy’s stored in
chemical bonds of CO2
- strong bases never used to neutralise acid spill bc of highly exo nature of
rxn

INDUSTRY

1. agriculture
- neutralisation of soil
o nutrients from soil affected by how acidic/alkaline soil is
o if soil too acidic  calcium hydroxide/carbonate added to soil to
neutralise acid
o if soil too alkaline  calcium sulfate and powdered sulfate
neutralise alkaline component
- fertilisers
o contain ammonium sulfate/ammonium nitrate made using
neutralisation rxn b/w sulfuric acid/nitric acid and ammonia gas
2. textiles
 - scouring (process to remove oils and waxes to dye natural fibre fabrics)
o treating fabric with strong alkali solution of NaOH or mixture of
NaOH and Na2CO3 at boiling temp for 1-2 hours
o fabric put through cold rinse with acetic acid to neutralise NaOH
3. wastewater from industrial processes
- either acidic/alkaline
- if water enters rivers untreated  environmental damage
- diff applications of neutralisations between industries
- e.g. wastewater from mine damage contains large amounts of acidity
(H2SO4 produced with oxidation of pyrite)
o acidic water neutralised with CaO before land reclaimed after
mining
1) passing acidic water through limestone (CaCO3) bed
2) mixing acid waste with lime (CaO) slurries)

STRONG ACID HAZARDS

 Corrosive irritant to skin, eyes and lungs

 Toxic to kidneys, lungs, heart, upper respiratory tract, eyes, organ damage
STRONG BASE HAZARDS

 Irritant to skin, eyes and lungs

 Repeated or prolonged exposure can damage organs

1.5 PRAC: MEASURE ENTHALPY OF

NEUTRALISATION

Enthalpy = measure of total energy possessed by substance

Change in enthalpy (delta H)  energy change per mole when reaction occurs at constant
pressure

o Energy absorbed = endothermic = positive ΔH

o Energy of products > energy of reactants
o Energy released = exothermic = negative ΔH
o Energy of reactants > energy of products
 Enthalpy change depends on conc of reactants and products in solution and
pressure of gases involved
 Standard enthalpy change = enthalpy change when solutions of an acid and alkali
react together under standard conditions (25degC and 100kPa) to product exactly 1
mole of water
 1.6 CHANGES IN DEF AND MODELS OF ACID AND
BASE TO EXPLAIN LIMITATIONS OF EACH MODELS
DEF
ARRHENIUS  Acid: substance which replaces H
ions in solution
Ions in  Base: substance which releases
solution OH- ions in solution
o Works well for aq solutions but
not in other settings
LIMITATIONS
+
 Doesn’t take solvent into
account
o e.g. when dissolved in
organic solvents (e.g.
hexane), acids and
bases don’t dissociate,
but will still rxn to
produce salt and water
 It couldn’t explain ammonia or
CH4 acting as a base
 H+ ions don’t exist in solution,
acid solutions actually contain
hydronium ions – H3O+
 Gaseous ammonia and
gaseous HCl will react to
produce a cloud of NH4Cl
particles (gaseous = not in
solution) which couldn’t be
explained

BRONSTED  Acids are proton (H+ ion) donors  Doesn’t explain substances
LOWRY  Bases are proton acceptors such as BF3 and AlCl3 which act
 Acid-base rxns = proton transfer as acids but don’t contain
Proton rxns hydrogen
donor  Doesn’t explain rxn b/w acidic
oxides (non-metal oxides) and
basic oxides (metal oxides),
which don’t contain hydrogen
LEWIS Overcame the deficiencies of the
THEORY Bronsted Lowry theory by proposing that
 Acids and electron pair acceptors
 Bases are electron pair donors
 USING BRONSTED
LOWRY THEORY
IQ2: WHAT IS THE ROLE OF WATER IN
SOLUTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES

2.1 Prac: Measure pH of range of acids and bases

 Acids and bases are electrolytes which ionise in solution to produce ions, which are
free mobile charge carriers  conduct electricity
 pH meter measures conductivity of solution as voltage
 connected to electrode which consists of ion selective membrane
o thin glass that will allow H+ ions to pass through
o conductivity of H ions which pass through ion selective membrane which is
measured
 most accurate method to measure pH  measures within +- 0.01 units
2.2 Calc pH, pOH, Hydrogen ion concentration [H+]
and hydroxide ion concentration [OH-]
pH = -log[H+] [H+] = 10-pH
pOH = -log[H+] [OH-] = 10-pOH

1) pH + pOH = 14
2) [H+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10-14

pH and Sig Figs

 No. dp in pH number = no sig figs in data used to calc pH

2.3 Investigation: use of pH to indicate differences

between strengths of acids and bases
STRONG ACID
 Dissociate completely in
solution
 E.g. HCl completely ionises
WEAK ACID
 E.g. acetic acid
 Doesn’t dissociate completely
 Forms equilibrium on the side of
un-dissociated acetic acid (on
side of intact molecule

Stronger an acid is 
lower pH produced in
solution
Monoprotic = acids donate 1 proton

Diprotic = acids donate 2 protons

Triprotic = acids donate 3 protons

SULFURIC ACID – STRONG AND WEAK

 diprotic acid – donates 2 protons

 1st donation goes to completion  therefore sulfuric acid = strong acid
 2nd donation is incomplete  equilibrium

CONCENTRATED AND DILUTE ACIDS

 Concentrated acid = high conc of acid in particular volume of water

 Conc and dilution have nothing to do with acid strengths
o Strength of acid = measure of what degree it ionises
 E.g. 10M HCl is concentration solution of HCl (10M means 10 molar meaning 10
moles of acid/litre of solution)
 Dilute acids have small conc  0.05M HCl is dilute solution of HCl
 C = n/v

LINK B/W CONC AND PH OF ACIDS

 pH scale = logarithmic scale

 change in pH of 1 = change in conc of 10 times (10x)

 more concentrated the [H+], lower the pH, the more concentrated the [OH-]
– higher the Ph

DILUTING ACIDS AND BASES

 reverse to conc
 If acid is diluted 10 times (25mL of 0.1M HCl diluted to 250mL) pH will go up
by 1 – pH changes from 1  2
2.4 Ionic eqns to represent dissociation of acids and
bases in water, conjugate acid/base pairs in solution
and amphiprotic nature of some salts

CONJUGATES

 Bronsted Lowry – acid is proton donator, base is proton acceptor

 Forward rxn – CH3COOH acts as acid and H2O as base

 Reverse rxn – H3O+ acts as acid and CH3COO- acts as base
- Conjugate base is what remains after acid donates proton
- Conjugate acid is what remains after base accepts proton
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES AND THEIR CONJUGATES

 Strong acid ---- weaker conjugate base

 Stronger base -- weaker conjugate acid
 Moderately weak acids – moderately weak conjugate weak bases
AMPHIPROTIC SUBSTANCE

 Both acids AND bases

 Donate and accept protons depending on chemical species present
SELF-IONISATION OF WATER

 Water = amphiprotic substance  donates and accepts protons

 Accepts H+ from acid and donates H+ to base
2.5 Models to show differences between strong,
weak, concentrated and dilute acids and bases
2.6 Calc pH of resultant solution when solutions of
acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed
DILUTING ACIDS AND BASES

 Calculating pH of diluted acid/base solutions only be done with strong acids/base

1. Use C1V1 = C2V2 to determine final conc of solution after dilution
2. Determine the H+/OH- conc of solution
3. Determine pH using pH = -log[H+]
 QUANTITATIVE
ANALYSIS
IQ3: HOW ARE SOLUTIONS OF ACIDS AND
BASES ANALYSED?
2.1 Prac: Analyse conc of unknown acid/base by
titration
TITRATION AND VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

 Volumetric analysis  known volume and conc of acid used to determine conc of
base and vice versa
o E.g. known conc of HCl used to determine conc of unknown conc NaOH
solution
 Performed using indicator/pH probe
o Amount of acid added to base where acids and bases totally consume each
other (total neutralisation)  large change in pH
o Indicator  definite colour change
o pH probe  large change in pH
 end point = point where total neutralisation occurs
METHOD FOR TITRATION

1. Fill a burette with base and record starting volume

2. Pipette accurate amount of acid into conical flask
3. Place conical flask underneath burette
4. Add ½ drops of suitable indicator to conical flask
5. Slowly add solution in burette to flask until indicator just changes colour (end point),
swirling the flask, washing down the sides with small amounts of distilled water
during process
6. Record final volume in burette

OR
 Burette and pipette rinsed with solution that will be in them before use
o Bc concs aren’t changed
 Conical flask washed with distilled water and distilled water can be added to it (used to
wash down the sides) during titration
o No. moles of solute in conical flask us unchanged by the addition of water

PRIMARY STANDARDS AND PRIMARY STANDARD SOLUTION

 Primary standard used to make accurately known concs of solution from which conc
of other solutions can be determined accurately using titrations
1. Prepared by dissolving known mass of primary
standard in distilled water in small beaker
2. Solution then washed down into volumetric flask with
more water and volumetric flask made up to mark and
thoroughly mixed
3. Standard solution used to standardise other solutions
 Normally solid that are easily dissolved to make solution of know concs
 Requirements for primary standards:
o Solid to be weighed accurately
o Stable and not react with O2, CO2 in air
o Very water soluble
o Shouldn’t absorb water from high
o High molecular mass so weighing errors are negligible
 E.g. anhydrous Na2CO3 (base) and potassium hydrogen phthalate KHC8H4O4
(monoprotic acid)
 NaOH NOT appropriate primary standard bc absorbs water as solid therefore mass
can’t be measured accurately
o Also absorbs CO2 when in solution therefore conc changes over time
 VOLUMETRIC EQUIPMENT

NAME DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION RINSING

Volumetric Flask Used to prepare With distilled water
standard solution, 3 times ONLY
where accurately
weighed substance Washing it with
is dissolved in standard solution
distilled water to would make the
form a specific titrant more
volume of solution. concentrated than it
Volumetric flasks should be and the
contain a calibrated titration will be
mark at neck of shorter than
flask expected
Burette Standard solution is Distilled water 3
placed in burette, times, then the
which delivers solution it will be
accurately known filled with 3 times.
volumes of solution
to conical flask. The If it was washed
volume of solution with just water, the
is controlled by the titrant will be
stopcock at bottom diluted and the
of burette. titration will take
Generally a burette longer than it
will be accurate to should
0.1mL
Conical flask Usually contains Distilled water 3
analyte of times ONLY
volumetric analysis.
Doesn’t measure If it was washed by
volume accurately analyte solution, inc
and simply used as conc of analyte and
vessel. The volume titration will take
of solution within longer than
conical flask is expected
accurately
measured by
volumetric pipette
volumetric pipette Used to accurately Distilled water 3
measure specific times, then the
volume of solution solution it will be
of unknown conc filled with 3 times.
(analyte). Known
volume is called If it was washed
aliquot. Aliquot is with just water, the
poured into conical analyte will be
flask. Generally it is diluted and titration
accurate to 0.1mL will take longer than
 it should

ACIDITY OF SALTS

ANIONS AND CATIONS

SALTS
DETERMINING THE ACIDITY OF SALTS

ANOTHER WAY TO DETERMINE ACIDITY OF SALT SOLUTIONS

END POINT AND EQUIVALENCE POINT IN TITRATIONS

 End point = point where colour of indicator changes

 Usually same as equivalence point
o Equivalence point = point where reactants are in their stoichiometric ratio
o If correct indicator is chosen

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE INDICATOR

 Diff indicators change colour at diff pHs
 Indicator chosen which has pH change around same pH as salt produced in rxn

 Salt produced is acidic therefore indicator in acidic region (e.g. methyl orange)
 If neutral salt was produced
o E.g. KCl, litmus or bromothymol would be appropriate
 Any indicator that changes colour within large deflection in pH curve of titration
would work
2.2 Titration curves and conductivity graphs to
analyse data to indicate characteristic rxn profiles
  Indicators aren’t the only way of determining end point of titration
 Titration with strong acid/base  big change in pH observed
o Small amount of titrant added as equivalence point reached
o Solution in conical flask goes from acid and vice versa

STRONG
ACID/STRONG
BASE
STRONG
ACID/WEAK
BASE
WEAK
ACID/STRONG
BASE
CONDUCTIVITY GRAPHS

 Conductivity probe (not pH probe) used to determine end point of titration

 Conductivity of solution  determined by ions present in solution
 Strong acids/bases have > conductivity than weak ones
 Larger ions have lower conductivity as they’re less mobile
BACK TITRATIONS

 Can’t do direct titration  back titration

o E.g determining mass/& CaCO3 in sock
 Excess of 1 reagent is added and then excess is titrated
 E.g. known excess amount of HCl added until all CaCO3 in rock has
dissolved. A titration of NaOH would then determine how much HCl
was in excess. Using this, initial amount of HCl added to determine
the [CaCO3] in rock

BACK TITRATIONS

BACK TITRATIONS
CONDUCOMETRIC TITRATIONS
 2.3 Model neutralisation of strong and weak acids
and bases

2.4 Calc and apply dissociation constant (Ka) and p Ka

(p Ka = -log10(Ka)) to determine difference between
strong and weak acids

2.5 acid/base analysis techniques applications:

IN WINE INDUSTRY:
INDUSTRIES
BY
ABORIGINAL
AND TORRES
STRAIT
ISLANDER PPL

USING
DIGITAL
PROBES AND
INSTRUMENT
S
2.6 chemical analysis of common household
substance for its acidity or basicity
- school titration experiment  insert method
2.7 Prac: preparation of buffer + demonstration of
properties
 Mixtures which don’t change pH despite the addition of small amounts of acids or
bases
 Made from mixture of either
HOW BUFFERS WORK

 If acid is added, acid donates H+ to acetate ions, hence removed from solution
o Equil shift left minimising change as per LCP)
o Little to no change in pH

 if base is added – reacts with hydronium ions

o
o Equil shifts to RHS as forward rxn is now faster than reverse one
(therefore change is minimised as per LCP – more H3O+ produced, hence
change in [H3O+} is minimised
BUFFERS AND TITRATION CURVES
2.8 Importance of buffers in natural systems