HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

General Introduction to Physiology

Kefale Mitiku (MSc in Medical Physiology)

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 Learning Objectives

 At the end of the session, students will be able to:

Define the subject matter of physiology

Explain the principles of homeostasis

Describe the functional structures of cell membrane and

cell organelles

Identify molecular transport mechanisms across the cell

membrane

Differentiate ECF and ICF

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 Introduction to Human Physiology
What is Physiology?
 The term physiology literally means study of nature
/knowledge of nature (Greek: physis = nature; logia=study
of)

 Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a

living organism and its component parts, including all its
chemical and physical processes

 It also deals about regulation of physiologic

parameters of the body

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 Introduction cont’d...
Physiology focuses on mechanisms of action (processes).

Physiology explain “how” processes occur in the body

Example:
– How blood glucose level is controlled?
– How muscle cells contract?
– How body temperature is regulated?
 Physiology also deals with the integrated activities of different
organs and organ systems, and the conditions which
determine normal functions of body parts.

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 Introduction cont’d...
 Physiology has a strong link with disciplines like:
• Anatomy, Biochemistry, Pathology, Pharmacology
Fields of Physiology:

 Fields of physiology range from simple viral physiology,

bacterial physiology, cellular physiology to the most complex
human physiology
 Human physiology is the study of function of human body
parts (cells, tissues, organs & organ systems)

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 Structural levels of organization of human body

1) The Chemical level

 various atoms and molecules make up the human body
 the most common atoms in the body are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen make up approximately 96% of the total body
chemistry
 these common atoms and a few others combine to form the
molecules of life, such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic
acids (such as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA)

2) The Cellular level

 chemical components are arranged and packaged in very precise
ways to form a living entity, cell
 cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit in a living
being
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 Structural levels … cont’d

 In multicellular organism all cells perform certain basic functions

essential for their own survival.
 moreover, each cell also performs a specialized function which is
usually a modification or elaboration of a basic cell function

3) The tissue level

 tissues are groups of cells of similar specialization
 there are four types of tissues: muscle, nervous, epithelial, and
connective tissue

The term tissue is also often used, as in clinical medicine, to mean

the aggregate of various cellular and extracellular components that
make up a particular organ (for example, lung tissue or liver tissue)

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 Structural levels … cont’d

4) The organ level

 an organ is a structure made up of two or more types of tissues

organized together to perform a particular function or functions

 stomach is an example of an organ made up of all four primary

tissue types

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 Structural levels … cont’d

Fig.6. The stomach as an organ made up

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 Structural levels … cont’d

5) The body system level

 system is a collection of organs that perform related functions and
interact to accomplish a common activity that is essential for
survival of the whole body

 for example, digestive system consists of the mouth, salivary

glands, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, small intestine, and large intestine
 it breaks down food into small nutrient molecules & absorbs
them into the blood for distribution to all cells

The human body has 11 systems: circulatory, digestive, respiratory,

urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, immune, nervous,
endocrine, and reproductive system
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 Structural levels … cont’d

6) The organism level

 the body systems all together form a functional whole body (the
organism)

 the whole body of an individual consists of the various body systems

structurally and functionally linked as an entity

 many complex body processes depend on the interplay among

multiple systems

 for example, regulation of blood pressure depends on coordinated

responses among the circulatory, urinary, nervous, and endocrine
systems
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Structural levels … cont’d

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Fig.7. Levels of organization in the human body
 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant
internal environment(ECF) despite changes in the external
environment.
• Homeostasis refers to the dynamic mechanisms that detect and
respond to deviations in physiological variables from their “set
point” values by initiating effector responses that restore the
variables to the optimal physiological range.

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 Internal Environment

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 Homeostasis cont’d…

• Essentially all organs of the body perform their functions to

maintain constant conditions in the ECF.
• For example
– Lungs maintain the normal concentration of respiratory
gases in blood
– The CVS transports required substances and removes waste
produces
– The kidneys maintain constant ionic concentration
– The GIT provides nutrients

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 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

3 Input: Control
center 4 Output:
Information Information sent
sent along along efferent
afferent pathway to effector
pathway to
control
center
Receptor (sensor) Effector

2 hange
C
detected
by receptor

5 Response of
effector feeds
back to influence
1 Stimulus: magnitude of
Produces stimulus and
change returns
in variable variable to
homeostasis
Variable (in homeostasis)

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 Homeostasis cont’d…

• Examples of Homeostatically Regulated Variables include:

– Body Temperature
– Blood Composition (ions, sugars, proteins, etc)
– Concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the blood
– Acid-Base balance (pH)
– Blood osmolarity
– Blood pressure, cardiac output, heart rate
– Respiratory rate and depth

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 Regulatory systems of homeostasis

 There are two systems in the body designed for controlling

body’s homeostasis:
1. The nervous system and
2. The endocrine system
– However, their manner of regulation varies.
 Common properties of neurotransmitters and hormones:
– Both are released in small amount
– Both have receptors on the target organs
– Both act by altering the function of their target organs
– Both work towards common goal →Homeostasis

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 Homeostasis cont’d…

 Difference b/n neural and hormonal mechanism in regulation

of homeostasis:
– Nerve endings release neurotransmitters
– Endocrine cells release hormones
– Nervous regulation is faster
– That of the hormones is slower
– Nervous regulation effects are diffused
– That of the hormones is mostly localized

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 Homeostasis regulation cont’d…
1. Neural regulatory mechanism
• The nervous system regulates body functions through
generation of action potential and release of
neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals released form nerve
endings.
• To bring about complete communication among various
structures of the body, there should exist what is known as
reflex arc.
• A reflex is any response that occurs automatically without
conscious effort
• Reflex arc: is a neural pathway involved in performing reflex
activity
Example: pulling the hand away from a burning hot object
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  The reflex arc is composed of five components:

Stimulus (Mechanical, chemical, thermal, etc)

Receptor (Neural transduction)

Sensory System

Integrating center (Brain and spinal cord)

Motor System

Effectors
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(Muscle, gland) =Desirable
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biological responses
21
 Homeostasis cont’d…
2. Hormonal regulatory mechanism
– Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine
glands, and transported via blood to the target organs.
– Examples:
• Parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone
to the kidneys, bone and small intestine = [Ca2+]
• Aldosterone from adrenal cortex  to the kidneys,
intestine   [Na+]
• Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) causes water retention
from the kidneys and intestine.
– An organism is said to be in homeostasis when its internal
environment contains an optimum amount of nutrients,
gases, electrolytes, water, hormones, enzymes and To
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 Ca2+ homeostasis

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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
1. Body fluid volume = 40 L
ECF = 15L
ICF = 25L
2. Osmolality = 300 mosm/L, (280 – 300 mosm/L)
3. Body T. = 36.5 – 37.5OC
4. pH = 7.35 – 7.45
5. Blood Gases
PCO2 = 35 – 45 mm Hg
PO2 = 40 – 100 mm Hg
6. Electrolytes (ECF)
Ca2+ = 10 mg/dL
K+ = 4 meq/L
Na+ = 142 meq/L
Cl- = 103 meq/L
HCO3- = 27 meq/L

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 Normal Ranges of Some Important Parameters
7. Waste Products
Bilirubin = 0.5 mg/dl
Creatinine = 0.6 – 1.5 mg/dL
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) = 8 – 25 mg/dL
Uric acid (s): Women = 2.3 – 6.6 mg/dL
Men = 3.6 – 8.5 mg/dL
8. Blood Glucose level (fasting): 70 – 110 mg/dL
9. Arterial Blood pressure (systemic circulation).
Systolic pressure = 120 mm Hg (90 – 139 mm Hg)
Diastolic pressure = 80 mm Hg (60 – 89 mm Hg)
Pulse pressure = 40 mm Hg
Mean BP = 96 mm Hg
Pulmonary AP = 25/10
Cardiac output = 5 L/min
Blood Flow = 5 L /min
10. RBC count = 4-6 millions/mm3
WBC count = 4000-11,000/mm3
Hemoglobin (Hb) = 15g/dl
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 Feedback Control Mechanisms of the
Homeostasis

• The human body has thousands of control mechanisms that

operate to keep homeostasis.
• Feedback control mechanism is a means by which our body tries
to maintain its homeostatic environment.
• There are two main types of feed back mechanisms:
A. The Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)
B. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

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 1. Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)

 Negative Feedback Mechanism (NFM)

– It works by producing an effect which opposes the previous
condition (the initiating stimulus) of the organ.
* For example: If the PCO2 is increased in the blood, the NFM
stimulates the respiratory center, which has an effect on
decreasing PCO2 in blood to normal via increasing Pulmonary
ventilation rate .

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 NFM control cont’d…
• In general, if some factors (parameters) become excessive or too
little, a control system initiates the NFM, which consists of a
series of changes that return the factors toward certain mean
values (set point or normal values), thus, maintaining
homeostasis.
• Most homeostatic values of the body are controlled by NFM.
• Variables controlled by negative feedback mechanism includes:
– Control of Body temperature (BT)
– Control of Arterial blood pressure (ABP)
– Control of Blood glucose level (BGL)
– Blood gases level and many others

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 Negative Feedback

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 Human Thermoregulation

• Brain senses change in blood temperature

– if overheating, vessels dilate in the skin and sweating begins
– if too cold, vasoconstriction in the skin and shivering begins
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2. The Positive Feedback Mechanism (PFM)

• It works by producing an effect which enhances or repeats the

same action like that of the starting stimulus.
– Self-amplifying change
• leads to change in the same direction
• Normal way of producing rapid changes
– occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, LH surge and
generation of nerve signals.

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 Examples of the PFM
1. Generation and propagation of the action potential.
– Stimulated nerve fiber  opening of Na+ channels 
entry of few Na+ stimulates the opening of more and more
Na+ channels
2. Blood clotting is an example of a very valuable use of PFM.

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 3. LH surge: the positive feedback mechanism

GnRH HT

Pituitary
activates

LH

Ovary

Estrogen
>200 µg/ml
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 PFM cont’d…
4. Labor during child birth

• uterine contraction is enhanced as the head of the baby

stretches the cervix generation of action potentials AP
reaches hypothalamus another AP posterior pituitary 
release of oxytocin into the blood contraction of uterine
muscle more and more stretching and more and more
contraction.

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 PFM cont’d…
• Some of the action of PFM disturbs the internal environment
and cause disease and death.
• For example, if a person suffers from a heart attack that
damages the heart function, then the heart pumps less
amount of blood to the tissues including the heart muscle and
brain.
• ↓ heart pump ability  ↓blood supply to all tissues including
heart  this further ↓heart contraction and the heart
becomes weaker and weaker that may lead to death
– Because the heart muscle does not get sufficient nutrients
and O2, the activity of the heart becomes weaker and
weaker and the weaker the heart the lesser blood is
pumped and then death may occur.

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 Cell Physiology
» Cells – are the functional & structural units of the body
» Two types of cells:
A. cells without typical nucleus = prokaryotes
B. cells with nucleus = eukaryotes
• The following table shows the difference b/n the two cells:

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Prokaryotes: (Eg. bacteria) Eukaryotes:(Human)

 No nucleus  Genetic material mostly in nucleus

 Smaller (1-10 m)  Larger (10-100  m)

 No cytoskeleton  Cytoskeleton present

 Generally no membrane-  Membrane-bound organelles

bound organelles present
RNA and protein synthesis in  RNA synthesis in nucleus, protein
same compartment synthesis in the cytoplasm
 Small circular chromosome  Multiple linear chromosomes

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 Generalized Cell
Components of cells:
 A typical cell has three parts:
1) the cell membrane (plasma membrane), which encloses the
cell
2) the nucleus, which contains the cell’s genetic material and
3) the cytoplasm, the portion of the cell’s interior not occupied
by the nucleus
 The different substances that make up the cell are collectively
called protoplasm.
Protoplasm:
 Composed mainly of five basic substances: water,
electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
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 A GENERALIZED CELL

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 Cell structure… cont’d
Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane is an extremely thin layer (7.5 nm) of lipids and
proteins that forms the outer boundary of every cell and encloses
the intracellular contents.

 Cell membrane separates the fluid outside the cell called

extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell called
intracellular fluid (ICF).

 Cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to

pass through it and excluding others

 Cell membrane permeability can also be varied because it contains

numerous regulated ion channels and other transport proteins that
can change the amounts of substances moving across it.
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 Cell structure … cont’d

 Cell membrane is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with protein.

 Cell membrane consists mostly of lipids and proteins plus small

amounts of carbohydrate.

 The most abundant membrane lipids are phospholipids, with lesser

amounts of cholesterol.
 Phospholipids have a polar (electrically charged) head containing
a negatively charged phosphate group and two non polar (electrically
neutral) fatty acid chain tails.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 The polar end of phospholipid molecule is hydrophilic (meaning

“water loving”) & interact with water molecules; the non polar end
is hydrophobic (meaning “water fearing”) and will not mix with
water.

 In water, phospholipids self-assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double

layer of lipid molecules.

 The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center of the bilayer

away from the water, and the hydrophilic heads line up on both sides
in contact with the water

 The outer surface of the bilayer is exposed to ECF, whereas the inner
surface is in contact with the intracellular fluid (ICF).
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 Cell structure … cont’d

Fig. 9. Structure and organization of

phospholipid molecules in a lipid bilayer

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 Cell structure … cont’d

• A small amount of membrane carbohydrate is located on

the outer surface of cells.

• Short carbohydrate chains protrude like tiny antennas from the

outer surface, bound primarily to membrane proteins and, to a
lesser extent, to lipids.

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Cell structure … cont’d

Fig. 10. Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane structure

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Cell structure … cont’d

Functions of cell membrane

1) Protective function: cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and

the organelles.
2) Selective permeability: cell membrane acts as a semipermeable
membrane, which allows only some substances to pass through it
and acts as a barrier for other substances.
3) Absorptive function: nutrients are absorbed into the cell through
the cell membrane.
4) Secretory & excretory functions
5) Exchange of gases (O2, CO2)
6) Maintenance of shape and size of the cell

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 The different components of the plasma membrane carry out a variety

of functions.
 Lipid bilayer serves three important functions:
1) It forms the basic structure of the membrane
2) Its hydrophobic interior is a barrier to passage of water
soluble substances between the ICF and the ECF
3) It is responsible for the fluidity of the membrane

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 Cell structure … cont’d

 Different types of membrane proteins serve different functions:

1) Some proteins span the membrane to form water-filled pathways,
or channels.
 Water-soluble substances small enough to enter the channel can
pass through the membrane by this means without coming into
direct contact with the hydrophobic lipid interior.
 A given channel selectively admits particular ions
 Some channels are leak channels while others are gated
channels
2) Some proteins that span the membrane are carrier, or
transport molecules; they transfer across the membrane
specific substances that are unable to cross on their own.

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 Cell structure … cont’d

3) Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported

actively across the cell membrane.
4) Some proteins located on either the inner or the outer cell surface
function as membrane bound enzymes that control specific
chemical reactions.
5) Many proteins on the outer surface are receptors, sites that
“recognize” and bind with specific molecules in the cell’s
environment.
6) Other proteins are cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) which are
responsible for attachment of cells to their neighbors.
7) Still other proteins on the outer membrane surface, especially in
conjunction with carbohydrates, are important in the cells’ ability to
recognize “self ”.

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Cell structure … cont’d

 Membrane carbohydrates serve as self identity marker

 The short carbohydrate chains on the outer membrane surface

serve as self-identity markers that enable cells to identify and
interact with one another.
 Different cell types have different markers
 The unique combination of sugar chains projecting from the
surface membrane play an important role in recognition of
“self” and in cell-to-cell interactions (cells of the same type
and join to form tissues).

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 Transport through the Cell Membrane
Passive Transport
Active Transport
Vesicular transport

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 Transport through the Cell Membrane
• The plasma membrane is a very important structure which
functions to allow certain substances to enter or leave the cell
still excluding others to cross the membrane
• Such a membrane is referred to as “selective permeable”
(“semipermeable”)
• It can "pump" other substance into or out of the cell against the
concentration gradient
• Both the protein portion and the phospholipids portion of the
membrane are involved in the membrane permeability
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 Transport through the cell membrane

• Cells have two categories of transport for the movement of

ions and small solute molecules across the plasma membrane
• These transport mechanisms are passive transport and active
transport
• Some of the transport process happens "passively" without the
cell needing to expend any energy; such processes are called
"passive transport processes“
• Other transport processes require energy (ATP) from the cell's
reserves to "power" them; these processes are called "active
transport processes"

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 Transport through the cell membrane
1. Transport for the movement of ions and small solute
molecules across the plasma membrane
I. Passive transport across cell membrane includes:
 Simple diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
II. Active transport includes:
 primary active transport
 secondary active transport

2. The movement of large molecules across cell membrane

takes place by vesicular transport (endocytosis and
exocytosis)
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 Transport through the cell membrane

ECF ECF

ICF ICF

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 I. Passive Transport
1. Simple Diffusion
 It is the passive movement of substances down their
concentration gradient.
– Does not need cellular metabolic energy (ATP)
– It’s powered by thermal energy of the diffusing molecules
– It’s non-carrier mediated transport

• Examples: Substances that are transported by simple diffusion

includes CO2, O2, N2, steroids, urea, glycerol, ethanol alcohol,
lipid soluble drugs and ions through specific channels.

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 Simple Diffusion
 Factors affecting the net rate of diffusion

a. Lipid solubility of the subs

b. Membrane permeability

c. Concentration difference

d. Pressure difference

e. Electrical potential difference of ions

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 Simple Diffusion …cont’d
Rate of diffusion is determined by the following factors
summarized in the formula shown below.
S. A. T. C
Rate of diffusion =
D MW

Where, C = Change of concentration

S = Solubility in lipid
A = Surface area of the membrane
T = Temperature
D = Distance or membrane thickness
MW = Molecular wt of substances

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 Lipid bilayer of cell membrane

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 2. Facilitated diffusion
 Carrier mediated transport
– Does not need cellular metabolic energy (ATP)
– It’s powered by thermal energy of the diffusing molecules
 Transports substances down their concentration gradient
 Small charged substances (ions and molecules) cross plasma
membrane by facilitated diffuse
 Examples: transport of glucose, proteins
 Small ions, such as Na+, K+, Cl-, and Ca2+, also cross the
plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion of these small ions occurs through ion
channel proteins

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 2. Facilitated diffusion
• Ion channels are integral proteins spanning the width of the
plasma membrane and are normally composed of several
polypeptide subunits
• Two types of ion channels found in the cell membrane;
leakage (nongated) channels and gated channels
• Ion channels are often selective

Glucose

ECF
Cell membrane
ICF

Carrier protein
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 Simple diffusion vs facilitated difusion

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 3. Osmosis
 It is the power of movement of H2O from an area of higher
amount of water to an area of lower amount of water through
the semi permeable membrane.
 The direction of movement of water is governed by the
amount of osmoticaly active particles (solutes).
 The pressure that opposes osmosis of water is called osmotic
pressure
 H2O molecules have very small (0.3 nm) in diameter, so that
they can not traverse the lipid bilayer simply. Instead they
pass through specific water channels called aquaporins:
Five aquapurins (AQ1, AQ2,….AQ5) have been
identified in the body.

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 Osmosis

Figure: Osmosis: Mechanism

of Transport of Water
through the Cell Membrane

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 II. Active transport
• Substances are transported against concentration,
electrochemical gradient, up hill direction.
– needs (directly or indirectly) metabolic energy
expenditure (ATP)
– needs carrier protein in the cell membrane
• Used for the transport of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Fe2+, H+, Cl-
• Two types of active transport:
1. Primary active transport
2. Secondary active transport

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 Active transport …cont’d
1. Primary active transport:
 Immediate energy source is ATP
 There are integral membrane proteins that directly use
metabolic energy to transport ions against a gradient of
concentration or electrical potential
 These integral proteins are called ion pumps or ATPases
Primary active transport includes:
 Sodium-potassium pump or Na+/K+-ATPase
 Calcium pumps, Ca2+-ATPases
 H+/K+-ATPase
 Proton pumps, H+-ATPases

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 Active transport …cont’d
Sodium-potassium pumps or Na+/K+-ATPases
• Are found in the plasma membrane of every cell in our body
• Are responsible for maintaining the low sodium and high
potassium concentrations in the cytoplasm
• By using energy from hydrolysis of one ATP molecule it pumps
3Na+ outward and 2K+ inward
– It maintains Na+ outside and K+ inside
– It maintains electropositive outside and electronegative inside.
• Na+ - K+ pump is a carrier protein that is made up of two
subunits. It has 3 binding sites for Na+ inside
• It has 2 binding sites for K+ on the outside
• It has ATPase activity inside.
ATP = ADP + ---P + energy.
• Energy brings conformational change of the pump so that Na+
pumped outward and K+ inward.
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 Active transport …cont’d

Figure:# Primary active transport, Na+ - K+ ATPase

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 10 Active transport …cont’d
Calcium pumps, Ca2+-ATPases:
 Are found in the plasma membrane, in the membrane of the
endoplasmic reticulum, and in muscle cells in the sarcoplasmic
reticulum membrane
 Pump calcium ions from the cytosol of the cell either into the
extracellular space or into the lumen of these organelles

Ca2+ ATPase Plasma

Cytosol membrane
cc SER or
Ca2+
Sarcoplasmic
Ca2+ Reticulum
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 10 Active transport …cont’d

The H+/K+-ATPase:
• Present in the luminal (apical) membrane of the parietal cells
in oxyntic (acid-secreting) glands of the stomach and also in
the collecting ducts of the kidney
• This pump maintains the low pH in the stomach; secrete H+
ions into the urine when blood pH falls, and to reabsorb K+
ions

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 10 Active transport …cont’d
Proton pumps, H+-ATPases:
• Are found in the membranes of the lysosomes, the golgi
apparatus and renal tubules cells cell membrane, osteoclasts
cell membrane
• Pump protons from the cytosol into these organelles, keeping
the inside of the organelles more acidic (at a lower pH)
• Proton pump in the kidney helps to secrete H+ ions into the
urine when blood pH falls
• Secretion of protons by the bone cells (osteoclasts) helps to
solubilize the bone mineral and creates an acidic environment
for bone breakdown by enzymes

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 Secondary Active Transport
 Is powered by an ion concentration gradient across cell
membrane, typically Na+
 Metabolic energy is expended by the pumps to create and
maintain the differences in ion (Na+ ) concentrations across
cell membrane
 Sodium diffusion down concentration gradient is used to carry
out the transport of another important solute against
concentration gradient across cell membrane
 Carrier protein is involved

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 20 Active Transport…cont’d

Figure:#
3/28/2024 Secondary active transport, NaM.+ - Glucose Co-transport Mechanism
Kefale 73
Example: 20 Active Transport
The Na+-glucose cotransporter in the human intestine entrocytes which
is called sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) is
secondary active transport system

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 Secondary Active Transport …cont’d
 Absorption of many amino acid molecules involve secondary
active transport
 Na+/Ca2+ exchange systems is another example of secondary
active transport that removes calcium from the cell and,
together with the different calcium pumps, helps maintain a
low cytosolic calcium concentration
 SGLT1 is among symport protein transporters
 Na+/Ca2+ exchange systems is among antiport protein
transporters
Carrier proteins
Uniport carriers: Carry single substance to one direction
Antiport carriers: Carry two substances in opposite directions
Symport carriers: Carry two substances in the same direction
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 Vesicular (Bulk) transport
 Macromolecules cross the plasma membrane by vesicular
transport
 Vesicular transport includes endocytosis and exocytosis
 Endocytosis is the process in which a region of the plasma
membrane is pinched off to form an endocytic vesicle inside the
cell
 Endocytosis include phagocytosis, pinocytosis and receptor
mediated endocytosis
A. Phagocytosis is the ingestion of large particles or
microorganisms, usually occurring only in specialized cells such as
macrophages, also called cell eating
B. Pinocytosis is the process by which dissolved solutes from the
extracellular medium are trapped inside the vesicle and
internalized by the cell and also called cell drinking.
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 Vesicular transport…cont’d
C. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a highly selective process
that enables cells to import specific large molecules that it needs
from its environment.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis is triggered by the binding of
a specific target molecule such as a protein to a surface
membrane receptor specific for that molecule.
 Macromolecules such as bacteria, engulfed by the cell via
phagocytosis are called phagosomes or vacuoles
 Macromolecules taken inside via pinocytosis or receptor-
mediated endocytosis are called endosomes
Exocytosis:
 Allows secretion of macromolecules from the cell.
 The vesicles formed in the cell move to the cell surface, fuse
with the cell membrane, and release their contents outside the
cell.
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3/28/2024 Kefale M. 78
 Vesicular transport…cont’d

Endocytosis
3/28/2024 Kefale M. 79
 BODY FLUIDS
• Body fluid refers to body water and its dissolved substances

• Contains water, organic & inorganic molecules

• The maintenance of a relatively constant volume and a stable

composition of the body fluid is essential for homeostasis

• Some of the most common and important medical problems arise

because of abnormalities in the control systems that maintain this
constancy of the body fluids

3/28/2024 80
 Body fluid compartment
• In lean adults, body fluids constitute about 55% and 60% of total
body mass in females and males, respectively

• Body fluids are present in two main compartments :

Intracellular

extracellular

Intracellular Fluid

• About 2/3rd of body fluid is the fluid within cells

Extracellular Fluid

• The other 1/3rd, called extracellular fluid (ECF),is outside cells

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Body fluid compartment…
ECF Divided in to:

 Plasma (20% of ECF ) and

 Tissue Fluid ( interstitial fluid) = 80 % of ECF

• Occupies the spaces between cells, lymph in lymphatic vessels ;

cerebrospinal fluid in CNS; synovial fluid in joints; aqueous &
vitreous humor in the eyes; endolymph & perilymph in the ears; and
pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids
• Cells are bathed with the ECF.
• This fluid contains an optimum amount of nutrients, gasses,
hormones, enzymes, water and electrolytes

3/28/2024 82
83
Composition of body fluids
I. Water
• Accounts for about 60 % of the total weight of an average
adult

Example

• In a 70 kg adult, the total body water is about 42 liters

• About 30- 40 %- lipid, protein, carbohydrates, electrolytes

3/28/2024 84
 II. Electrolytes
• Electrolytes are chemicals that dissociate into their positive and
negative ions when they dissolve in water

• Most electrolytes are inorganic salts, acids and bases found in all body
fluids

• Most organic compounds are non-electrolytes; they do not ionize

when dissolved in water

• Glucose, for example, dissolves in water but does not ionize

 It remains as intact glucose molecules

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Fig. Major cations and anions of the intracellular and extracellular fluids.

3/28/2024 86
 Function of Electrolytes
1. Regulate the osmosis of water between fluid compartments by
creating osmolarity in the body fluids. Eg. Na+, Cl-

2. Ions help maintain the acid–base balance required for normal cellular
activities,

Eg. H+,Hco3 -

3. Several ions serve as cofactors needed for optimal activity of

enzymes

Eg. Ca2+

4. Involved in nerve impulse generation and muscle contraction

Eg. Na+, K+, Ca2+

88
 Fluid Balance
1.Water Gain
• Most of the water the body requires comes from the liquids we drink
(1600 ml/day) .

• The daily total water intake from food on averages is 700 ml

• Absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract in to blood = 2300ml/day

• Metabolic water (200 ml/day), produced in the body during aerobic

cellular respiration

• The total gain of water per day is about 2500 ml

89
 2.Water loss
• Kidneys excrete about 1500 ml urine/day

• Skin evaporates about 600 ml (400 mL through insensible

perspiration, sweat that evaporates before it is perceived as moisture,
and 200 ml as sweat)

• 300 ml per day is in the form of water vapor in exhaled air

• 100 ml per day is lost in feces

• The total output of water is thus about 2500 ml /24 hours

• Any increase in water output must be compensated by an increase in

intake

90
Fig. Sources of daily water gain and loss under
normal conditions 91
 Regulation of Fluid Exchange and Osmotic
Equilibrium between ICF and ECF
• The relative amounts of extracellular fluid distributed between the
plasma and interstitial spaces are determined mainly by the balance
of hydrostatic and colloid osmotic forces across the capillary
membranes
• The distribution of fluid between intracellular and extracellular
compartments, in contrast, is determined mainly by the osmotic
effect of the smaller solutes
 sodium, chloride, and other electrolytes
• The reason for this is that the cell membranes are highly permeable
to water but relatively impermeable to even small ions
3/28/2024 92
 Osmosis and Osmotic pressure
 Osmosis
 Osmosis is the net diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of high water concentration to one that
has a lower water concentration
 Water diffuses from a region of low solute concentration to one
with a high solute concentration

 Osmotic pressure
 Osmosis of water molecules across a selectively permeable
membrane can be opposed by applying a pressure in the direction
opposite that of the osmosis

 The precise amount of pressure required to prevent the osmosis is

called the osmotic pressure
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 Osmosis, … cont’d

Pressure

Fig. Osmosis, osmotic pressure. Red objects = solute, Yellow shade = water,
Dotted line = semipermeable membrane

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Osmolality and Osmolarity
• The osmolal concentration of a solution is called osmolality when the
concentration is expressed as osmoles per kilogram of water

• It is called osmolarity when it is expressed as osmoles per liter of

solution

• Most of the calculations used clinically are based on osmolarities

• About 80 percent of the total osmolarity of the interstitial fluid and

plasma is due to sodium and chloride ions,

• Whereas for intracellular fluid, almost half the osmolarity is due to

potassium ions and the remainder is divided among many other
intracellular substances
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3/28/2024 Kefale M. 96
 Tonicity of solutions

 Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic fluids

 The tonicity of solutions depends on the concentration of impermeant

solutes
 If a cell is placed in a solution of impermeant solutes having an
osmolarity of 282 mOsm/L, the cells will not shrink or swell because
the water concentration in the intracellular and extracellular fluids is
equal and the solutes cannot enter or leave the cell

 Such a solution is said to be isotonic because it neither shrinks nor

swells the cells

 Examples of isotonic solutions include a 0.9 percent solution of

sodium chloride or a 5 per cent glucose solution
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 Tonicity … cont’d

 If a cell is placed into a hypotonic solution that has a lower

concentration of impermeant solutes than that of body fluid (less than
282 mOsm/L), water will diffuse into the cell, causing it to swell;
water will continue to diffuse into the cell, diluting the intracellular
fluid while also concentrating the extracellular fluid until both
solutions have about the same osmolarity

 Solutions of sodium chloride with a concentration of less than

0.9 percent are hypotonic and cause cells to swell

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 Tonicity … cont’d

 If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution having a higher

concentration of impermeant solutes than that of body fluid, water will
flow out of the cell into the extracellular fluid, concentrating the
intracellular fluid and diluting the extracellular fluid (the cell will
shrink until the two concentrations become equal)

 Sodium chloride solutions of greater than 0.9 percent are

hypertonic

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 Tonicity … cont’d

Fig. Effects of isotonic (A), hypertonic (B), and hypotonic

3/28/2024 Kefale M. 100
(C) solutions on cell volume
 References

• Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13rd Edition

• Berne and Levy Physiology 6th Edition
• Human Physiology_ From Cells to Systems - Lauralee Sherwood
• Linda S. Costanzo Physiology 6th Edition
• Medical physiology- a systems approach
• Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th Edition
• Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd Edition
• Tortora GJ. Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 13rd
Edition

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