Ebook Environmental Studies PDF Full Chapter PDF

Environmental Studies - eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:

https://ebooksecure.com/download/environmental-studies-ebook-pdf/
Environmental Studies
simplified
Third Edition
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Benny Joseph graduated in Civil Engineering from Regional
Engineering College, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. He obtained a
master’s degree in Environmental Engineering from College of
Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala, and a PhD from Anna University,
Chennai. He has been teaching graduate and postgraduate courses
in various engineering colleges since 1990 and his subjects include
Environmental Engineering, Air and Noise Pollution, Environmental
Safety, Environmental Pollution, Environmental Impact Assessment,
Integrated Water Resources Management, and Environmental Science.
Currently he is working as Principal of Vimal Jyothi Engineering College, Kannur, Kerala.
He has more than 10 research papers in diverse fields to his credit.
Environmental Studies
SIMPLIFIED
Third Edition
Benny Joseph
Principal
Vimal Jyothi Engineering College
Kannur, Kerala
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI
McGraw Hill Education Offices

Chennai New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas
Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai 600 116
Environmental Studies: Simplified, 3e
Copyright © 2017, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored
in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any)
may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Print Book
ISBN-13: 978-93-5260-517-0
ISBN-10: 93-5260-517-9
E-Book
ISBN-13: 978-93-5260-612-2
ISBN-10: 93-5260-612-4
Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan
Science & Engineering Portfolio Lead: Hemant K Jha
Content Development Lead: Shalini Jha
Senior Specialist—Product Development: Piyali Chatterjee
Content Developer: Sahil Thorpe
Production Head: Satinder S Baveja
Assistant Manager—Production: Atul Gupta
General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela
Manager—Production: Reji Kumar
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be reliable.
However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information
published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or
damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India)
and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such
services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B-1/56, Aravali Apartment, Sector-34, Noida 201 301, and printed at
Cover Printer:
Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Dedicated to
My Beloved Parents and Wife
CONTENTS
Preface xv
Visual Walkthrough xviii
1. Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Importance of Environmental Education 2
1.3 Environmental Engineering 4
1.4 Environmentalism 5
1.4.1 The Gaia Theory 5
1.5 Environmental Studies—The Subject and its Multidisciplinary Nature 6
1.6 Components of the Environment and their Interactions 7
1.7 Humans and the Biosphere 10
1.8 Impacts of Development on the Environment 11
1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization 11
Review Questions 15
Objective-Type Questions 15
Short-Answer Questions 17
Descriptive Questions 18
Answers to Objective-Type Questions 19
2. Natural Resources 20
2.1 Forest Resources 20
2.1.1 Key Benefits of Intact Forests 22
2.1.2 Deforestation 22
2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation 23
2.1.4 Effects of Deforestation 23
2.1.5 Solutions to the Problems of Deforestation 24
2.1.6 Mining 25
2.1.7 Mineral Resources of India 26
viii Contents
2.2 Dams 27
2.2.1 Dams and Civilization 27
2.2.2 Purposes of Dams 27
2.2.3 Benefits of Dams 27
2.2.4 Problems with Dams 28
2.2.5 Socio-economic Impacts of Dams 28
2.2.6 Controversy on Hydropower 29
2.2.7 Possible Solutions to Improve the Acceptability of Dam Projects 30
2.3 Water Resources 30
2.3.1 Drought 31
2.3.2 Conflicts Over Water 32
2.4 Food Resources 32
2.4.1 Global Food Problems 32
2.4.2 Food Security 32
2.4.3 Adverse Effects of Modern Agriculture on Soil and Water Resources 33
2.4.4 Problems with Fertilizers 34
2.4.5 Pesticides 35
2.4.6 Alternative Methods of Insect Control 36
2.4.7 Organic Agriculture 36
2.4.8 Advantages of Organic Fertilizers 36
2.5 Energy Resources 37
2.5.1 Types of Energy 38
2.5.2 Energy Characteristics 40
2.5.3 Energy and the Environment 40
2.5.4 Fuel Cell 40
2.5.5 Saving Energy 42
2.6 Land Resources 42
2.6.1 Land Degradation 43
2.6.2 Soil Erosion 44
2.6.3 Desertification 45
2.6.4 Landslides 45
Review Questions 47
Contents ix
3. Ecology 54
3.1 Ecosystem 54
3.2 Ecosystem–Anthroposystem Comparison 57
3.3 Biome and Ecosystem 57
3.4 Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem 58
3.5 Ecological Succession 59
3.6 Food Chains and Webs 59
3.7 Ecological Pyramids 60
3.8 Biological Magnification or Biomagnification 61
3.9 Human Versus Natural Food Chains 62
3.10 Biogeochemical Cycles 62
3.11 Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle) 63
3.12 Carbon Cycle 63
3.13 Oxygen Cycle 65
3.14 Nitrogen Cycle 66
3.15 Phosphorus Cycle 68
3.16 Sulphur Cycle 69
3.17 Forest Ecosystems 69
3.17.1 Vertical Structure—Vegetation Layers 70
3.17.2 Horizontal Structure 71
3.17.3 Environmental Influences 71
3.17.4 Forest Ecosystem Processes 71
3.17.5 Biomass and Productivity 72
3.17.6 Functions of Forest Ecosystems 72
3.18 Grassland Ecosystems 72
3.19 Aquatic Ecosystems 73
3.19.1 Environmental Factors Affecting the Aquatic Ecosystem Performance 73
Review Questions 74
4. Biodiversity 79
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Genetic Diversity 80
4.3 Species Diversity 81
4.4 Ecosystem Diversity 81
x Contents
4.5 Value of Biodiversity 82

4.6 Value of Genes 84
4.7 Biopiracy 84
4.8 Biogeographical Classification of India 85
4.9 India as a Mega Diverse Nation 86
4.10 Endemic Species of India 87
4.11 Threats to Biodiversity 87
4.12 Hotspots of Biodiversity 88
4.12.1 Hotspots in India 89
4.13 Endangered Species of India 89
4.14 Conservation of Biodiversity 90
4.14.1 In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation 90
4.14.2 Preservation and Conservation 90
4.14.3 Project Tiger 91
4.14.4 Project Elephant 91
4.15 Genetic Engineering and Biodiversity 91
Review Questions 93
5. Environmental Pollution 96
5.1 Air Pollution 96
5.1.1 General 96
5.1.2 Sources of Air Pollution 97
5.1.3 Major Air Pollutants 97
5.1.4 Effect of Air Pollution on Animals, Plants and Property 99
5.1.5 Toxic Air Pollution 99
5.1.6 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants 100
5.1.7 Smog 100
5.1.8 Photochemical Smog 100
5.1.9 Automobile and Air Pollution 100
5.1.10 Air Pollution Control Technologies 101
5.1.11 Catalytic Converter 104
5.2 Water Pollution 105
5.2.1 Major Forms of Water Pollution 105
5.2.2 Sources of Water Pollution 106
Contents xi
5.2.3 Point and Non-point Sources 106

5.2.4 Groundwater Pollution and its Control 106
5.2.5 Management of Municipal Sewage 106
5.3 Soil Pollution 118
5.3.1 Control of Soil Pollution 118
5.4 Marine Pollution 118
5.5 Noise Pollution 120
5.5.1 Sources of Noise 120
5.5.2 Measurement of Noise 120
5.5.3 Effects of Noise 120
5.5.4 Noise Pollution Control 121
5.6 Thermal Pollution 121
5.7 Solid Waste Management 122
5.7.1 Solid (Non-Hazardous) Waste 122
5.7.2 Refuse 122
5.7.3 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 122
5.7.4 Hazardous Waste 122
5.7.5 Illegal Dumping 122
5.7.6 MSW Management Practices 122
5.7.7 Source Reduction 130
5.7.8 Recycling 130
5.7.9 Composting 130
5.7.10 Classification of Composting Based on Oxygen Use 131
5.7.11 Vermicomposting 131
5.7.12 Landfills 131
5.7.13 Combustion/Incineration 132
5.7.14 Disposal and Recycle Options 132
5.7.15 Prohibited Wastes 133
5.8 Hazardous Waste Management 133
5.8.1 Hazardous Waste 133
5.8.2 General Hazardous Waste Management Strategies 134
5.8.3 Treatment Technologies for Hazardous Wastes 134
5.8.4 Land Disposal Methods for Hazardous Wastes 135
5.8.5 Radioactive Wastes 135
5.8.6 Not In My Backyard Principle (NIMBY) 135
5.8.7 Guidelines for Handling Household Hazardous Chemicals 136
5.8.8 Disposal Methods for Household Hazardous Wastes 136
5.8.9 Chemical Waste 137
xii Contents
5.8.10 Chemical Incompatibilities 137

5.8.11 Biomedical Waste 137
5.8.12 Infectious Waste 138
5.8.13 Central Pollution Control Board Standards 138
5.8.14 Computer and Electronic Scrap Recycling 138
5.8.15 Technology for Processing Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) 139
5.9 Pollution Prevention 139
5.10 Disaster Management 140
5.10.1 Major and Minor Calamities 140
Review Questions 141
6. Social Issues and the Environment 151
6.1 From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development 152
6.1.1 Sustainability: Theory and Practice 152
6.2 Urban Problems Related to Energy 155
6.2.1 Urban Energy Crisis 155
6.2.2 Renewable Energy 155
6.3 Water Conservation 156
6.3.1 Some Ancient Indian Methods of Water Conservation
and Harvesting 156
6.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting 156
6.3.3 Reducing Water Demand in Agriculture 157
6.4 Watershed Management 159
6.5 Environmental Ethics 159
6.6 Green Chemistry and its Twelve Principles 159
6.7 Acid Rain 160
6.7.1 Effects of Acid Rains 161
6.8 Ozone-Layer Depletion 161
6.8.1 Chlorofluorocarbons 163
6.8.2 Measuring Ozone Depletion 163
6.8.3 Impacts of Ozone Depletion 164
6.8.4 Steps to Protect the Ozone Layer 164
6.9 Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming and Climate Change 165
6.9.1 Effects of Global Warming 167
Contents xiii
6.9.2 Solutions for Global Warming 167

6.10 Pollution Control Boards and Control Pollution Acts in India 169
6.10.1 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) 169
6.10.2 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 169
6.10.3 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 170
6.10.4 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 170
6.10.5 The Wildlife Protection Act, 1971 170
6.10.6 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 170
6.10.7 Constitutional Provisions 171
6.11 Nuclear Hazards and Accidents 171
6.11.1 Facts About Radiological Accidents 172
6.11.2 Ways to Minimize Radiation Exposure 172
6.12 Environmental Impact Assessment 173
6.12.1 Different Types of Impact Assessments 173
6.12.2 The Benefits of EIA 174
6.12.3 The EIA Process 175
6.12.4 Contents of a Typical Environmental Impact Assessment 175
6.12.5 Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation 176
6.13 Risk Management 177
6.14 Precautionary Principle 178
6.15 Polluter-Pays Principle 178
6.16 The Beneficiary-Pays Principle 178
6.17 The ISO 14000 Series of Environmental Management Standards 178
6.18 Economy and Environment 180
6.18.1 Environmental Economics 180
7. Human Population and the Environment 186
7.1 Population Growth 186
7.1.1 Population Variations among Nations 188
7.1.2 Population Pyramids 189
7.1.3 Problems of Population Growth 190
7.2 Human Rights 197
7.2.1 Human Rights as Inspiration and Empowerment 197
xiv Contents
7.2.2 Human Right Act, 1993 198

7.2.3 Amnesty International 203
7.3 Value Education 204
7.4 HIV/AIDS 205
7.4.1 Process of Infection 206
7.4.2 HIV Test 207
7.4.3 Transmission of HIV 207
7.4.4 Survival of HIV Outside the Body 208
7.4.5 HIV and AIDS in India 208
7.5 Environment and Human Health 209
7.5.1 A History of Pandemics 209
7.6 Family Welfare Programmes 209
7.7 Women and Child Welfare 210
7.7.1 Subjects Allocated to the Department 210
7.7.2 Child Development 211
7.8 Role of Information Technology in Environment and Human Health 212
Appendix 1 International Conventions and Protocols 218
Appendix 2 Glossary 223
Index 240
PREFACE
Introduction to the Course
A course on Environmental Studies or Environmental Science and Engineering is offered

with the intention of imparting an understanding of the impact of technological solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and to enable the students to demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development. Basic topics such as natural resources,
ecology, biodiversity, and environmental pollution are dealt in detail in this book. In
addition to these topics, the concept of sustainable development and population growth
related issues are also discussed.
Target Audience
This textbook is designed to cater to the needs of all the discerning learners of this course
at undergraduate level in Indian universities. Efforts are made to accommodate the widest
possible variations in the background of the students.
Objective of the Revision
Since the first edition of Environmental Studies, the level of environmental awareness
among the general public and graduate students of India have gone up extensively, and
hence it was felt that a lot of introductory explanations and details in the earlier edition
were becoming incongruous. The above perspective is the rationale behind this edition
and it is also kept in mind that the course on Environmental Studies should not be felt
as a difficult requirement or unnecessary academic hurdle by the students. The main
objective of this revision is to ease the learning curve and to reduce the amount of time to
complete the course successfully without omitting the core concepts. The strategy adopted
for attaining the above objective is the conversion of considerable amount of theory to
graphical representations. In addition to the above, facts and figures are updated based
on recent developments around the world.
xvi Preface
Roadmap to Target Courses
For courses offered in engineering programmes, all the topics dealt in this book may be
taken up with careful details. For other degree programmes, some of the topics such as
water treatment, wastewater treatment, air pollution control equipment, municipal solid
waste management, etc. may be dealt with a lesser rigorousness.
What is New in This Edition
A large number of illustrations and tables are added to this version for easy understanding
by converting the existing knowledge base. Every chapter is provided with learning
outcomes to make the learning process more focused and conclusion based.
Organization of the Book
Chapter 1 tries to sensitize the students about the importance of Environmental Studies
and its multidisciplinary nature. It also draws a broader picture of the role of human beings
in biosphere and major environmental issues that our planet is currently facing.
Chapter 2 deals in major natural resources such as water, forest, minerals and energy
resources. It also highlights the current issues affecting these natural resources and
possible ways for conservation. Topics relating to food security and land resources are
also discussed in detail.
Chapter 3 discusses ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles. The material and energy flow
in an ecosystem is illustrated and the same is compared with that of an anthroposystem.
Chapter 4 looks at biodiversity, its importance, threats to biodiversity, and conservation
efforts. India as a mega biodiverse nation is discussed and some of the endemic species
facing extinction are also highlighted.
Chapter 5 on environmental pollution discusses air, water, soil and marine pollution
in detail with their causes, effects and solutions. Some associated topics such as noise
pollution and thermal pollution are also discussed. The issue of management of municipal
solid waste and hazardous waste is illustrated in detail.
Chapter 6 introduces the concept of sustainable development and looks at the underlying
social concerns behind the environmental issues. Topics such as climate change and ozone
hole are dealt in detail here.
Preface xvii
Chapter 7 considers the universal issues relating to human population changes (both
growth and reduction) in various parts of the globe. Topics such as human rights, HIV and
value education are also dealt here.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to place on record his heartfelt thanks to the entire editorial team of
McGraw Hill Education, India, for their hand-holding during the revision process with a
special mention of Ms Piyali Chatterjee and Mr Atul Gupta. I would express my gratitude
to Ms Shobhika Puri for painstakingly making all the illustrations within the chapters.
I would also like to acknowledge various reviewers who took out time to review this book
and gave their valuable feedback and suggestions. Their names are given below.
Himanshu Sharma Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology, Meerut,
Uttar Pradesh
Laiju A.R. National Institute of Technology Uttarakhand, Uttarakhand
Kritanjali Jaiswal Girijananda Chowdhury Institute of Management and Technology,
Guwahati, Assam
Arup Ratan Biswas Techno India University, Kolkata, West Bengal
Prasant Rath Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Manoj H. Mota Sharad Institute of Technology, Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Thirumala Prasad Kota DVR & Dr. HS MIC College of Technology, Kanchikacherla,
Andhra Pradesh
H. Ramamohan Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Srikakulam,
Andhra Pradesh
Debapriya Dey MCKV Institute of Engineering, Howrah, West Bengal
Benny Joseph
VISUAL WALKTHROUGH
The readers can take a tour of this book through the visual walkthrough given below. It
highlights different elements present within the chapters and also gives a brief introduction
about them.
3 ECOLOGY
“The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else.”

Barry Commoner
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning Outcomes
Chapters are organized into multiple
learning objectives which help students
� Explain the concept of ecosystem and compare it with anthroposystem.
and instructors to indulge in planned � Illustrate the terms Food Chain, Food Web and Ecological Pyramid.
and focussed learning of concepts. � Sketch and explain the major biogeochemical cycles.
�
3.1 ECOSYSTEM
Ecology is the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment.
An ecosystem is a biotic assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes, taken together with
their physico-chemical environment. In an ecosystem the biological cycling of materials
Visual Walkthrough xix
FIGURES AND TABLES

The figures illustrate the various concepts
discussed in the chapter. This makes the
learning process stimulating. Details pertaining
to different concepts have been presented in
tabular form at various places.
A typical rainwater harvesting facilty for a building is shown in Fig. 6.4.
Fig. 6.4 Typical Rainwater Harvesting Facility for a Building
Table 2.2
Energy type Advantages Disadvantages

Renewable � Wide availability � Unreliable supply
� Lower running cost � Usually produced in small quantities
� Decentralized power production � Often very difficult to store
� Low pollution � Currently per unit cost of energy is
� Available for the foreseeable future more compared to other types
Non-renewable � Available in highly concentrated form � Highly polluting
� Easy to store � Available only in a few places
� Reliable supply � High running cost
� Lower cost per unit of energy produced � Limited supply and will one day get
as the technology is matured exhausted
Sustainable � Highly reliable � Risk of radioactivity
(Nuclear power) � Produces large amounts of energy � High waste disposal costs
with very little CO2 emissions � High capital investment and
� Uses small amount of raw material maintenance cost
per unit energy production
xx Visual Walkthrough
CASE STUDIES AND BURNING TOPICS

Latest case studies and burning topics are also
covered in book for better understanding of
different topics.
CASE Canada: Education, Migration, Divorce

STUDY Cause, Fall in Birth Rate
Canada’s birth rate fell to 10.5 births for every 1,000 people, down by 25% in the last decade of 20th
century. Women are having the same 1.5 babies that they’ve been having for the past 10 years but
there are fewer women in the fertile age group 25 to 30. Experts point to an array of factors, including
increasing education for women, the urbanization of society and the breakdown in family units. Where
a new generation was born every 20 years, it’s now closer to 30. When you increase the time between
generations, there will be fewer children. All agree that the fertility rate has seen a decline over the
last 40 years. One factor is higher education that has given women career opportunities that caused
women to delay pregnancies until their careers have been established. Education has also given women
better knowledge about birth control products. The move to urban living has an effect as agrarian
societies, babies are viewed as a source of future labour supply but in urban settings, children are
more likely to be economic drains on their parents. Urban parents rely on pension plans, rather than
their children. Many working class women are putting off children because they simply can’t afford
to support them. Family change, such as divorce, cohabitation and looseness of relationships, comes
with fewer children because there’s less security.
BURNING
Climate Change: An Inconvenient Truth
TOPIC
Weather is the mix of events that happen every day in our atmosphere including temperature, rainfall
and humidity. Climate is the average weather pattern in a place over many years.
Climates will change if the factors that influence them fluctuate. To change climate on a global scale,
either the amount of heat that is let into the system changes, or the amount of heat that is let out of
the system changes. For instance, warming climates are either due to increased heat let into the Earth
or a decrease in the amount of heat that is let out of the atmosphere.
In the early 19th century, scientists discovered that trace amounts of atmospheric gases, including
carbon dioxide and methane, were responsible for retaining some of the sun’s heat in the lower
atmosphere. They theorized that without these gases, the earth’s temperature would not support the
variety of life found on this planet. However, the huge amount of fossil fuels burned since the Industrial
Revolution has increased the atmospheric concentration of these gases and dramatically changed the
energy balance of the planet, retaining heat that otherwise would be radiated out into space. Like the
glass in a greenhouse, this raises the average air temperature in the lower atmosphere.
The gases responsible for this phenomenon are known as greenhouse gases (GHG). CO2 is the
major GHG and the other gases that could contribute this effect are identified as CH4, N2O, HFCs
(hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (perfluorocarbons) and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) (Fig. 6.11).
Visual Walkthrough xxi
CHAPTER-END EXERCISE
More than 400 chapter-end exercises are con-
structed to assess the student’s understanding
of concepts discussed in each chapter. These
are formed as objective-type questions, short-
answer questions and descriptive questions.
Answer to MCQs have been provided at the
end of each chapter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Objective-Type Questions
1. As per the FAO definition the minimum percentage of depletion of tree crown
cover, that can be considered as deforestation is
(a) 50% (b) 60%
(c) 70% (d) 90%
2. Which of the following statements about the forest is not correct?
(a) Reduces soil erosion
(b) Provides recreational opportunities
(c) Provides a source of economic development
Short-Answer Questions
(d) None of the above
3. Which of the following1. type
Define
ofthe term extraction
timber deforestation.
is least damaging to the
environment? 2. Differentiate between deforestation and forest degradation.
(a) Clear felling 3. Cite examples for aesthetic, recreational, economic, historical, cultural and religious
(b) Reduced impact loggingvalues of forests around your place.
(c) Mechanized logging4. List the effects of deforestation.
(d) Hand logging
5. List the possible social impacts of mining on local communities.
6. Write a short note on the mineral resources of India.
7. Identify the core causes of currentt water crisis in the world.
8. Define meteorological drought.
Descriptive Questions
9. Define food security. 1. Describe the history of population growth on earth mentioning the factors
contributing to it.
10. Enumerate the desired qualities off an ideal pesticide.
2. Draw a typical population pyramid of a developing country and discuss how it is
11. Define organic farming. likely to differ from that of a developed country.
12. List the advantages of organic agriculture
riculture over thethe
3. Explain conventional one.problems posed by population explosion.
environmental
13. What are the major energy sourcess of4.planet earth?
Discuss the salient features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by UN.
14. Differentiate between renewable, non-renewable
5. Explainand
thesustainable
steps that sources of energy
are being taken in India to impart value education from
with examples. school days.
h h l 6. Discuss the process of HIV infection.
7. What are the modes of transmission of HIV and how can it be prevented?
8. What are the steps that have to be taken to control the AIDS epidemic in India?
9. Discuss the role of Information Technology in the protection of environment
and human health.
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a)
8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a)
15. (d)
xxii Visual Walkthrough
APPENDICES
∑ Book-end appendix will give the reader

knowledge about major International
Environmental Conventions and Environ-
mental Protocols.
∑ Glossary of technical terms frequently used APPENDIX INTERNATIONAL
in environmental science has been included
at the end of book. This will help readers
improve their vocabulary on the subject.
1 CONVENTIONS
AND
PROTOCOLS
In order to deal with regional and global environmental changes, it is necessary to develop
new scientific and political mechanisms that could operate at the international level. An
international convention is intended to build an international consensus that a particular
ecological, wildlife or pollution problem exists. The convention is worded in general terms
to allow all countries to “sign on” recognizing that the problem exists and that there is
some need for concern and multinational action.
Once a convention has been established, countries can then begin to negotiate specific
control actions. The protocol mechanisms allow large problems to be broken down into more
achievable steps. The protocol mechanism allows for a wide range of actions to be agreed
upon including the control
contr of emissions, the control of production, trade in substances of
concern, and financial aid
ai mechanisms. It would not be possible to negotiate all of these
items at one time or with
within one time frame but the protocol process allows for substantial
APPENDIX progress to be made in sspite of great complexities of the overall actions being taken.
The protocol process can virtually supersede the convention itself. In the case of
2 GLOSSARY
stratospheric ozone depletion,
dep
leading to the Montreal Protocol.
the Vienna Convention which was the umbrella agreement
I. MAJOR INTERNATIONAL
INTERN ENVIRONMENTAL
CONVENTIONS
CONVENTION
Ramsar Convention (Convention
(Co on Wetlands of International Importance especially
as Waterfowl Habitat)
Most of the waterfowl th
that inhabit marshes or swamps are migratory birds. International
cooperation to preserve
preserv the marshlands has been regarded as necessary in order to
A
Abiotic: A non-living (physical or chemical) component of the environment.
Abatement: The reduction in degree or intensity of pollution.
Acid rain: Precipitation which has a pH of less than 5.6.
Acute toxicity: Any poisonous effect produced within a short period of time, resulting in
severe biological harm and often, death.
Adsorption: The adhesion of a substance to the surface of a solid or liquid. Adsorption
is often used to extract pollutants, by causing them to be attached to adsorbents such as
activated carbon or silica gel. Hydrophobic, or water-repulsing adsorbents, are used to
extract oil from waterways in oil spills.
Advanced wastewater treatment: The removal of any dissolved or suspended contaminants
beyond secondary treatment. Often, it is the removal of the nutrients—nitrogen and/or
phosphorus.
Aeration: The process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a
liquid or substance.
Aerobes: Organisms which require molecular oxygen as an electron acceptor for energy
production.
Agricultural pollution: The liquid and solid wastes from farming, including runoff from
pesticides, fertilizers, and feedlots; erosion and dust from plowing; animal manure and carcasses.
1 INTRODUCTION
“The earth provides enough to satisfy every person’s need but not every
person’s greed.”
Mahatma Gandhi
Learning Outcomes
On successful comple on of this chapter, students will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of the significance of environmental educa on.
Outline the Gaia theory in the context of environmentalism.
Comprehend the mul disciplinary nature of the course Environmental Studies.
Illustrate the components of the environment and its interac ons.
Outline the causes, effects and management op ons for various environmental
problems related to air, water and land.
1.1 GENERAL
Throughout history, humankind has adapted to the natural variations of the earth’s system
and its climate. However, in the last century, human population and consumption of
various natural resources have increased significantly and this essentially is the root cause
of all the environmental issues. Figure 1.1 shows some of the current impacts of human
activities on the environment.
2 Environmental Studies: Simplified
Fig. 1.1 Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment
Environmental awareness among the public and policymakers has been growing since
the 1960s, when it became widely recognized that human activities were having harmful
and largescale effects on the environment.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environment is the physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us. Environmental issues
affect, and are affected by, all our activities to varying degrees. The need to have a
working knowledge of environmental issues is not confined to environmental scientists,
engineers and policymakers. In our society, all the educated citizens need to have a
working understanding of the fundamental principles involved in environmentally
Introduction 3
responsible decision-making to protect planet earth. Figure 1.2 lists some of the functions
of environmental education.
Fig. 1.2 Functions of Environmental Education
The following are some of the guiding principles and features suggested for effective
environmental education.
Environmental Education
Considers the environment in its totality, i.e., ecological, political, natural,
technological, sociological, aesthetic and built environments.
Develops awareness of the importance, beauty and wonders that can be found in
these aspects of the environment.
Explores not only the physical qualities of the human relationship with the
environment, but also the spiritual aspect of this relationship.
Is a response to the challenge of moving towards an ecologically and socially
sustainable world.
Is concerned with the interaction between the quality of the biophysical environment
and the socio-economic environment.
Transcends the division of knowledge, skills and attitudes by seeking commitment
to action in an informed manner to realistic sustainability.
Recognizes the value of local knowledge, practices and perceptions in enhancing
sustainability.
Supports relevant education by focusing on learning local environments.

Considers the global as well as the local environment. Since the world is a set of inter-
related systems, there is a need for a world perspective on environmental issues.
Focuses on current and future perspectives on environmental conditions.
Is interdisciplinary and can be taught through and used to enhance all subjects in
the curriculum.
Emphasizes participation in preventing and solving environmental problems and
revokes the passive accumulation of information about the environment.
Environmental literacy is the capability for a contextual and detailed understanding of an
environmental problem in order to enable analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and ultimately sound
and informed decision-making at a citizen’s level.
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental Engineering is one of the most complex and fastest growing disciplines
of Engineering. The scope of this field includes issues from public health protection to
aesthetics, and from impact on business development to the development of legislation,
standards, regulations, and guidelines, to their enforcement and environmental protection.
A challenging aspect of Environmental Engineering is the rapid changes in the field
due to the rate of knowledge increase in the fields of science, technology and health.
Figure 1.3 illustrates some of the core areas of Environmental Engineering.
Fig. 1.3 Some Core Areas of Environmental Engineering

Introduction 5
1.4 ENVIRONMENTALISM
Although it can be argued that environmental consciousness is ancient, and forms part of
many religions, it was not until the 1960s that environmentalism became an organized
force. The milestone marking the birth of the environmental movement was the publication
of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in 1962 in the USA. Silent Spring inspired a
new public awareness that human beings were harming the environment. Since the 1960s,
the movement has grown dramatically. In Silent Spring, Carson exposed the perils of the
indiscriminate use of pesticides, particularly DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).
Fig. 1.4 Silent Spring by Rachel Carson – The book that marked the Birth of Environmental Movement
1.4.1 The Gaia Theory

Named after the Greek mother Earth goddess, Gaia, the theory was developed in the 1960s
by scientist Dr James Lovelock. This theory suggests a holistic view of the world, where all
life on earth interacts with the physical environment to form a complex system that can
be thought of as a single super organism. Thus, the earth acts as a superorganism with the
ability to regulate environmental conditions needed to sustain itself, as much as the human
body keeps its water content, temperature, and other conditions at a relatively constant
state to keep the body alive. Lovelock believed that the earth is a self-regulating system
and is able to keep its climate and chemical composition comfortable for living organisms.
In particular, it regulates the chemistry of the oceans, composition of the atmosphere and
the surface temperature. The film Avatar (2009) is an illustration of the Gaia theory where
a world (Pandora) functions like a single organism.
Fig. 1.5 Lovelock and the Gaia Theory
Fig. 1.6 Daisyworld Mathematical Model
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES—THE SUBJECT AND

ITS MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE
Environmental Studies is a distinct programme that gives the students an opportunity
to experience the interdisciplinary nature of the subject. Environmental Studies educate
students in the fundamentals of environmental and social sciences along with major
environmental issues.
An understanding of the working of the environment requires the knowledge from
wide-ranging fields. Table 1.1 shows a list of topics dealt commonly in air pollution and
Introduction 7
the related traditional fields of knowledge, illustrating the interdisciplinary nature of the
subject.
Table 1.1 Interdisciplinay Nature of the Subject—Air Pollution
Environmental issue/Topic Major subject/ Topic knowledge required

Nature and reactions of air pollutants Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
Effects of air pollutants on human beings, animals, Zoology and Botany and various branches of life
plants and materials science, Physics, and Chemistry
Effect of climate on air pollution Meteorology, Thermodynamics, Geography,
Mathematical modelling, etc.
Air pollution control devices Physics, Chemistry and various branches of
Engineering
History of air pollution and air pollution episodes History
Economic impacts of air pollution Economics, Demography
Sociological impacts of air pollution Sociology
Alternative fuels Various branches of physical sciences
Conservation of resources and pollution control Various branches of physical and political sciences
Ozone hole and global warming Almost every branch of study has got something to
contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon.
1.6 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND

THEIR INTERACTIONS
Chemicals on earth are distributed among four major environmental components or
conceptual spheres—atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. While such a
classification of nature is arbitrary, it helps in organizing and extending our knowledge of
distribution and flow of chemicals. A schematic representation of the four environmental
components and their interrelationships is shown in Fig. 1.7. The circles represent the
spheres and the curved arrows the flow pathways of the matter. In the diagram, circles
and curved arrows are used instead of boxes and straight line connections to emphasize
the close, dynamic, inseparable, organic coupling among the environmental components.
If one component or linkage changes, all other components respond. In this conceptual
frame, every sphere has a two-way linkage to every other sphere, including itself. The two-
way linkage signifies that the matter may flow from one component to another in both
directions. Some arrows show the transfer within a given component from one location
to another indicating movement of the substance from one physical location to another
without leaving the sphere. Since matter cannot be created or destroyed, the major objective
is to find the location and chemical form of the substance at any given time.
Fig. 1.7 Components of the Environment
Fig. 1.7(a) Atmosphere

Introduction 9
Fig. 1.7(b) Hydrosphere
Fig. 1.7(c) Lithosphere

Fig. 1.7(d) Biosphere
1.7 HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

Humans are part of the biosphere, and human activities most closely resemble the functions
of the biosphere. Humans are responsible for the largescale redistribution of chemicals
on earth. Population explosion, coupled with increased per capita consumption of natural
resources, is the root cause of all the adverse human impacts on the biosphere.
The atmosphere and the hydrosphere are effective transporters of matter; and, as a
result, many of the anthropogenic chemicals are transferred to the land or the oceans
where they are subsequently incorporated in these long-term geochemical reservoirs.
Much of the environmental damage is done in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere during the transit from one long-term geochemical reservoir to another.
Introduction 11
1.8 IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE

ENVIRONMENT
Over the years, in the name of development, man has been unscrupulously exploiting the
environmental resources and which, in turn, has resulted in many adverse effects on air,
water and land. The extent of impact is so much that it even threatens the very existence
of life on earth.
1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization

Table 1.2 shows a list of adverse effects of urbanization on the various environmental
components such as atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Table 1.2 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization
Environmental Population Urban component

component (numbers and density) Land use Transportation Services
Atmosphere Increased release Increased average Air pollution Particulate matter
of CO2, decreased temperature for from combustion and noxious fumes
O2 production, as most urbanized of fuel creation from incinerators,
plant colonies areas. of photo- landfills and
are destroyed by chemical smog. sewage treatment
spreading urban plants.
areas.
Hydrosphere Greater demand on More intense use of Rain and Leaching of
water resources (both hydrologic resources surface waters pollutants
surface and ground causing increased polluted with from landfills.
water). pollution. lead. Drainage Discharges from
patterns sewage outfalls
altered by pollution from
infrastructure. boats.
Lithosphere Increased Complete changes Disruption or Sanitary landfill of
transformation due to construction, disfigurement of urban wastes and
of uninhabited landscaping, etc. landscape, etc. installation/repairs
agricultural or of services disturb
unutilized land to landscape.
urban uses.
Causes, effects and management options for various environmental problems related to
air, water and land are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Summary of Urban Environmental Issues and Options
Problem area Effects Causes Management options

Ambient air Health problems Industrialization Fuel pricing
pollution Economic costs from Increase in motorized Regulations, standards,
healthcare costs and fleet and congestion emissions charges
productivity losses Use of highly polluting Demand management
Amenity losses fuels Transport planning
(aesthetic, cultural, and Energy pricing policies Appropriate technology
recreational) Topography and climate (clean fuels, air
pollution control
equipment, etc.)
Indoor air Health problems Use of low-quality fuels Substitution of fuel and
pollution (chronic obstructed for cooking and heating equipment pricing
lung disease, acute (biomass and high Fuel switching
respiratory infections, sulphur coal) Building codes
low birth weights, Poorly ventilated Public education
cancer) dwellings and Tax hazardous products
Economic costs workplaces and processes
from healthcare and Passive smoking
productivity losses Cottage industry
activities
Surface water Health problems Pricing policies Regulations, standards,
pollution Economic costs Poor regulations and/or licensing, charges
(additional treatment, enforcement Improve monitoring
new sources of supply, Municipal and and enforcement
health costs) industrial waste Demand management
Amenity losses disposal practices and wastewater reuse
Urban runoff Appropriate technology
Irrigation practices Land use controls
Waste management
Groundwater Reduced water quality Pricing policies Regulation, standards,
pollution from saline intrusion Poor regulations and/or licensing charges
depletion Health impacts enforcement Waste management
Economic costs Unsustainable Appropriate technology
extraction (rain water harvesting)
Sanitation, municipal Demand management
and industrial waste Controls on land
disposal practices use and sources of
Poor demand infiltration
management
(Contd.)
Introduction 13
Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Coastal/lake Health effects due to Unclear property rights Regulations, standards,
pollution contaminated seafood Poor regulations and/or licensing charges
and direct contact enforcement Appropriate technology
Loss of recreational Municipal and Coastal zone
resources and tourism industrial waste management and
revenues disposal practices preservation
Damage to fisheries Disposal of shipboard Shipping facilities
Amenity losses wastes Waste management
Eutrophication Land use control
Degradation of Declining agricultural Changes in relative Internalize ecological
land productivity value of land uses value in land prices
Reduced renewable Uncontrolled urban Designate special areas
resource base growth for management
(deforestation, lost soil Unclear property rights Local participation
fertility) Mining and quarrying Clarify property rights
Erosion and siltation activities Economic resource
Amenity losses Land disposal of pricing
Loss of natural habitat municipal and Land use controls
and species industrial wastes
Loss of cultural Loss of heritage Lack of regulation and/ Internalize costs of
and historical Loss of tourism or enforcement loss in redevelopment
property revenues Air pollution planning
Damage to culturally Land subsidence and Tax incentives for
values buildings, poor drainage preservation
monuments, natural Zone and building codes
sites Pollution control
Degradation of Health hazards Failure to anticipate Public education
ecosystems Resettlement costs effects in planning and Internalize costs of
Loss of habitat and development rural degradation
species Pricing policies Resource pricing
Air, water, and land Lack of rural political Clarify property rights
pollution power
Municipal solid Household costs related Poor management Private sector delivery
wastes to blocked drainage and (improper collection of collection and
flooding and disposal, little disposal
Water pollution from resource recovery) Waste minimization
leachates Pricing (no cost recovery) (recycling, recovery,
Air pollution from Disposal impacts source reduction)
burning external to the Regulations, standards,
Amenity losses community licensing, charges
Input pricing Institutional
Expanded coverage strengthening
(Contd.)
Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Hazardous wastes Surface, ground, coastal Inadequate regulations Regulations, standards,
water contamination and/or enforcement licensing and standards
Related health, economic No incentives for Improve monitoring
and resource impacts treatment and enforcement
Accumulation of toxics in Input pricing for waste- Treatment and disposal
the food chain producing industries incentives
Reduced property values Low visibility, Economic input pricing
nonlinear, long-term Waste minimization
effects Marginal cost pricing
Dispersed small-scale Special incentives for
and cottage industries small-scale generators
Privatization of
treatment and disposal
operations
Natural and man- Health effects (death, Natural forces Reduce constraints on
made hazards injuries) Land market failures supply of usable land
Economic costs (loss (lack of alternatives for Appropriate incentives
of lives, property, squatters, artificially (prices, taxes, tenure,
infrastructure) constrained supply) housing finance)
Land degradation Land policies (no Land use controls
(flooding, landslides, taxation, no/ Improve knowledge
earthquakes) unenforced protection about risks and
Amenity losses of high risk lands) alternatives
Poor construction
practices
Inadequate Health impacts Inappropriate technology Gear sanitation options
sanitation (diarrhoeal diseases, Pricing (no cost recovery) to willingness to pay
parasites, high infant Poor management Community approaches
mortality, malnutrition) (lack of operations Cost recovery
Related economic costs and maintenance, Hygiene education
Eutrophication uncoordinated
Amenity losses investments)
Inadequate hygiene
education
Inadequate Health effects Inadequate hygiene Community
drainage Property damage education management of
Accidents Increased urban maintenance
Reduced urban runoff due to Strategic investment in
productivity (shutdown impermeabilization and drainage
of business, transport upstream deforestation Land use controls and
systems) Occupation of low-lying market liberalization
lands Solid waste
management
Introduction 15
Table 1.4 Pros and Cons of Biofuels
Biofuels
Pros Cons
Promoted as a planetfriendly, renewable source of Critics argue that biofuel production takes valuable
energy. agricultural land.
Substitute for coal and oil. Sugarcane cultivation encroaches on wildlife habitat,
degrades soil and causes pollution when fields are
burned.
Burn cleaner and produce less greenhouse gas than Causes destruction of rain forests.
fossil fuels.
Farmers can produce them domestically, reducing About 70% more energy is required to produce
dependence on foreign sources of oil. ethanol than the energy that actually is in ethanol.
Fig. 1.8 Composition and Examples of Biofuel
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Objective-Type Questions
1. Who is the author of the book ‘Silent Spring’?
(a) Robin Cook (b) Arthur Hailey
(c) Rachel Carson (d) Charles Darwin
2. DDT is
(a) not soluble in water (b) more soluble in fat than water
(c) less soluble in fat than water (d) not soluble in fat
3. Which of the following scientists rediscovered DDT in 1939?
(a) Paul Hermann Müller (b) Madam Curie
(c) Rachel Carson (d) Alexander Fleming
4. POPs is
(a) Persistent Oxidizing Pollutants
(b) Permanent Organic Pesticides
(c) Persistent Organic Pesticides
(d) Persistent Organic Pollutants
5. Who proposed the Gaia theory?
(a) Rachel Carson (b) James Lovelock
(c) Charles Darwin (d) William Golding
6. The objective of environmental education is
(a) to raise consciousness about environmental conditions
(b) to teach environmentally appropriate behaviour
(c) to create an environmental ethic that fosters awareness about the ecological
inter-dependence of economic, social and political factors in a human
community and the environment
(d) all of the above
7. Which of the following is not influenced by human activities?
(a) Depletion of ground water
(b) Destruction of mangroves and wetlands
(c) Increased extinction rates of species
(d) None of the above
8. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was signed in
the year
(a) 1999 (b) 1998
(c) 2000 (d) 2001
9. Which of the following statements about environmental education is false?
(a) Environmental education is evolving to be education for sustainable and
ethical development both at local and global levels.
(b) Environmental education will prepare the next generation to plan appropriate
strategies for addressing developmental environmental issues.
Introduction 17
(c) Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course

of action.
(d) Environmental education is essential for the younger generation only.
10. Which of the following conceptual spheres of the environment is having the least
storage capacity for matter?
(a) Atmosphere (b) Lithosphere
(c) Hydrosphere (d) Biosphere
11. Which of the following components of the environment are effective transporters
of matter?
(a) Atmosphere and hydrosphere (b) Atmosphere and lithosphere
(c) Hydrosphere and lithosphere (d) Lithosphere and hydrosphere
12. Which of the following one is not related to the loss of productivity of croplands?
(a) Desertification (b) Waterlogging
(c) Salt buildup in topsoil (d) None of the above
13. Biosphere is
(a) the solid shell of inorganic materials on the surface of the earth
(b) the thin shell of organic matter on the surface of the earth comprising all the
living things
(c) the sphere which occupies the maximum volume of all the spheres
(d) all of the above
14. Which of the following is an example of impact of developmental activities on the
hydrosphere?
(a) Air pollution (b) Soil pollution
(c) Soil erosion (d) Water pollution
15. Global atmospheric temperatures are likely to be increased due to
(a) burning of fossil fuels (b) water pollution
(c) soil erosion (d) none of the above
16. Which of the following is a management option for air pollution?
(a) Regulations and standards (b) Emission charges
(c) Transport planning (d) All of the above
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the factors that have led to the increased resource consumption on earth
in recent years?
2. Define the term “environment”.

3. What are the major objectives of environmental education?
4. Define environmental literacy.
5. List the instances pointing to the fact that humans have significantly affected the
earth’s natural systems.
6. What is the role of science and engineering in the protection of the environment?
7. Why is it beneficial to follow a student-centered and participatory process for
environmental education?
8. List the pesticides polluting the environment in your locality.
9. Why is the ban on DDT not imposed in certain parts of the world?
10. List the four conceptual spheres in the earth’s environment.
11. Differentiate between biosphere and lithosphere.
12. What are the impacts of urbanization on atmosphere?
13. Differentiate between conveyor and reservoir.
14. What are the impacts of urbanization on hydrosphere?
15. List the causes, effects and management options for the following environmental
issues.
∑ Air pollution
∑ Water pollution
∑ Land degradation
∑ Loss of cultural and historical property
∑ Degradation of ecosystems
∑ Municipal solid waste management
∑ Hazardous waste management
∑ Inadequate drainage and sanitation
Descriptive Questions
1. Explain the importance of environmental education in the present-day context.
2. Explain the scope of environmental engineering.
3. ‘Knowledge about the environment is not an end, but rather a beginning.’ Explain.
4. List the types of environmental engineering taking place around your locality and
analyze its root causes.
5. Explain the scope of environmental engineering.
Introduction 19
6. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the flow of matter among the various
components of the environment.
7. Explain the role of human beings in the grand-scale redistribution of chemicals on
earth.
8. List the major urban environmental issues in India.
9. Explain the components of environment and their major interactions.
10. Explain the impact of urbanization on the environment.
11. Explain the causes, effects and management options for the various urban
environmental issues.
12. What are the impacts of urbanization on the air quality in your locality?
13. What are the major obstacles in maintaining air quality in your locality?
14. Explain the impact of land use changes on the water quality of your nearest river.
15. If environmenal degradation is considered as a side-effect of development, express
your views on the current pattern of development activities in India.
16. ‘Biofuel is a cure worse than the disease.’ Comment on the statement.
17. Conduct a survey and find out how chemicals and various materials are distributed/
cycled in your campus.
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d)
8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d)
15. (a) 16. (d)
2 NATURAL
RESOURCES
“ Adopt the pace of nature: her secret is patience.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson
Learning Outcomes
On successful comple on of this chapter, students will be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of the significance of forest resources and the major threats to it
such as mining and dams.
Summarize the water resources of the planet and discuss the topics such as drought and conflicts
over water.
Explain the terms Food Resources and Food Security in the context of modern-day agriculture.
Compare and contrast various energy resources.
2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

Due to rapid urbanization, the area of forest is decreasing all over the world. The protection
of forest resources is essential for the survival of our species. This section explains the
components, benefits and uses of forest to underline the necessity of protection of forest
resources.
Natural Resources 21
Figure 2.1 depicts the various living and non-living components of a natural forest.
Fig. 2.1 Components of Forest

2.1.1 Key Benefits of Intact Forests

The following is a list of key uses and benefits of intact forests.
Fig. 2.2 Some Uses and Benefits of Forests for Humans
2.1.2 Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover; land that is permanently converted from
forest to agricultural land, golf courses, cattle pasture, homes, lakes, or desert. The depletion
of forest tree crown cover less than 90% is considered forest degradation. Logging most
often falls under the category of forest degradation and thus is not included in deforestation
Natural Resources 23
statistics. Therefore forest degradation rates are considerably higher than deforestation
rates.
If the current rate of deforestation continues, the world’s forests will vanish within the
next 100 years—causing unknown effects on global climate and eliminating the majority
of plant and animal species on the planet.
2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation

The causes of deforestation are very complex. A competitive global economy drives the need
for money in economically weak developing countries. At the national level, governments
sell timber to raise money for projects, to pay international debt, or to develop industry.
Fig. 2.3 Major Causes of Deforestation
2.1.4 Effects of Deforestation

Since many people are dependent on the world’s forests, deforestation will have many social,
economic and ecological effects. The major effects of deforestation on the environment
are classified and illustrated in Fig. 2.4.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
painted gallery in the saloon used for the entertainments appears to
have been occupied by the quieter portion of the audience, who
were able from thence to survey the pit below, which was filled,
according to Ned Ward (circ. 1699), with butchers, bailiffs, prize-
fighters, and housebreakers. The audience smoked and regaled
themselves with ale and cheese-cakes; while the organ played, a
scarlet-clad fiddler performed, and a girl of eleven gave a sword
dance.
In 1712, Miles’s Music House was the scene of a fatal brawl in
which Waite, a lieutenant in the Navy, was killed by a lawyer named
French, “near the organloft.” In 1718 it is mentioned as the resort of
“strolling damsels, half-pay officers, peripatetic tradesmen, tars,
butchers and others musically inclined.”
Miles died in 1724 and probably about that time Forcer’s son,
Francis Forcer, junior (d. 1743), an educated man of good presence,
became proprietor and improved the entertainments of rope-dancing
and tumbling. The neighbourhood of Sadler’s Wells about this period
was infested by footpads. It was consequently a common sight to
see link-boys with their flaming torches standing outside the theatre,
and horse patrols were often advertised (circ. 1733–1783) as escorts
to the City and the West End. Occasionally the play-bills announced:
—“It will be moonlight.”
In 1746 Rosoman was proprietor, and introduced the system of
admitting the pit and gallery free, on the purchase of a pint of wine. A
charge of half-a-crown was made for the boxes. The audience
smoked and toasted one another. The man-servant by day became
a beau at night; and with the lady’s-maid, decked out in colours
filched from her mistress, gazed open-mouthed at the wonderful
sights. Winifred Jenkins describes her experiences, in Humphry
Clinker (1771):—“I was afterwards of a party at Sadler’s Well, where
I saw such tumbling and dancing on ropes and wires that I was
frightened and ready to go into a fit. I tho’t it was all enchantment,
and believing myself bewitched, began for to cry. You knows as how
the witches in Wales fly on broom-sticks; but here was flying without
any broomstick or thing in the varsal world, and firing of pistols in the
air and blowing of trumpets and singing, and rolling of wheelbarrows
on a wire (God bliss us!) no thicker than a sewing thread; that to be
sure they must deal with the Devil. A fine gentleman with a pig’s tail
and a golden sord by his side, came to comfit me and offered for to
treat me with a pint of wind; but I would not stay; and so in going
through the dark passage he began to show his cloven futt and went
for to be rude; my fellow sarvant Umphry Klinker bid him be sivil, and
he gave the young man a dous in the chops; but i’ fackins Mr. Klinker
warn’t long in his debt; with a good oaken sapling he dusted his
doublet, for all his golden cheese-toaster; and fipping me under his
arm carried me huom, I nose not how, being I was in such a
flustration.”
Between 1752 and 1757 Michael Maddox exhibited his wire-
dancing and his tricks with a long straw, which he manipulated while
keeping his balance on the wire. In 1755 (and for many years
afterwards) Miss Wilkinson, the graceful wire-dancer and player of
the musical glasses, was a principal performer.
Giuseppe Grimaldi (“Iron Legs”) the father of the famous clown,
was the ballet-master and chief dancer in 1763 and 1764; and
remained at the Wells till 1767. Harlequinades and similar
entertainments were from this time added to the ordinary
amusements of tumbling and rope-dancing.
SADLER’S WELLS IN 1792, AND AS IT WAS BEFORE 1765.
In 1765 Rosoman pulled down the old wooden house and erected
in its place a new theatre which in part survives in the building of the
present day. The seats now had backs with ledges, as in our music-
halls, to hold the bottles and glasses of the audience. About this
time, or a few years later, the charge for a box was three shillings
including a pint of wine (port, Mountain, Lisbon or punch), and
eighteen pence and one shilling for the pit and gallery; an extra
sixpence entitling the ticket-holder to a pint of the wine allowed to the
box-holders. Angelo, at a later time, refers in his Reminiscences to
the Cream of Tartar Punch and the wine of the Sloe Vintage usually
drunk at Sadler’s Wells.
Among the vocalists were Mrs. Lampe (1766–1767) and the
famous Thomas Lowe (1771 and later). In 1768 Spinacuti exhibited
his wonderful monkey which performed on the tight-rope feats
resembling Blondin’s. Jemmy Warner, the clown, appeared in 1769,
and Richer, the wire and ladder dancer, in 1773; and the years 1775
and 1776 were noticeable for the appearance of James Byrne, the
harlequin, father of Oscar Byrne. In 1778 the interior of the theatre
was entirely altered and the roof considerably raised. The audience
now often included people of rank, such as the Duke and Duchess of
York and the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester.
In 1781 Joseph Grimaldi (b. 1779, d. 1837) made his first
appearance at Sadler’s in the guise of a monkey, and appeared
there year by year till within a few years of his retirement. On 17
March, 1828, he took a farewell benefit there, playing “Hock,” the
drunken prisoner in “Sixes, or the Fiend.” His final appearance was
at Drury Lane on 27 June, 1828, when, prematurely broken down in
health, he sang, seated, his last song, and made his farewell
speech.
The Dibdins, Charles the elder in 1772 and Charles the younger,
1801 to 1814, wrote many plays and songs for Sadler’s Wells.
Charles the younger and Thomas Dibdin were also proprietors and
managers.
Among the performers who appeared between the years 1780
and 1801 were Miss Romanzini, the ballad-vocalist, afterwards Mrs.
Bland. Braham (then Master Abrahams) the singer; Paul Redigé the
clever tumbler, called “the little Devil”; La Belle Espagnole, his wife;
Dighton and “Jew” Davis, pantomimists; Bologna and his sons in
their exhibitions of postures and feats of strength; Placido the
tumbler, Dubois the clown, and Costello (1783), whose wonderful
dogs enacted a play called The Deserter. Edmund Kean, the
tragedian, appeared in June 1801 as “Master Carey, the pupil of
Nature,” and recited Rollo’s address from Pizarro.
SPINACUTI’S MONKEY AT SADLER’S WELLS, 1768.
Among the varied entertainments at Sadler’s may be mentioned
the pony-races in 1802 (July) and 1822 (April and June). A course
was formed by means of a platform carried from the stage round the
back of the pit. In 1806 and 1826 a racecourse was formed outside
in the ground to the east of the theatre; booths, stands, and a judge’s
box were erected, and many of the most celebrated full-sized ponies
with a number of jockeys of “great celebrity” and lightweight were, at
least according to the bills, engaged. In 1826 (June) a balloon ascent
from the grounds was made by Mrs. Graham, and in 1838 her
husband also ascended. Belzoni, the famous excavator, exhibited
his feats of strength in 1803. In 1804 Sadler’s Wells was known as
the “Aquatic Theatre.” A large tank filled with water from the New
River occupied nearly the whole of the stage, and plays were
produced with cascades and other “real water” effects.
Our rapid survey, omitting many years, now passes on to 1844,
when Samuel Phelps became one of the proprietors of Sadler’s
Wells. During Phelps’s memorable management (1844–1862) there
were produced some thirty of Shakespeare’s plays, occupying about
four thousand nights—Hamlet being played four hundred times.
In 1879 Sadler’s Wells was taken by Mrs. Bateman (from the
Lyceum Theatre), and under her management the whole of the
interior was reconstructed. At the present time it is a music-hall with
two houses nightly. It is curious to note that Macklin, describing
Sadler’s Wells as he remembered it some years before Rosoman’s
time, says that several entertainments of unequal duration took place
throughout the day, and were terminated by the door-keeper calling
out “Is Hiram Fisteman here?” Fisteman being a mythical personage
whose name signified to the performers that another audience was
waiting outside. The price of admission at that time was threepence
and sixpence; to-day the charge is twopence, a box being procurable
for a shilling.
[The authorities are numerous. The Percival collection relating to
Sadler’s Wells (in Brit. Mus.) contains a great mass of material bound
in fourteen volumes. Useful summaries are given in Pinks’s
Clerkenwell, 409, ff; in the Era Almanack, 1872, p. 1, ff; in M.
Williams’s Some London Theatres; and in H. Barton Baker’s London
Stage, ii. p. 187, ff]
VIEWS.
The views, especially those of the 19th century, are abundant. The
following are of the 18th century:—
1. A view of Sadler’s Wells. C. Lempriere, sculp., 1731. Crace, Cat.,
p. 593, No. 77; cp. ib. p. 592, No. 76.
2. Hogarth’s Evening, showing old Sadler’s Wells and the Sir Hugh
Middleton tavern.
3. South-west view of Sadler’s Wells, from a drawing by R. C.
Andrews, 1792; with a smaller view of the same in its former state.
Wise, sc., published in Wilkinson’s Londina Illustrata.
Many others may be seen in the Percival and Crace collections.
MERLIN’S CAVE
The Merlin’s Cave, a tavern standing in the fields near the New
River Head, close to the present Merlin’s Place, possessed
extensive gardens and a skittle-ground, which were frequented by
Londoners especially on Sundays.
It was probably built in 1735 or not long afterwards[48] and derived
its name from the Merlin’s Cave constructed in 1735 by Queen
Charlotte in the Royal Gardens at Richmond. The Richmond Cave
was adorned by astrological symbols, and contained waxwork
figures, of which the wizard Merlin was the chief. By the end of 1735
humble imitations of the Cave were established in various parts of
the Kingdom, and it is highly probable that the Merlin’s Cave tavern
had an exhibition of this kind. The New Wells in Lower Rosoman
Street, Clerkenwell, possessed a Merlin’s Cave in 1740.[49]
About 1833 the gardens of the Merlin’s Cave were built over. The
New Merlin’s Cave, a public-house now numbered 131 Rosoman
Street, stands a little north of the old site.
[Pinks’s Clerkenwell, 580, 581; Wheatley’s London, s.v.]
VIEWS.
1. A view of the skittle-ground, Merlin’s Cave, New River Head, with
rules and instructions for playing. A print published by G. Kearsley,
1786. Crace, Cat. p. 592, No. 71.
2. Old Merlin’s Cave near the New River Head, Rosoman Street. A
drawing by C. H. Matthews, 1833. Crace, Cat. p. 592, No. 70.
BAGNIGGE WELLS
A modern public-house, “Ye olde Bagnigge Wells,” standing on

the west side of the King’s Cross Road (formerly Bagnigge Wells
Road), and the building yard of Messrs. Cubitt, behind it, now occupy
part of the site of these famous Wells.
Bagnigge House, the building which formed the nucleus of the
place of entertainment called Bagnigge Wells, is believed to have
been a summer residence of Nell Gwynne. It fronted Bagnigge Wells
Road, and was pleasantly situated, lying in a hollow called Bagnigge
Wash (or Vale); and being well sheltered on all sides, except the
south, by the rising grounds of Primrose Hill, Hampstead and
Islington.[50]
In 1757 a Mr. Hughes, described as a man curious in gardening,
and apparently the tenant of Bagnigge House, found that the more
he watered his plants with the water drawn from a well in the garden,
the less they seemed to thrive. He asked the opinion of a doctor,
John Bevis, who analysed the water, and pronounced it a valuable
chalybeate. At the same time the water of another well, sunk in the
ground adjoining Bagnigge House, was discovered to possess
cathartic properties. Hughes, realising the commercial possibilities of
these wells, opened the house and gardens to the public, at least as
early as April 1759. The place was open daily, including Sundays,
and in 1760 Bevis published a pamphlet, setting forth the virtues of
the waters.
The chalybeate well was situated just behind the house, and the
cathartic well about forty yards north of the chalybeate. The water of
the two wells, which were each some twenty feet in depth, was,
however, brought to one point, and thence drawn from a double
pump placed within a small circular edifice consisting of pillars
supporting a dome, erected behind the house. This was commonly
called the Temple. The chalybeate was of a ferruginous character
having “an agreeable and sprightly sub-acid tartness,” and was,
according to Bevis, “apt to communicate a kind of giddiness with an
amazing flow of spirits and afterwards a propensity to sleep if
exercise be not interposed.” The purging water left a “distinguishable
brackish bitterness on the palate,” and three half-pints were
“sufficient for most people,” without the addition of salts to quicken
their virtue.
The charge for drinking the water at the pump was threepence:
half a guinea entitled the visitor to its use throughout the season. At
a later date when Bagnigge Wells was mainly frequented for its tea-
gardens, a general charge of sixpence was made for admission.
The Long Room,[51] the old banqueting hall of Bagnigge House,
was about seventy-eight feet by twenty-eight feet with a rather low
ceiling and panelled walls. At one end of the room was a distorting
mirror, a source of considerable amusement, which, for instance,
revealed to Captain Tommy Slender of the Middlesex Militia, so odd
a figure, that he was almost “hyp’d to death.” Filled with
apprehension he consulted a physician, who understanding the use
of the concave and convex mirror made his patient take copious
draughts of the water, and, after pocketing his fee, led him to another
panel of the glass, where the Captain beheld a portly well-
conditioned man. Vastly pleased he went home convinced of the
virtues of the wells. At the other end of the room was a good
organ[52] which provided music for the company. A water organ was
also to be heard in the grounds. The organ performances were
prohibited on Sundays by the magistrates from about 1772,
apparently with the idea of rendering the attractions of Bagnigge
Wells less dangerously seductive. The organ was, however, played
regularly on the week-day afternoons.[53]
“THE BREAD AND BUTTER MANUFACTORY, OR THE HUMORS OF
BAGNIGGE WELLS,” 1772.
(INTERIOR OF LONG ROOM.)
From about 1760 till near the end of the eighteenth century
Bagnigge Wells was a popular resort. Some hundreds of visitors
were sometimes to be found in the morning for the water-drinking,
and early breakfasts were provided. In the afternoon the Long Room
and the gardens were thronged by tea-drinkers, especially on
Sundays. Stronger beverages were not unknown, and a bowl of
good negus was a feature here. The lawyer, the man about town,
and the active city merchant, no less than the gouty, and the
hypochondriac, came to while away an hour or two:—
Ye gouty old souls and rheumaticks crawl on,
Here taste these blest springs, and your tortures are gone;
Ye wretches asthmatick, who pant for your breath,
Come drink your relief, and think not of death.
Obey the glad summons, to Bagnigge repair,
Drink deep of its streams, and forget all your care.
The distemper’d shall drink and forget all his pain,

When his blood flows more briskly through every vein;
The headache shall vanish, the heartache shall cease,
And your lives be enjoyed in more pleasure and peace.
Obey then the summons, to Bagnigge repair,
And drink an oblivion to pain and to care.[54]
The city matron deemed it the very home of fashion:—

Bon Ton’s the space ’twixt Saturday and Monday,
And riding in a one-horse chair on Sunday:
’Tis drinking tea on summer afternoons
At Bagnigge Wells with china and gilt spoons.[55]
With “genteel females” there mingled others of decidedly bad

reputation.[56] Even a feminine pickpocket[57] was not unknown. The
notorious John Rann,[58] who, as Dr. Johnson observed, towered
above the common mark as a highwayman, was a visitor at
Bagnigge Wells, and a favourite with some of the ladies there. On 27
July, 1774, Rann was brought before Sir John Fielding after one of
his escapades, but was acquitted, the magistrate exhorting him in a
pathetic manner to forsake his evil ways. On the Sunday following
(31 July), he appeared at Bagnigge Wells with all his old assurance,
attired in a scarlet coat, tambour waistcoat, white silk stockings, and
a laced hat. On each knee he wore the bunch of eight ribbons, which
had gained him his sobriquet of Sixteen Strings Jack. On this
occasion his behaviour gave such offence to the company that he
was thrown out of one of the windows of the Long Room. About four
months later, 30 November, 1774, he was hanged at Tyburn for
robbing Dr. Bell, chaplain to the Princess Amelia.
The grounds of Bagnigge Wells were behind the Long Room, and
were laid out in formal walks, with hedges of box and holly. There
were a number of fine trees, some curiously trimmed, and a pretty
flower garden. Ponds containing gold and silver fish, at that time a
novelty, were in the gardens; and the pond in the centre had a
fountain in the form of a Cupid bestriding a swan from whose beak
issued streams of water.
Parallel with the Long Room, and separating the eastern part of
the grounds from the western (and by far the larger) portion, ran the
river Fleet, with seats on its banks, for such as “chuse to smoke or
drink cyder, ale, etc., which are not permitted in other parts of the
garden.” Willows, large docks and coarse plants, elder bushes and
other shrubs in luxurious profusion, fringed the banks; and we hear
of Luke Clennell, the artist, making studies of the foliage.
Three rustic bridges spanned the stream, and amid the trees were
two tall leaden figures; one a rustic with a scythe, the other a Phyllis
of the hay-fields, rake in hand.
Arbours for tea-drinking, covered with honeysuckle and
sweetbriar, surrounded the gardens; and there was a rustic cottage
and a grotto. The last named, a small castellated building of two
apartments open to the gardens, was brightly decorated in cockney
fashion with shells, fossils, and fragments of broken glass. A
bowling-green and skittle-alley were among the attractions of the
Wells, and a bun-house or bake-house was erected (before 1791) on
the south side of the house, but not immediately contiguous to it.
Hughes, the original proprietor, appears to have remained at the
Wells till about 1775; and a Mr. John Davis was subsequently the
lessee till his death in 1793. During the last twenty years of the
eighteenth century the company, for the most part, seems to have
consisted of persons of lower rank than formerly:—
Cits to Bagnigge Wells repair
To swallow dust and call it air.
Prentices and their sweethearts, and city matrons with their

husbands, frequented the place; while unfledged Templars paraded
as fops, and young ensigns sported their new cockades. The
morning water-drinking was not neglected, but the full tide of life at
Bagnigge was from five to eight p.m. on Sundays, when the gardens
were crowded with tea-drinkers. A prentice-song sets forth the
delights of the Wells:—
Come prithee make it up, Miss, and be as lovers be
We’ll go to Bagnigge Wells, Miss, and there we’ll have some tea;
It’s there you’ll see the lady-birds perched on the stinging nettles,
The crystal water fountain, and the copper shining kettles.
It’s there you’ll see the fishes, more curious they than whales,
And they’re made of gold and silver, Miss, and wags their little tails;
They wags their little tails, they wags their little tails.
Frontispiece for the Sunday Ramble;
Being a View in Bagnigge Wells
Garden, drawn on ye Spot.
Salubrious Waters, Tea, and Wine,

Here you may have, and also dine;
But, as ye through the Garden rove,
Beware, fond Youths, the Darts of Love.
About 1810 the place became more exclusively the resort of the
lower classes, though the situation was still somewhat picturesque.
In 1813 Thomas Salter, the lessee, became bankrupt, and Bagnigge
Wells was put up for sale by auction[59] on four days in the month of
December. Not a bench or shrub was omitted: the “excellent fine-
toned organ,” the water-organ, the chandeliers from the Long Room,
dinner and tea services of Worcester china; the tea-boxes, two
hundred drinking tables, four hundred teaboards, and some four
hundred dozen of ale and stout. The various rooms and buildings
were also offered for sale, including “Nell Gwyn’s house,” the
summer-house, the bake-house, the grotto, temple, bridges; the two
leaden rustics,[60] the fountains and all the gold and silver fish. Also
the pleasure and flower gardens with their greenhouses, all the
trees, including a “fine variegated holly tree,” the gooseberry and
currant bushes, the hedges, shrubs and flowers.
In the year following, however, the place was re-opened under W.
Stock’s management, and though the gardens[61] were now curtailed
of all the ground west of the Fleet (at this time a ditch-like, and, on
warm evenings, malodorous stream), an attempt was made to revive
their popularity. The proprietor’s efforts were not very successful,
and during the next few years the premises frequently changed
hands. In 1818 the lessee of Bagnigge Wells was Mr. Thorogood,
who let it to Mr. Monkhouse (from White Conduit House) about 1831.
In April 1831 Monkhouse advertised the Concert Room as being
open every evening for musical entertainments, which continued to
be the main feature of Bagnigge Wells until its close. In, or before,
1833 Richard Chapman was the proprietor, and John Hamilton in
1834.
In 1838 (August 14th), the lessees, Mr. and Miss Foster,
announced for their benefit night an array of concert-room talent:—
Le Mœurs of Bagnigge Wells, Mr. Darking (of the London concerts),
Miss Anderson (from the Mogul Concert Room), Messrs. Sutton and
Gibson (Sadler’s Wells), Master Clifford (Yorkshire Stingo), Mr. H.
Smith (Royal Union Saloon), Mr. Boyan (Queen’s Head Rooms), Mr.
Roberts (White Conduit); and the songs included “Tell me, my heart,”
“Billy the Snob” (in character), “Pat was a darling boy.” A scene was
given from Julius Cæsar; a soliloquy from Hamlet; and one Simpson
exhibited classical delineations of the Grecian statues. The concert
was followed by a ball, in which were danced a Highland fling (by a
Mr. McDougal), a double comic medley dance, a waterman’s
hornpipe, and a hornpipe in real fetters and chains. During the
evening a balloon was sent up from the grounds; and sixpence
procured admission to the whole. On other concert nights the
admission was as low as threepence. Among the singers in the
latest days of Bagnigge Wells were the well-known Paddy O’Rourke,
Alford, Ozealey, Prynn, Box, Sloman, Booth, Gibbs and Dickie.
Besides the songs and duets, portions of plays were acted, though
without scenery or special dresses.
The year 1841 witnessed the last entertainment at Bagnigge
Wells, when on 26 March there was an evening performance
(admission sixpence) of glees, farces and comic songs. The
dismantling of the place was now begun. The grotto, which was
already in a very dilapidated condition, was destroyed by some
passers by in the early morning of 6 April, 1841.
In 1843 all that remained was the north end of the Long Room,
and, according to a representative of Punch, who visited the spot in
September of that year, the old well was filled up with rubbish and
mosaics of oyster shells. Shortly afterwards, the present tavern was
built; Mr. Negus, a name suggestive of other days, being the tenant
in 1850.
[Pinks’s Clerkenwell; Walford’s O. & N. London; Palmer’s St.
Pancras, p. 77, ff.; Wheatley’s London P. & P.; Kearsley’s Strangers’
Guide; Noorthouck’s London, p. 752, ff.; Clinch’s Marylebone and St.
Pancras, p. 148, ff.; Malcolm’s Lond. Rediv. (1803), p. 237; Sunday
Ramble (various editions); Rimbault in Notes and Queries, 1st ser. ii.
228; 4th ser. xi. 24; Era Almanack, 1871 (account of Bagnigge Wells
by Blanchard).]
VIEWS.
The following views may be noted:—
1. “Ancient stone from Bagnigge Wells,” engraved in Pinks, p. 558.
2. “The Bread and Butter Manufactory, or the Humors of Bagnigge
Wells,” a mezzotint published by Carrington Bowles, 1772; cp. an
aquatint print from a painting by Sanders, published by J. R. Smith in
1772.
3. Mr. Deputy Dumpling and Family enjoying a summer afternoon, a
print (1780) published by Carrington Bowles. Crace, Cat., p. 583, No.
84.
4. Bagnigge Wells, near Battle Bridge, a print (1777). Crace, Cat.,
p. 583, No. 82; engraved in Walford’s O. & N. London, ii. p. 294.
5. Bagnigge Wells Garden, frontispiece engraved for the Sunday
Ramble, “drawn on ye spot,” Page sculp. (circ. 1774?) (W. Coll.);
engraved in Pinks, p. 563.
6. “A Bagnigge Wells scene: or, No resisting temptation.” An
engraving published by Carrington Bowles, 1780. Crace, Cat., p. 583,
No. 85; a hand-coloured mezzotint in Brit. Mus. Catal. of Prints, vol.
iv., No. 4,545.
7. View of the Tea-gardens and Bun-house, from a drawing, taken
in 1790 (?); copy in sepia in W. Coll.; an almost identical view is
reproduced in Rogers’s Views of Pleasure Gardens of London, p. 23,
“from a drawing made in 1827.”
8. “The Road to Ruin” (with figure of John Rann). Crace, Cat., p.
583, No. 86.
9. A view taken from the centre bridge in the gardens of Bagnigge
Wells. An example in Crosby Coll.; also reproduced in Ashton’s The
Fleet.
10. The original garden entrance to Bagnigge Wells (circ. 1800?) J.
T. Smith del. Etched in Rogers’s Views of Pleasure Gardens of
London, p. 26.
11. View of Bagnigge Wells Gardens, 1828, engraving in
Cromwell’s Clerkenwell, p. 414; reproduced in Pinks, p. 567.
12. A collection of manuscript notes, sketches and drawings,
relating to Bagnigge Wells in its later days, made by Anthony Crosby.
(Guildhall Library, London.)
13. “Residence of Nell Gwynne, Bagnigge Wells.” An engraving, C.
J. Smith, sc. 1844; Crace, Cat., p. 583, No. 88; Pinks, p. 559.
“LORD COBHAM’S HEAD.”
The Lord Cobham’s (or Cobham’s) Head, named after Sir John
Oldcastle “the good Lord Cobham,” was situated in Cold Bath Fields,
and on the west side of Coppice Row, now Farringdon Road, at the
point where it was joined by Cobham Row.
It was first opened in 1728 (about April), and in its garden there
was then “a fine canal stocked with very good carp and tench fit to
kill,” and anglers were invited to board at the house. It was
advertised to be let or sold in 1729, and little is heard of it till 1742
when it possessed a large garden with a “handsome grove of trees,”
and gravel walks, and claimed to sell the finest, strongest and most
pleasant beer in London at threepence a tankard. Some vocal and
instrumental music was at this time provided in the evening, and the
walks were illuminated.
In 1744 a good organ was erected in the chief room of the inn and
the landlord, Robert Leeming, for one of his concerts in 1744,
announced Mr. Blogg and others to sing selections from the
Oratorios of “Saul” and “Samson”; a concerto on the organ by Master
Strologer and the Coronation Anthem of Mr. Handel. After the
concert came a ball, the price of admission to the whole
entertainment being half-a-crown. For July 20th of the same year
there was announced “a concert of musick by the best Masters,” for
the benefit of a reduced citizen, followed by the display of a “set of
fireworks by several gentlemen lovers of that curious art—Rockets,
line ditto, Katherine wheels, and many other things; likewise will be
shewn the manner of Prince Charles’s distressing the French after
he passed the Rhine.” The concerts do not appear to have been
given after this period but the Cobham’s Head long continued to
exist as a tavern, and is marked in Horwood’s Plan of 1799.
SUMMER AMUSEMENT.
In December 1811 it was sold by auction, being described at that

time as a roomy brick building with a large yard behind, probably all
that was left of the gardens. About 1860 during the operations for the
Metropolitan Railway the Cobham’s Head was inundated by the
bursting of a New River Main, and was so much injured by the
undermining for the Railway that it had to be vacated.
[Pinks’s Clerkenwell; Wheatley’s London P. and P., “Coppice Row.”]
“SIR JOHN OLDCASTLE” TAVERN AND GARDENS.
The Sir John Oldcastle Tavern was situated in Cold Bath Fields on
the west side of Coppice Row, and was on the same side of the road
as the Lord Cobham’s Head, but rather nearer to Bagnigge Wells. It
was originally a wayside inn, but during the first half of the eighteenth
century became a well-known tavern. In 1707 (July 18th) the
Clerkenwell Archers held their annual dinner there, and frequented it
for some years.
In the rear of the house were extensive gardens, well planted with
trees; and from 1744 to 1746 these were open during the summer
for evening entertainments. A band “of the best Masters” played from
five o’clock till nine; the walks were lit with lamps, and fireworks were
displayed at the close of the evening. The admission was sixpence,
including refreshments. In July 1746 concerts of vocal and
instrumental music were announced, at which the chief vocalist, Mr.
Blogg, sang such songs as “Come, Rosalind,” “Observe the fragrant
blushing Rose” and “The Happy Pair.”[62]
In 1753 a Smallpox Hospital was erected on part of the Oldcastle
estate, but the Sir John Oldcastle, immediately adjacent, was left
standing till 1762 when, being in a ruinous condition, it was pulled
down.
[Pinks’s Clerkenwell; Larwood and Hotten, History of Signboards, p.
97; Tomlins’s Perambulation of Islington, p. 172; Low Life (1764), p.
81; The Field Spy (London, 1714); Ashton’s The Fleet, p. 117.]
VIEWS.
South view of the Sir John Oldcastle in Lempriere’s Set of Views,
1731.
ST. CHAD’S WELL, BATTLE BRIDGE.
The site of St. Chad’s Well, a mineral spring and garden at Battle
Bridge, is now partly occupied by St. Chad’s Place, a small street
turning out of the Gray’s Inn Road (east side) and lying between the
King’s Cross Station (Metropolitan Railway) and the Home and
Colonial Schools.
About the middle of the eighteenth century the Well was in
considerable repute, at least in the neighbourhood, and is said to
have been visited in the morning by hundreds of people who paid
threepence for the privilege of drinking. A hamper of two dozen
bottles could be bought for £1. At that time the gardens attached to
the Well were very extensive, and abounded with fruit trees, shrubs,
and flowers.
During the last ten or twenty years of the eighteenth century few
visitors frequented the Well;[63] though we hear of it again about
1809, as being much resorted to by the lower classes of tradesmen
on Sundays.
In the early part of the nineteenth century it had a few visitors of
note. Sir Allan Chambré, the judge, used to visit the Well, and
Munden, the comedian, when living at Kentish Town, drank the water
three times a week. Mr. Mensall, the master of the Gordon House
Academy at Kentish Town, used to march his young gentlemen to St.
Chad’s once a week in order to save in doctor’s bills. John
Abernethy, the surgeon, was also a visitor. When Hone visited the
place in 1825, the Spring of St. Chad was once more almost
deserted. Hone found a faded inscription “St. Chad’s Well,” placed
over a pair of wooden gates, one of which (to quote his description)
“opens on a scene which the unaccustomed eye may take for the
pleasure-ground of Giant Despair. Trees stand as if made not to
vegetate, clipped hedges seem willing to decline, and nameless
weeds straggle weakly upon unlimited borders.” “On pacing the
garden alleys, and peeping at the places of retirement, you imagine
the whole may have been improved and beautified for the last time
by some countryman of William III.” “If you look upwards you
perceive painted on an octagon board ‘Health Restored and
Preserved.’ Further on, towards the left stands a low, old-fashioned,
comfortable-looking large-windowed dwelling, and ten to one but
there also stands at the open door an ancient, ailing female in a
black bonnet, a clean coloured cotton gown, and a check apron; ...
this is the Lady of the Well.”
In September 1837 the dwelling-house, spring and garden were
put up to auction by their proprietor, a Mr. Salter. The next proprietor,
William Lucas, finding that the celebrity of the waters had for a
number of years past been confined chiefly to the neighbourhood,
issued in 1840 a pamphlet and hand-bills in which the water was
described as perfectly clear when fresh drawn, with a slightly bitter
taste. It was composed of sulphate of soda and magnesia in large
quantities, and of a little iron held in solution by carbonic acid. The
waters were recommended as a universal medicine, being “actively
purgative, mildly tonic and powerfully diuretic.” The Pump-room was
opened at 5 a.m., and the price of admission was threepence, or one
guinea a year. By this time the old garden had been considerably
curtailed by the formation of St. Chad’s Place, and by letting out
(1830) a portion as a timber yard. But it was more carefully kept, and
a new and larger pump-room had been built in 1832. A fore-court
adjoined the Gray’s Inn Road, and next to it were the dwelling-house
and pump-room. Beyond them was the garden which on the north
was joined by the backs of the houses in Cumberland Row, and on
the south by the timber-yard.
The pump-room was still in existence in 1860,[64] but was
removed about that time during the operations for the new
Metropolitan Railway.
[Pinks’s Clerkenwell, pp. 504–506; Kearsley’s Strangers’ Guide s.v.
“Battlebridge”; Lysons’s Environs, iii. (1795), p. 381; Lambert’s
London, iv. 295; Hughson’s London, vi. p. 366; Gent. Mag. 1813, pt. 2,
p. 557; Cromwell’s Islington, p. 156, ff.; Hone’s Every Day Book, i.
322, ff.; E. Roffe’s Perambulating Survey of St. Pancras, p. 13;
Palmer’s St. Pancras, p. 75; Clinch’s Marylebone, and St. Pancras;
Ashton’s The Fleet, p. 49.]
VIEWS.
1. St. Chad’s Well, a view from the garden. Water colour drawing by
T. H. Shepherd, 1850. Crace, Cat. 583, No. 81.
2. Plan annexed to the auctioneer’s particulars and conditions of
sale of St. Chad’s Well, 1837 (see Pinks, p. 506).
BOWLING GREEN HOUSE, NEAR THE FOUNDLING HOSPITAL
The Bowling Green House, a tavern with a large bowling green

attached to it on the south, was situated at the back of the Foundling
Hospital, and south of the New Road. A lane turning out of Gray’s
Inn Lane led to it. It is first mentioned in 1676,[65] and it afterwards
gained notoriety as a resort of gamesters. On a day in March, 1696,
the house was suddenly surrounded by soldiers and constables, who
seized and conveyed before a Justice of the Peace every person
found on the premises. Some of the offenders had to pay a fine of
forty shillings apiece.[66]
In the course of years, the character of the place changed, and in
1756 the proprietor, Joseph Barras,[67] announced that he had
greatly altered and fitted up the Bowling Green House[68] in a
“genteel manner.” The Bowling Green was declared to be in
exceeding fine order, and coffee, tea, and hot loaves were to be had
every day. J. P. Malcolm[69] says that the Bowling Green House was
for many years a quiet country retreat, but shortly before 1811 it was
removed, and Judd Street, Tonbridge Street, &c., began to cover the
space south of New Road. Hastings Street and part of Tonbridge
Street appear to be on the site.
[Authorities cited in the notes.]
ADAM AND EVE TEA GARDENS, TOTTENHAM COURT ROAD
The premises of the Adam and Eve stood at the north-west

extremity of Tottenham Court Road, at the lower end of the road
leading to Hampstead, and occupied the site of the manor-house of
the ancient manor of Tottenhall or Tottenham.
The Adam and Eve Tavern is known to have been in existence
under that sign in 1718.[70] Already in the seventeenth century
Tottenham Court is mentioned as a place of popular resort, one of
“the City out-leaps” (Broome, New Academy, 1658). George Wither
(Britain’s Remembrancer, 1628) speaks of the London holiday-
makers who frequented it:—
“And Hogsdone, Islington and Tottenham Court,
For cakes and cream had then no small resort.”
In 1645 Mrs. Stacye’s maid and two others (as the Parish books
of St. Giles in the Fields record) were fined one shilling apiece for the
enormity of “drinking at Tottenhall Court on the Sabbath daie.”[71] In
Wycherley’s Gentleman Dancing-master (1673) a ramble to Totnam
Court is mentioned together with such fashionable diversions as a
visit to the Park, the Mulberry Garden, and the New Spring Garden
(i.e. Vauxhall).
In the succeeding century Tottenham Court Fair and the
“Gooseberry Fair” doubtless brought many a customer to the Adam
and Eve, and in the spring-time, as Gay expresses it, “Tottenham
fields with roving beauty swarm.” The Adam and Eve then
possessed a long room, with an organ, and in its spacious gardens
in the rear and at the side of the house were fruit-trees and arbours
for tea-drinking parties. There were grounds for skittles and Dutch-
pins, and in the fore-court which was shadowed by large trees,
tables and benches were placed for the visitors. At one time it could
boast the possession of a monkey, a heron, some wild fowl, some
parrots, and a small pond for gold fish.
Vincent Lunardi, the first man in England to make a balloon
ascent,[72] made an unexpected appearance at the Adam and Eve
Gardens on 13 May, 1785. He had ascended from the Artillery
Ground about one o’clock, but the balloon, being overcharged with
vapour, descended in about twenty minutes in the Adam and Eve
Gardens. “He was immediately surrounded by great numbers of the
populace, and though he proposed re-ascending, they were not to
be dissuaded from bearing him in triumph on their shoulders.”[73]
... et se Protinus æthereà tollit inastra via.
Vincent Lunardi Esqr.
Secretary to the Neapolitan Ambassador
and the first aerial Traveller in the English
Atmosphere Septr. 15. 1784.
Publish’d Octr 5th 1784 by John Bell British Library
Strand
Towards the end of the eighteenth century[74] the Adam and Eve
began to be hemmed in by buildings; by Brook Street (now Stanhope
Street) on the west, and by Charles Street (now Drummond Street,
western end) on the north. The gardens however appear to have
retained their old dimensions,[75] and at that time extended as far
north as Charles Street.[76]
The thousands of honest holiday-makers who visited the gardens
had, however, towards the end of the eighteenth century, been
replaced by a motley crew of highwaymen, footpads and low women,
[77] and in the early years of the present century (before 1811) the
magistrates interfered: “the organ was banished, the skittle grounds
destroyed, and the gardens dug up for the foundation of Eden
Street.”
About 1813 the Adam and Eve Tavern and Coffee House, once
more respectably conducted, was a one-storied building. Part of it
fronted the New (Euston) Road, while an archway in the Hampstead
Road led to the other parts of the premises. A detached gabled
building, originally part of the domestic offices of the old Tottenhall
Manor House, was still standing at this time and was used as a
drinking parlour in connection with the Adam and Eve. Six small
houses and shops also adjoined the tavern and brought the
proprietor about £25 each a year in rent, though they are said to
have been partly constructed out of the boxes in the old tea-gardens.
The large public-house called the Adam and Eve, which now
stands on the old site at the corner of the Euston and Hampstead
Roads, was built in 1869.
Near the Adam and Eve was the Cold Bath in the New Road. It
was in existence in 1785, when it was advertised[78] as in fine order
for the reception of ladies and gentlemen. The bath was situated in
the midst of a pleasant garden, and was constantly supplied by a
spring running through it. The water was described as serviceable to
persons suffering from nervous disorders and dejected spirits.
[Wilkinson’s Londina illust., i. “Tottenhall,” Nos. 92, 93; Hone’s Year
Book, p. 47, cp. p. 317; Walford, iv. 477; v. 303 ff.; Palmer’s St.
Pancras, p. 204, ff.; Larwood and Hotten, Signboards, 257, 258;
Brayley’s Londiniana, ii. p. 165; Cunningham’s London (1850),
“Tottenham Court Road”; F. Miller’s St. Pancras, p. 161; Wheatley’s
London, “Tottenham Court Road” and “Adam and Eve.”]
VIEWS.
1. The scene of Hogarth’s March to Finchley (see Nichols’s
Hogarth, i. 155, ff.) is laid at the Tottenham Court Turnpike, at the
south end of the Hampstead Road. On the right is the King’s Head
tavern, and on the left the Adam and Eve. The sign of Adam and Eve
appears on a post in the road, and Hogarth has inscribed it
“Tottenham Court Nursery,” in allusion to Broughton’s amphitheatre for
boxing that existed here (see Walford, v. 304).
2. Two views in Wilkinson’s Londina, i. “Remains of the Manor
House denominated the lordship of Toten-hall, now vulgarly called
Tottenham Court, and occupied by the Adam and Eve Tea House and
Gardens.” Shepherd del., Wise sculp. (published 1813). Beneath this
is a plan of the vicinity marking Eden Street, ii. Part of the Adam and
Eve coffee rooms, Hampstead Road, J. Carter del., Wise sculp.
(published 1811).
3. A woodcut in Hone’s Year Book, p. 47, of the Adam and Eve
(before 1825), substantially the same as Wilkinson’s second view. The
views in Wilkinson and Hone show the Adam and Eve in its altered
condition after the proprietor Greatorex (end of eighteenth century?)
had made an addition to the tavern, fronting the New Road.
THE PEERLESS POOL
The Peerless Pool should, in strictness, be described in a history

of sports and pastimes, but as a pleasant summer resort, an oasis in
the regions of Old Street and the City Road, it must be allowed a
place in the present volume.
In ground immediately behind St. Luke’s Hospital (built 1782–84),
Old Street, was one of the ancient London springs which had
formed, by its overflowings, a dangerous pond, referred to,[79] as
early as 1598, as the “clear water called Perillous Pond, because
divers youths by swimming therein have been drowned.”
In the seventeenth century it was apparently resorted to for the
favourite amusement of duck-hunting: “Push, let your boy lead his
water spaniel along, and we’ll show you the bravest sport at Parlous
Pond” (Middleton’s Roaring Girl, 1611).
In 1743, William Kemp, a London jeweller, who had derived
benefit from his plunges in its water, took the Parlous Pond in hand.
He embanked it, raised the bottom, changed its name to Peerless
Pool, and opened it to subscribers as a pleasure bath. In the
adjacent ground, of which he held the lease, he introduced other
attractions: in particular he constructed a fish-pond, 320 feet long, 90
feet broad, and 11 feet deep, and stocked it with carp, tench, and
other fish. The high banks of this were thickly covered with shrubs,
and on the top were walks shaded by lime trees. To the east of the
fish-pond was a Cold Bath (distinct from the Pool) 36 feet long and
18 feet broad,[80] supplied by a spring. The Peerless Pool itself as
contrived by Kemp was an open-air swimming-bath, 170 feet long,
more than 100 feet broad, and from 3 to 5 feet deep. It was nearly
surrounded by trees, and the descent was by marble steps to a fine
gravel bottom, through which the springs that supplied the pool came
bubbling up. The entrance was from a bowling-green on the south
side, through a marble saloon (30 feet long) which contained a small
collection of light literature for the benefit of subscribers to the Pool.
Adjoining this were the dressing boxes.

Ebook Environmental Studies PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Environmental Studies PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environmental Studies - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Environmental Studies: Simplified, 3e

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

4.5 Value of Biodiversity 82

5.2.3 Point and Non-point Sources 106

5.8.10 Chemical Incompatibilities 137

6.9.2 Solutions for Global Warming 167

7.2.2 Human Right Act, 1993 198

A course on Environmental Studies or Environmental Science and Engineering is offered

Objective of the Revision

Roadmap to Target Courses

What is New in This Edition

Organization of the Book

“The first law of ecology is that everything is related to everything else.”

FIGURES AND TABLES

A typical rainwater harvesting facilty for a building is shown in Fig. 6.4.

Fig. 6.4 Typical Rainwater Harvesting Facility for a Building

Energy type Advantages Disadvantages

CASE STUDIES AND BURNING TOPICS

CASE Canada: Education, Migration, Divorce

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

∑ Book-end appendix will give the reader

Fig. 1.1 Impacts of Human Activities on the Environment

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Fig. 1.2 Functions of Environmental Education

Supports relevant education by focusing on learning local environments.

1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 1.3 Some Core Areas of Environmental Engineering

1.4.1 The Gaia Theory

Fig. 1.5 Lovelock and the Gaia Theory

Fig. 1.6 Daisyworld Mathematical Model

1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES—THE SUBJECT AND

Environmental issue/Topic Major subject/ Topic knowledge required

1.6 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND

Fig. 1.7 Components of the Environment

Fig. 1.7(a) Atmosphere

Fig. 1.7(b) Hydrosphere

Fig. 1.7(c) Lithosphere

Fig. 1.7(d) Biosphere

1.7 HUMANS AND THE BIOSPHERE

1.8 IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE

1.8.1 Environmental Impacts of Urbanization

Environmental Population Urban component

Table 1.3 Summary of Urban Environmental Issues and Options

Problem area Effects Causes Management options

Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Table 1.3 (Contd.)

Table 1.4 Pros and Cons of Biofuels

Fig. 1.8 Composition and Examples of Biofuel

(c) Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course

2. Define the term “environment”.

Answers to Objective-Type Questions

“ Adopt the pace of nature: her secret is patience.”

2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

Fig. 2.1 Components of Forest

2.1.1 Key Beneﬁts of Intact Forests

Fig. 2.2 Some Uses and Beneﬁts of Forests for Humans

2.1.3 Causes of Deforestation