University of Baguio

Assumption Road, Baguio City 2660

Gender and Society

Topic: Gender and Politics

Objectives:

1. Identify the factors that contribute to the process and phenomenon of discrimination
in government.
2. Examine the intersections of gender and power relations within a general political
system.
3. Reflect on the impact of gender discrimination in government and in governance.

Lesson Proper:

Introduction

The relationship between gender and governance is often neglected in both

conceptual and empirical work. Much influential political thought is still based on
perceptions of the separation between the ‘public’ realms of politics, military affairs
and administration and the ‘private’ realm of domestic and family life. While it focuses
on the lives of women, it is very much framed as a study of ‘gender and governance’
rather than ‘women and governance’. Thus, it recognizes the host of social norms and
expectations that condition women’s lives and that, therefore, any useful study of
gender and governance must understand governance in the broadest way – to
include the ways in which social and administrative structures affect society members’
capabilities and access to opportunities. (Demetriades, 2009)

Political Gender Inequality

Even in democratic societies in which gender equality is legally mandated, gender

discrimination occurs in politics, both about presumptions about political allegiances
that fall along gender lines, and disparate gender representation within representative
democracies. Historically, this was even more true when women were neither
considered full citizens nor could not vote.

Intersections of Gender and Politics:

A. Voting Rights for Women

Women were excluded from voting in ancient Greece and republican Rome, as well as
in the few democracies that had emerged in Europe by the end of the 18th century.
When the franchise was widened, as it was in the United Kingdom in 1832, women
continued to be denied all voting rights. The question of women’s voting rights finally
became an issue in the 19th century, and the struggle was particularly intense in Great
Britain and the United States, but those countries were not the first to grant women the
right to vote, at least not on a national basis. By the early years of the 20th century,
women had won the right to vote in national elections in New Zealand (1893), Australia
(1902), Finland (1906), and Norway (1913). In Sweden and the United States, they had
voting rights in some local elections.

World War I and its aftermath speeded up the enfranchisement of women in the
countries of Europe and elsewhere. In the period 1914–39, women in 28 additional
countries acquired either equal voting rights with men or the right to vote in national
elections. Those countries included Soviet Russia (1917); Canada, Germany, Austria,
and Poland (1918); Czechoslovakia (1919); the United States and Hungary (1920); Great
Britain (1918 and 1928); Burma (Myanmar; 1922); Ecuador (1929); South Africa (1930);
Brazil, Uruguay, and Thailand (1932); Turkey and Cuba (1934); and the Philippines (1937).
In a number of those countries, women were initially granted the right to vote in
municipal or other local elections or perhaps in provincial elections; only later were they
granted the right to vote in national elections.

Page 1 of 4
Immediately after World War II, France, Italy, Romania, Yugoslavia, and China were
added to the group. Full suffrage for women was introduced in India by the constitution
in 1949; in Pakistan women received full voting rights in national elections in 1956. In
another decade the total number of countries that had given women the right to vote
reached more than 100, partly because nearly all countries that gained independence
after World War II guaranteed equal voting rights to men and women in their
constitutions. By 1971 Switzerland allowed women to vote in federal and most cantonal
elections, and in 1973 women were granted full voting rights in Syria. The United Nations
Convention on the Political Rights of Women, adopted in 1952, provides that “women
shall be entitled to vote in all elections on equal terms with men, without any
discrimination.”

B. Women in Recent Politics

As of 1 January 2023, 11.3% of countries have women Heads of State (17 out of 151
countries, monarchy-based systems excluded), and 9.8% have women Heads of
Government (19 out of 193). This is an increase compared to a decade ago when
figures stood at 5.3% and 7.3%, respectively. Of all the regions, Europe continues to
have the highest number of countries led by women. According to the "Women in
Politics 2023" Map, the proportion of women parliamentarians has increased globally to
26.5% from 25.5% in 2021, while the number of women Speakers of Parliament increased
from 20.9% in 2021 to 22.7%.

According to recent data, women represent 22.8% of ministerial positions as of 1

January 2023. The regions with the highest share of women in ministerial positions are
Europe and North America (31.6%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (30.1%).
Central & South Asia and the Pacific Islands are the regions where women are least
represented in ministerial positions with 10.1% and 8.1% respectively. In many European
countries (13 countries), on the other hand, more than 50% of heads of ministries are
held by women.

Although underrepresented, women hold ministerial positions on environment (32%),

public administration (30%), and education (30%), and are in leadership positions on
gender equality, human rights, and social rights. In contrast, men continue to dominate
ministries such as economy, defense, justice, and interior.

Some of the Powerful Women in Politics

1. Ursula von der Leyen (Belgium)

• Ursula von der Leyen was appointed president of the European Commission, the
executive branch of the European Union, in July 2019.
• She is the first woman to serve in the role, which is responsible for legislation
affecting more than 450 million Europeans.
• From 2005 until 2019, von der Leyen served in Angela Merkel's cabinet--the
longest tenure of any cabinet member.
• For the last six years of her time in the cabinet, she was Germany's defense
minister.
• She spearheaded a 750-billion-euro Covid relief bill in 2020 and, in 2022, became
one of the West's staunchest supporters of Ukraine amid Russia's unprovoked
invasion.

2. Christine Lagarde (Germany)

• Lagarde became the first woman to head the European Central Bank on
November 1, 2019.
• As head of European monetary policy, Lagarde faces a critical test: ensuring
economic growth in a high-inflation environment.
• From 2011 until mid-2019, Lagarde ran the International Monetary Fund that
works to ensure the stability of the global monetary system.
• She was the first woman to hold that position.
• In analyzing the 2008 financial crisis, Lagarde has pointed to "groupthink" in the
male-dominated industry and called for gender reform.

Page 2 of 4
3. Nirmala Sitharaman (India)

• Nirmala Sitharaman was appointed as India's finance minister in May 2019, and is
also the minister for corporate affairs.
• She is India's first full-time female finance minister.
• Before her career in politics, Sitharaman held roles at the U.K.-based Agricultural
Engineers Association and BBC World Service.
• She has also served as a member of the National Commission for Women.

4. Sheikh Hasina Wajed (Bangladesh)

• Sheikh Hasina Wajed, the longest serving prime minister in the history of
Bangladesh, is currently serving her fourth term. She is also the world's longest-
serving female head of government.
• She won the fourth term, which is also her third consecutive term, after her party,
Bangladesh Awami League, won 288 of the 300 parliamentary seats.
• Hasina is running for a 5th term in January 2024 despite rising calls from the
opposition party for her to resign. She has been accused of authoritarianism and
cracking down on free speech.
• Hasina also stands accused of voter suppression. She denies the charges, but in
September, the U.S. announced visa restrictions for any Bangladeshi individual
responsible for undermining elections.

C. Gender Politics in the Philippines

The gender situation in the Philippines is characterized by sharp contradictions. It

graphically showcases samples of women’s advancement in politics, academic and
professional excellence, and even legislation. But this is contrasted by images of
prostituted women, battered wives, poor women and exploited migrant workers.

The long history of colonialism has embedded a patriarchal culture among Filipinos. The
conception of women as full-time homemakers, as subordinated to men, violence
against them is private, as reserve labor force, and as sexual objects is now being
eroded by modern women asserting themselves in many aspects of life. But on the
other hand, some are either marginalized, discriminated against, or even exploited by
the harsh realities of global economy and consumerism. This puts the gender equality
issues at the forefront of national discourse and precludes further downslide of women
status in the modern Philippine society. Indeed, there are many handles for the
changes to happen. These legal and policy gains resulted from the strong voice of
women that started even during the anti-dictatorship struggle that culminated with the
ascension of Corazon Aquino as the first woman president of the country.

The gender situation in the Philippines can be described in sum as:

1. The legal framework has provided basic frameworks and processes for women
empowerment and gender fairness, but the dynamics of political and social institutions
reinforced by the cultural standpoints continue to provide a push-pull effect on gender
equality.

2. Women have made significant advances in politics. Though there may be several
factors that tends to lessen its importance --like belonging to a political dynasty, the role
of women in national and local decision-making can no longer be ignored and their
competence, in some cases, suits up or even exceeds that of male politicians.

3. The women's voice in society is very strong due to the vibrant women's movement.
Recognized for their work in the international and national levels, the movement has
been instrumental in pushing for many changes in the various facets of the Philippine
society. Additionally, the various organizations have worked on --with pioneering
educational approaches and service-specific projects-- the "culture shift" of both men
and women.

4. The statistics on women remain indicative of the deep-rooted and widespread

problems they encounter in their daily lives. The labor market has stereotyped women,
disadvantaged them in jobs and

Page 3 of 4
incomes, and even forced them into prostitution and slave-like work. The social image
of a Filipina is still that of a weak person, poster girl of domestic help, expert in double
burden, and a sexual object. While the mainframe of gender politics is changing, the
struggle of women to escape from the traditional mold everyday life continues.
(Anonuevo, 2000)

Gender Equality for Sound Government

Ensuring that governments reflect the diversity of the societies they represent
guarantees a balanced perspective which enables an inclusive approach to policy
making and service delivery. There are major structural, legal, and social barriers to
women’s empowerment in public life. Lack of visibility and uneven work-life balance
arrangements make it especially hard for women to be active in economic and
political life. Women also face a lack of political encouragement to run for public
office. A whole-of-government approach is crucial to advancing the role of women in
government. Holistic policy making will not only help bring more women into public light
but will ensure that gender considerations are more systematically embedded in all
policies.

To empower women and fully leverage their skills in the global economy, we need to:

• improve public institutions to ensure they have robust accountability

mechanisms.
• create defined roles for implementing a gender equality agenda.
• break down our data by gender to measure progress on gender equality.

Page 4 of 4