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ASTRO 3
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introductory astronomy
ASTRO3
Cha pter
Here and Now
Cha pter
User’s Guide to the Sky:

Patterns and Cycles
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User’s Guide to the Sky:

Patterns and Cycles
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SEEDS/BACKMAN
ASTRO
3 BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 EXPLORING THE SKY

1 Here and Now 2
2 User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Cycles 12
3 The Origin of Modern Astronomy 36
4 Light and Telescopes 60
PART 2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

5 Sun Light and Sun Atoms 80
6 The Terrestrial Planets 108
7 The Outer Solar System 136
8 Origin of the Solar System and Extrasolar Planets 160
PART 3 THE STARS

9 The Family of Stars 188
10 Structure and Formation of Stars 212
11 The Deaths of Stars 238
PART 4 THE UNIVERSE OF GALAXIES

12 The Milky Way Galaxy 272
13 Galaxies: Normal and Active 296
14 Modern Cosmology 322
PART 5 LIFE
15 Life on Other Worlds 348
Appendix A: Units and Astronomical Data 368

Appendix B: Observing the Sky 373
Appendix C: Celestial Profiles 376
Science Photo Library - VICTOR HABBICK VISIONS/Getty Images
Index 382
BRIEF CONTENTS iii
CONTENTS
3-3 Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and
Part 1 Planetary Motion 44

3-4 Galileo Galilei 47
EXPLORING THE SKY 3-5 Isaac Newton, Gravity, and Orbits 52
4 Light and Telescopes 60

4-1 Radiation: Information from Space 61
4-2 Telescopes 64
shooarts/Shutterstock.com
4-3 Observatories on Earth—Optical and Radio 68

4-4 Astronomical Instruments and Techniques 72
4-5 Airborne and Space Observatories 74
1 Here and Now 2

Part 2
1-1 Where Is Here? 2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
1-2 When Is Now? 8
2 User’s Guide to the Sky:

Patterns and Cycles 12
Natali26/Shutterstock.com
2-1 The Stars 12
2-2 The Sky and Its Motions 16
2-3 The Cycle of the Sun 20
2-4 Cycles of the Moon 24
3 The Origin of Modern

Astronomy 36
5 Sun Light and Sun
Atoms 80
3-1 Astronomy Before Copernicus 36 5-1 The Sun: Basic Characteristics 81
3-2 Nicolaus Copernicus 38 5-2 The Origin of Sunlight 82
iv CONTENTS
5-3 The Sun’s Surface 84
5-4 Light, Matter, and Motion 85 Part 3
5-5 The Sun’s Atmosphere 90
5-6 Solar Activity 96
THE STARS
6 The Terrestrial Planets 108

6-1 A Travel Guide to the Terrestrial Planets 108
© Ann Muse/Shutterstock.com
6-2 Earth: The Active Planet 111
6-3 The Moon 117
6-4 Mercury 120
6-5 Venus 122
6-6 Mars 125
7 The Outer Solar System 136 9 The Family of Stars 188

7-1 A Travel Guide to the Outer Solar System 136 9-1 Star Distances 189
7-2 Jupiter 138 9-2 Apparent Brightness, Intrinsic Brightness,
and Luminosity 191
7-3 Saturn 144
7-4 Uranus 149 9-3 Star Temperatures 192
7-5 Neptune 151 9-4 Star Sizes 196
7-6 Pluto: Planet No More 153 9-5 Star Masses—Binary Stars 199
9-6 Typical Stars 204
8 Origin of the Solar System and

Extrasolar Planets 160 10 ofStructure and Formation
Stars 212
8-1 Solar System Overview 160
8-2 Space Debris: Asteroids, Comets, and Meteorites 162 10-1 Stellar Structure 212
8-3 The Origin of the Solar System 168 10-2 Nuclear Fusion in the Sun and Stars 217
8-4 The Story of Planet Building 174 10-3 Main-Sequence Stars 221
8-5 Planets Around Other Stars 180 10-4 The Birth of Stars 223
CONTENTS v
11 The Deaths of Stars 238
13-3 The Evolution of Galaxies 305
13-4 Active Galaxies and Quasars 311
11-1 Giant Stars 239
11-2 Deaths of Low-Mass Stars 242
11-3 The Evolution of Binary Systems 247 14 Modern Cosmology 322
11-4 The Deaths of Massive Stars 249 14-1 Introduction to the Universe 322
11-5 Neutron Stars 254 14-2 The Big Bang 325
11-6 Black Holes 262 14-3 Space and Time, Matter and Energy 332
14-4 Twenty-First-Century Cosmology 337
Part 4
THE UNIVERSE Part 5
OF GALAXIES LIFE
Suppakij1017/Shutterstock.com
creativemarc/Shutterstock.com
12 The Milky Way Galaxy 272

12-1 Discovery of the Galaxy 272 15 Life on Other Worlds 348
12-2 Spiral Arms and Star Formation 281 15-1 The Nature of Life 349
12-3 Origin and History of the Galaxy 284 15-2 Life in the Universe 351
12-4 The Nucleus of the Galaxy 292 15-3 Intelligent Life in the Universe 361
13 Galaxies: Normal
and Active 296
Appendix A: Units and Astronomical Data 368
Appendix B: Observing the Sky 373
13-1 The Family of Galaxies 296 Appendix C: Celestial Profiles 376
13-2 Measuring the Properties of Galaxies 297 Index 382
vi CONTENTS
SEEDS + BACKMAN
ASTRO
INTRODUCTORY ASTRONOMY
3
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Part 1
1 Here and Now
The longest journey begins with a single step.

Laozi
NOA A /NASA GOES Project

After finishing this chapter go to PAGE 9 for STUDY TOOLS.
GUIDEPOST provide more specific insights into how scientists study

and understand nature.
As you study astronomy, you learn about yourself. You are
a planet-walker, and this chapter gives you a preview of
what that means. The planet you live on whirls around a
1-1 WHERE IS HERE?
star that moves through a Universe filled with stars and
galaxies. (See CO 1 for a view of Earth from space.) You You should begin with something familiar, like the size
owe it to yourself to know where you are located in the of yourself and your surroundings. Figure 1-1 shows a
Universe and when you are living in its history because region about 16 meters (52 feet) across occupied by a
those are important steps to knowing what you are. human being, a sidewalk, and a few trees—all objects
In this chapter, you will consider three important with sizes you can relate to. Each picture in the following
questions about astronomy: sequence shows you a frame with a field of view that is
100 times wider than the preceding picture.
• Where is Earth in the Universe? In Figure 1-2, your field of view has increased in size
• How does human history fit into the history of the by a factor of 100, and you can now see an area about
Universe?
• Why study astronomy? 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) in diameter. The 16-meter area
of Figure 1-1 is quite small from this view. Now you can
This chapter is a jumping-off point for your explo- see an entire college campus and the surrounding streets
ration of deep space and deep time. The next chapter and houses. This is still the world you know and can relate
continues your journey by looking at the night sky as to the scale of your body.
seen from Earth. As you Figure 1-3 has a span of 160 km (100 mi). Take a
study astronomy, you will look at the picture and notice the red color. This is an
field of view The area visible
in an image. Usually given as the
see how science gives you infrared photograph, in which healthy green leaves and
diameter of the region. a way to know how nature crops show up as red. Your eyes are sensitive to only a
works. Later chapters will narrow range of colors. As you explore the Universe, you
2 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky
Visual
CO 1 Image of Earth from the GOES

(Geostationary Operational Environment
Satellite) East weather satellite stationed
over the central Atlantic Ocean. This
image, which was made during the month
of January, shows a coating of snow over
Canada and the northern part of the
United States, as well as lush vegetation in
the Amazon Basin of South America.
© shooarts/Shutterstock.com
FIGURE 1-1 FIGURE 1-2
16 meters
Michael A. Seeds
Visual
USGS
Visual
This box ■ represents the relative size of the
previous frame.
will need to learn to use a wide range of “colors,” from you can see natural features of Earth’s surface: the
X-rays to radio waves, revealing sights invisible to your Allegheny Mountains of southern Pennsylvania crossing
unaided eyes. Photographs in this book generally have the picture at the upper left, and the Susquehanna River
labels noting which color or type of light was used to flowing southeast into Chesapeake Bay. What look like
make the image. white bumps are actually puffs of clouds. Mountains and
The college campus is now invisible, and the patches valleys are only temporary features on Earth that are slowly,
of gray are towns and cities, including Wilmington, but constantly, changing. As you explore the Universe, you
Delaware, visible in the lower right corner. At this scale, will come to see that it is also always evolving.
CHAPTER 1: Here and Now 3
In the next step of the journey, you will see the entire
planet Earth (Figure 1-4), which is about 13,000 km (8000
FIGURE 1-3
mi) in diameter. This picture shows most of the daylight
side of the planet; however, the blurriness at the extreme
right contains the sunset line. The rotation of Earth on its
axis each 24 hours carries you eastward, and as you cross
the sunset line into darkness you say that the Sun has set.
At the scale of this figure, the atmosphere on which your
© NASA, Landsat infrared photograph

life depends is thinner than a strand of thread.
Enlarge your field of view again by a factor of 100,
and you see a region 1,600,000 km (1 million mi) wide
(Figure 1-5). Earth is the small blue dot in the center,
and the Moon, with a diameter of only about one-fourth
that of Earth’s, is an even smaller dot along its orbit. The Infrared
relative sizes of Earth and Moon are shown in the inset

at the bottom right of Figure 1-5. If you’ve had a high- This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous frame.
mileage car, it may have traveled the equivalent of a trip
to the Moon, which has an average distance from Earth
of 380,000 km (240,000 mi). These numbers are so large FIGURE 1-4
that it is inconvenient to write them out. Astronomy is the
science of big numbers, and you will use numbers much
larger than these to describe the Universe.
Rather than writing out numbers, such as those in
the previous paragraph, it is more convenient to write
them in scientific notation. This is nothing more than
a simple way to express numbers without writing a great
many zeros. For example, in scientific notation, you can
write 380,000 as 3.8 3 10 5 .
When you once again enlarge your view by a factor
of 100 (Figure 1-6), Earth, its Moon, and the Moon’s
orbit all lie in the small red box at lower left. This fig- Visual
NASA
ure has a diameter of 1.6 3 10 8 km. Now you see the
Sun and two other plan- This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous frame.
ets that are part of our
scientific notation A Solar System. The Solar
method for expressing very large System consists of the FIGURE 1-5
or very small numbers by using Sun, its family of planets,
powers of 10.
and some smaller bodies,
Solar System The Sun and all such as moons, asteroids,
the objects gravitationally bound and comets.
to it, including Earth, the other
planets plus their moons, asteroids,
Like Earth, Venus and
comets, and so on. Mercury are planets ,
small, nonluminous bod-
planets A nonluminous body in Earth Moon
orbit around a star, massive enough ies that shine by reflecting
to be spherical and to have cleared sunlight. Venus is about the Enlarged to show
its orbital zone of other objects. size of Earth, and Mercury relative sizes
star A globe of gas, held is a bit larger than Earth’s

together by its own gravity and Moon. In this figure, they
NASA
supported by the internal pressure are both too small to be Earth Moon
of its hot gases, which generates
energy by nuclear fusion.
seen as anything but tiny
This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous frame.
dots. The Sun is a star, a
self-luminous ball of hot gas that generates its own energy. view now is 1 trillion (1012 ) times wider than in the first
The Sun is about 100 times larger in diameter than Earth figure. The details of the previous figure are lost in the
(inset), but it too is nothing more than a dot in this view. red square at the center of this figure. You see only the
Earth orbits the Sun once a year. brighter, more widely separated objects as you back away.
Another way astronomers simplify descriptions and The Sun, Mercury, Venus, and Earth are so close together
calculations using large numbers is to define new units. that you cannot separate them at this scale.
The average distance from Earth to the Sun is called the Mars, the next outward planet, lies only 1.5 AU
astronomical unit (AU), a distance of 1.5 3 10 8 km from the Sun. In contrast, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
(93 million mi). Using that unit you can then say, for Neptune are so far from the Sun that they are easy to
example, that the average distance from Venus to the Sun find in this figure. Light from the Sun reaches Earth in
is about 0.7 AU. only 8 minutes, but it takes more than 4 hours to reach
Your first field of view was only about 16 m (52 ft) in Neptune. Pluto orbits mostly outside Neptune’s orbit, but
width. After just six steps, each enlarging by a factor of it is no longer considered a major planet.
100, you now see the entire Solar System, all the major When you again enlarge your view by a factor of 100,
planets, and their slightly elliptical orbits (Figure 1-7). Your the Solar System becomes invisibly small (Figure 1-8).
The Sun is only a point of light, and all the planets and
their slightly elliptical orbits are now crowded into the
FIGURE 1-6
small red square at the center. The planets are too small
and reflect too little light to be visible so near the bril-
liance of the Sun.
Sun
Venus Notice that no stars are visible in Figure 1-8 except
for the Sun. The Sun is a fairly typical star, a bit larger
than average, and it is located in a fairly normal neigh-
AU
borhood in the Universe. Although there are many bil-
1
Mercury lions of stars like the Sun, none is close enough to be
visible in this figure. The stars are separated by average
Enlarged to show
relative sizes distances about 30 times larger than this view, which has
Earth a diameter of 11,000 AU. It is difficult to grasp the isola-
Earth tion of the stars. If the Sun were represented by a golf
NASA
Sun ball in New York City, the nearest star would be another
golf ball in Chicago.
The small red box around Earth at lower left contains
the entire field of view of Figure 1-5. In Figure 1-9, your view has expanded to a diameter
a bit over 1.1 million AU. The Sun is at the center, and
you see a few of the nearest stars. These stars are so dis-
tant that it is not reasonable to give their distances in AU.
FIGURE 1-7 Astronomers have defined a new larger unit of distance,
the light-year. One light-year (ly) is the distance that
light travels in 1 year, roughly 1013 km or 63,000 AU. The
diameter of your view in Figure 1-9 is 17 ly. The near-
est star to the Sun, Proxima Centauri, is 4.2 ly away. In
other words, light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years
to reach Earth.
Mars Although these stars
Jupiter are roughly the same size
Saturn
as the Sun, they are so far astronomical unit
Uranus (AU) Average distance from
away that you cannot see
Neptune Earth to the Sun; 1.5 3 108 km
them as anything but points
(93 million mi).
of light. Even with the larg-
est telescopes on Earth, you light-year (ly) Unit of distance
equal to the distance light travels
The small red box around the Sun at center contains still see only points of light in 1 year.
the entire field of view of Figure 1-6. when you look at stars, and
In Figure 1-10, you expand your field of view by
FIGURE 1-8 another factor of 100, and the Sun and its neighboring
stars vanish into the background of thousands of stars.
This figure is 1700 ly in diameter. Of course, no one has
ever journeyed thousands of light-years from Earth to
look back and photograph the Sun’s neighborhood, so this
is a representative picture from Earth of a portion of the
sky that can be used as a reasonable simulation. The Sun
Sun and Planets is faint enough that it would not be easily located in a
picture at this scale.
Some things that are invisible in this figure are actu-
ally critically important. You do not see the thin gas that
fills the spaces between the stars. Although those clouds
of gas are thinner than the best vacuum produced in labo-
ratories on Earth, it is those clouds that give birth to new
The small red box at the center contains the entire field stars. The Sun formed from such a cloud about 5 billion
of view of Figure 1-7. years ago. You will see more star formation in the next
figure.
If you expand your view again by a factor of 100,
FIGURE 1-9 you see our Galaxy (Figure 1-11). A galaxy is a great
cloud of stars, gas, and dust bound together by the
combined gravity of all the matter. In the night sky, you
see our Galaxy from the inside as a great, cloudy band
of stars ringing the sky as the Milky Way , and our
Galaxy is called the Milky Way Galaxy. How does
anyone know what the disk of the Milky Way Galaxy
Sun and would look like from a vantage point tens of thou-
Planets
sands of light years away? Astronomers use evidence
to guide their explanations as they envision what our
Galaxy looks like. Artists can then use those scientific
descriptions to create a painting. Our Sun would be
invisible in such a picture, but if you could see it, you
This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous

frame.
FIGURE 1-10
any planets that might circle those stars are much too
small and faint to be visible. In Figure 1-9 the sizes of
the dots represent not the sizes of the stars but their
brightness. This is stan-
dard practice in astronomi-
galaxy A large system of stars,
star clusters, gas, dust, and nebulae cal diagrams, and it is also
orbiting a common center of mass. how starlight is recorded.
Milky Way The hazy band of Bright stars make larger
light that circles our sky, produced spots in a photograph or
NASA
by the glow of the stars and Visual

electronic picture than
nebulae in our Galaxy.
faint stars. The size of a
Milky Way Galaxy The spiral star image in a photograph This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous
galaxy containing our Sun, visible
in the night sky as the Milky Way.
tells you only how bright frame.
the star is, not how big it is.
How Do We Know? 1-1
The Scientific Method
How do scientists learn about nature? You have more than 28,000 pea plants, noting which produced
probably heard of the scientific method as the process smooth peas and which produced wrinkled peas, and
by which scientists form hypotheses and test them how that trait—and others—were inherited by succes-
against evidence gathered by experiment and observa- sive generations. His studies confirmed his hypothesis
tion. Scientists use the scientific method all the time and allowed the development of a series of laws of
and it is critically important, but they rarely think of it. It inheritance. Although the importance of his work was
is such an ingrained way of thinking and understanding not recognized in his lifetime, Mendel is now called the
nature that it is almost invisible to “father of modern genetics”.
the people who use it most. The scientific method is not a
A hypothesis is a suggestion simple, mechanical way of grind-
NSphotostudio/Shutterstock.com
about how nature works, and the ing facts into understanding. It is
evidence is reality. If a hypothesis actually a combination of many
is compared to the evidence and ways of analyzing information,
confirmed, it must be tested fur- finding relationships, and creat-
ther; if it is contradicted, it must be ing new ideas. A scientist needs
discarded or revised. In that way, insight and ingenuity to form and
ideas get tested and refined to bet- test a good hypothesis. Scientists
ter describe how nature works. Whether peas are wrinkled or use the scientific method almost
For example, Gregor Mendel smooth is an inherited trait. automatically, forming, testing,
(1822–1884) was an Austrian abbot revising, and discarding hypothe-
who liked gardening. He formed ses sometimes minute-by-minute
a hypothesis that offspring usually inherit traits from as they discuss new ideas. The scientific method is a way
their parents not as a smooth blend, as most scientists of thinking and a way of knowing about nature. The
of the time believed, but as discrete units according to “How Do We Know?” essays in this book will introduce
strict mathematical rules. Mendel cultivated and tested you to some of the methods scientists use.
FIGURE 1-11 would find it about two-thirds of the way from the cen-
ter to the edge, at about the location of the marker dot
indicated in the figure. Our Galaxy contains more than
100 billion stars, and, like many others, has graceful
spiral arms winding outward through the disk. You
will discover in a later chapter that stars are born in
great clouds of gas and dust as they pass through the
spiral arms.
The visible portion of our Galaxy's disk is 80,000 ly
Mark A. Garlick/space-art.co.uk
in diameter. Only a century ago astronomers thought it

was the entire Universe—
• Location of Sun an island Universe of stars
in an otherwise empty vast-
Artist’s conception
ness. Now, the Milky Way spiral arms Long spiral pattern
of bright stars, star clusters, gas,
This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous
Galaxy is known to be not and dust. Spiral arms extend across
frame. unique; it is a typical Galaxy the disks of spiral galaxies.
in many respects, although
larger than most. In fact, our Galaxy is only one of many over the origin of these structures, you are at the frontier
billions of galaxies scattered throughout the Universe. of human knowledge. The sequence of figures ends here
As you expand your field of view by another fac- because it has reached the limits of the best telescopes.
tor of 100, our Galaxy appears as a tiny luminous speck Humanity’s view does not extend as far as the region
surrounded by other specks (Figure 1-12). This figure that would be covered by a figure 100 times larger than
includes a region 17 million ly in diameter, and with each Figure 1-13.
dot representing a galaxy. Notice that our Galaxy is part of
a cluster of a few dozen galaxies. You will find that galax-
ies are commonly grouped together in clusters. Some of 1-2 WHEN IS NOW?
these galaxies have beautiful spiral patterns like our own
Galaxy, but others do not. One of the questions you will In later chapters, you will learn that the Universe began
investigate in a later chapter is what produces these dif- about 14 billion years ago. Since that time, galaxies have
ferences among the galaxies. formed, and generation after generation of stars have
Figure 1-13 represents a view with a diameter of 1.7 formed and died. Our Sun and its planets formed only
billion ly. It was made by combining observations with about 4.6 billion years ago. Humans have existed on
theoretical calculations. The figure shows clusters of gal- Earth for only about 4 million years. That is only 0.004
axies connected in a vast network. Clusters are grouped billion years. Human civilization has existed for only
into superclusters— clusters of clusters— and the 10,000 years (0.00001 billion years). Humanity is very
superclusters are linked to form long filaments and walls new to the Universe.
outlining voids that seem nearly empty of galaxies. These How could anyone possibly know these secrets of
filaments and walls appear to be the largest structures in nature? Science gives us a way to know how nature works.
the Universe. Throughout this book, you will find short essays titled
Were you to expand “How Do We Know?”; these essays are designed to help
your field of view one more you think not about what is known, but how it is known.
time, you would probably see To do that, they will explain a variety of scientific thought
superclusters A cluster of
galaxy clusters.
a uniform fog of filaments processes and procedures to help you understand how
and voids. When you puzzle scientists know about the natural world.

Australian Astronomical Observatory/David Malin Images
M. Seldner, B. L. Siebers, E. J. Groth, and P.J. E. Peebles,
Milky Way Galaxy

Astronomical Journal 82 (1977)
This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous
frame. frame.
What Are We? Participants
Astronomy will give you perspective on what it means Not only does astronomy locate you in space
to be here on Earth. This chapter has helped you and time, it places you in the physical processes that
locate yourself in space and time. Once you realize govern the Universe. Gravity and atoms work together
how vast our Universe is, Earth seems quite small, to make stars, light the Universe, generate energy,
and people on the other side of the world seem and create the chemical elements in your body. The
like neighbors. Furthermore, in the entire history chapters that follow will show you how you fit into
of the Universe, the human story is only a flicker of those cosmic processes.
an eye blink. This may seem humbling at first, but Although you are very small and your kind have
you can be proud of how much we humans have existed in the Universe for only a short time, you are an
understood in such a short time. important part of something very large and very beautiful.
STUDY
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Questions and 1
Problems
REVIEW QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
1. What is the largest dimension of which you have 1. The diameter of Earth across the equator is 7926 mi.
personal knowledge? Have you run a mile? Hiked Given that a mile equals 1.609 km, what is Earth’s
10 mi? Run a marathon? diameter in kilometers? In centimeters?
2. What is the difference between our Solar System and 2. The diameter of the Moon across its equator is
our Galaxy? Between our Galaxy and the Universe? 3476 km. Given that a kilometer equals 0.6214 mi,
3. Why are light-years more convenient than miles, what is the Moon’s diameter in miles?
kilometers, or astronomical units for measuring certain 3. One astronomical unit is about 1.50 3 10 8 km . Explain
distances? why this is the same as 150 3 10 6 km.
4. Why is it difficult to detect planets orbiting other stars? 4. Venus orbits 0.72 AU from the Sun. What is that
5. What does the size of the star image in a photograph distance in kilometers? (Hint: See Problem 3.)
tell you? 5. Light from the Sun takes 8 minutes to reach Earth.
6. What is the difference between the Milky Way and the How long does it take to reach Mars?
Milky Way Galaxy? 6. The Sun is almost 400 times farther from Earth than is
7. What are the largest known structures in the Universe? the Moon. How long does light from the Moon take to
8. How does astronomy help answer the question “What reach Earth?
are we?” 7. If the speed of light is 3.0 3 105 km/s, how many
9. How Do We Know? How does the scientific method kilometers is 1 light-year? How many meters?
give scientists a way to know about nature? (Note: One year contains 3.2 3 107 s .)
8. How long does it take light to cross the diameter of
our Milky Way Galaxy?
9. The nearest large galaxy to our own is about 2.5 million
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ly away. How many meters is that? (Hint: See Problem 7.)
1. You and three of your friends have won an all- 10. How many galaxies like our own would it take laid edge-
expenses paid one-time-only round-trip first-class to-edge to reach the nearest galaxy? (Hint: See Problem 9.)
vacation to anywhere in the Universe, but only if
the choice of destination is unanimous. Where do
you want to go, and how do you convince your
LEARNING TO LOOK
friends to agree? 1. In Figure 1-4, the division between daylight and
2. Think back to the last time you got a new phone and darkness is at the right on the globe of Earth. How do
had to figure out how it worked. In what way did you you know this is the sunset line and not the sunrise line?
employ the scientific method, maybe without even 2. Look at Figure 1-6. How can you tell that Mercury does
realizing that you did? not follow a circular orbit?
3. Of the objects listed here, which would be contained 4. In Figure 1-15 which stars are brightest, and which are
inside the object shown in Figure 1-14? faintest? How can you tell? Why can’t you tell which
• Stars stars in this photograph are biggest or which have
planets?
• Planets
• Galaxy
• Clusters
FIGURE 1-15
• Spiral arms
FIGURE 1-14
Bill Schoening/NOAO/AURA/NSF
REU program/NOAO/AURA/NSF
2 User’s Guide to
the Sky: Patterns
and Cycles
The Southern Cross I saw every night abeam. The Sun every morning came up
astern; every evening it went down ahead. I wished for no other compass to guide
me, for these were true.
Captain Joshua Slocum Sailing Alone Around the World
Rami Daud/NASA
GUIDEPOST • How does the motion of the Moon produce phases

and eclipses?
The night sky is the rest of the Universe as seen from our As you study the sky and its motion, you will under-
planet. The previous chapter took you on a cosmic zoom stand that Earth is a planet rotating on its axis. The next
out into the sky through deep space and deep time, setting chapter will tell the story of how humans first understood
the stage for the drama to come. In this chapter, you will that Earth is a planet.
continue your explorations by viewing the sky from Earth
with your own unaided eyes. You will discover that the
turning of Earth on its axis and its orbital motion around
the Sun produce corresponding motions in the sky. You
2-1 THE STARS
will see how the Sun, Moon, and planets move against the
On a dark night far from city lights, you can see a few
background of stars. Some of those motions have direct
thousand stars in the sky. Your observations can be sum-
influences on your life and produce dramatic sights. (Look
marized by naming individual stars and groups of stars
at CO 2 for a sequence of images of a lunar eclipse). As you
and by specifying their relative brightness.
explore, you will find answers to five important questions:
• H ow are stars and 2-1a Constellations

constellations named?
constellation One of the • How are the brightnesses All around the world, ancient cultures celebrated heroes,
stellar patterns identified by name, of stars measured and gods, and mythical beasts by naming groups of stars,
usually of mythological gods, compared? called constellations, after them. You should not be
people, animals, or objects. Also, • How does the sky appear
to move as Earth rotates surprised that the star patterns generally do not look
the region of the sky containing
that star pattern. and revolves? like the creatures they are named after any more than
• What causes the seasons? Columbus, Ohio, looks like Christopher Columbus.
CO 2 A sequence of images spanning about 2 hours showing a lunar eclipse
visible from the United States in September 2015. From left to right, the full
moon is increasingly covered by Earth’s shadow. In the image at far right,
the Moon is shown fully shadowed, illuminated only by the orange glow of
sunlight refracted through Earth’s atmosphere. This was a rare “supermoon”
eclipse that occurred when the Moon was closest in its orbit to Earth, and near
the horizon for many observers, thereby appearing as large as possible.
The constellations named in Western culture origi- in any constellation. Regions of the southern sky not vis-
nated in ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Babylon, ible to observers living at northern latitudes also were not
Egypt, and Greece beginning as many as 5000 years ago. identified with any constellations. Constellation boundar-
Of those ancient constellations, 48 are still in use. In those ies, when they were defined at all, were only approximate,
former times, a constellation was simply a loose grouping of so a star like Alpheratz could be thought of as both a part of
bright stars, and many of the fainter stars were not included Pegasus and also a part of Andromeda (Figure 2-1).
FIGURE 2-1
(a) (b)
From Duncan Bradford, Wonders of the Heavens,
Alpheratz
Andromeda
Alpheratz
Boston, John B. Russell 1837
Old constellation boundaries,

represented by these lines, were Pegasus
approximate.
Great Square
of Pegasus
(a) In antiquity, constellation boundaries were poorly defined, as shown on this map by the curving d
otted lines
that separate Pegasus from Andromeda. (b) Modern constellation boundaries are precisely defined by international
scientific agreement.
CHAPTER 2: User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Cycles 13
In recent centuries, astronomers have added exceptions (Figure 2-3). A Greek-letter star name also
40 modern constellations to fill gaps, and in 1928 the includes the possessive form of the constellation name;
International Astronomical Union (IAU) established for example, the brightest star in the constellation Canis
a total of 88 official constellations with clearly defined Major is Alpha Canis Majoris. This name identifies the
permanent boundaries that together cover the entire star and the constellation and gives a clue to the relative
sky. Thus, a constellation now represents not a group brightness of the star. Compare this with the ancient indi-
of stars, but a section of the sky—a viewing direction— vidual name for that star, Sirius, which tells you nothing
and any star within the region belongs only to that one about its location or brightness.
constellation.
In addition to the 88 official constellations, the sky
contains a number of less formally defined groupings 2-1c Star Brightness
called asterisms. The Big Dipper, for example, is an Astronomers usually describe the brightness of stars
asterism you probably recognize; it is part of the con- using the magnitude scale. The ancient astronomers
stellation Ursa Major (the Great Bear). Another aster- originally divided the stars into six brightness groups. The
ism is the Great Square of Pegasus that includes three brightest were called first-magnitude stars. The scale
stars from Pegasus and the previously mentioned star continued downward to sixth-magnitude stars, the faint-
Alpheratz, now considered to be part of Andromeda only. est visible to the human eye. Thus, the larger the mag-
Although constellations and asterisms are named as nitude number, the fainter the star. This makes sense if
if they were real groupings, most are made up of stars
that are not physically associated with one another. Some
stars may be many times farther away than others in the FIGURE 2-2
same constellation and moving through space in different
directions. The only thing they have in common is that
they lie in approximately the same direction as viewed
sky
from Earth, as in Figure 2-2. ed on the
oject
rs pr
Sta
2-1b Star Names
In addition to naming groups of stars, ancient astrono-
mers named the brighter stars, and modern astronomers
still use many of those names. The names of the constel-
lations are in Latin or Greek, the languages of science
in Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Most individual
star names derive from ancient Arabic, much altered
over centuries. For example, the name of Betelgeuse,
the bright red star in Orion, comes from the Arabic Nearest
phrase yad al-jawza, meaning “Hand of Jawza [Orion].” star
Farthest star
Aldebaran, the bright red eye of Taurus the bull, comes
from the Arabic al-dabar an, meaning “the follower [of
the Pleiades].” Actual distribution
Another way to identify stars is to assign Greek of stars in space
letters to the bright stars in a constellation in approxi-
mate order of brightness. Earth
Thus the brightest star is
asterism A named grouping usually designated alpha
The stars you see in the Big Dipper are not at the same dis-
of stars that is not one of the (a), the second brightest
recognized constellations. tance from Earth. You see the stars in a group in the sky
beta (b), and so on. For because they lie in the same general direction as seen from
magnitude scale The many constellations, the Earth, not because they are all actually near each other. The
astronomical brightness scale. letters follow the order of sizes of the star dots in the star chart represent the apparent
The larger the number, the fainter brightness of the stars.
the star.
brightness, but some con-
stellations, like Orion, are
measure of the light
FIGURE 2-3 energy from a star
that hits one square
meter in one second.
(See Magnitudes in
the Math Reference
Cards MR .) With
l
a
modern scientific
instruments, astrono-
g mers can measure
a Orionis is the flux of starlight
Orion
Orion also known as with high precision
Betelgeuse.
d and then use a simple
z e mathematical relation-
h
ship that relates light
i flux to apparent visual
t
magnitude. Instead
William K. Hartman/Planetary Science Institute
k b of saying that the star

known by the charm-
ing name Chort (Theta
b Orionis is also Leonis) is about third
known as Rigel. magnitude, you can
say its magnitude is
3.34. Thus, precise
Visual
Visual modern measure-
ments of the bright-
ness of stars are still
The stars in Orion do not quite follow the rule for assigning Greek letters in order of decreas- connected to obser-
ing brightness. For example, β (Beta) is brighter than α (Alpha), and κ (Kappa) is brighter than
η (Eta). Fainter stars do not have Greek letters or names, but if they are located inside the
vations of apparent
constellation boundaries, they are part of the constellation. The brighter stars in a constellation visual magnitude that
often also have individual names derived from Arabic. (The spikes on the star images in the go back to the time of
photograph were produced by an optical effect in the telescope.) Hipparchus.
Limitations of the
apparent visual magni-
you think of bright stars as first-class stars and the faintest tude system have motivated astronomers to supplement
stars visible as sixth-class stars. it in various ways:
The Greek astronomer Hipparchus (190–120 bce)
is believed to have compiled the first star catalog, and 1. Some stars are so bright the magnitude scale must
there is evidence he used the magnitude system in extend into negative numbers, as demonstrated in
the catalog. About 300 years later (around 140 ce) the Figure 2-4. On this scale, Sirius, the brightest star in
Egyptian-Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus (pro- the sky, has a magnitude of −1.46.
nounced TAHL-eh-MAY-us; also known as Ptolemy, 2. With a telescope you can find stars much fainter
pronounced TAHL-eh-mee) definitely used the magni- than the limit for your
tude system in his own catalog, and successive genera- unaided eyes. Thus the
tions of astronomers have continued to use the system. magnitude system has apparent visual
Star brightnesses expressed in this system are known as also been extended to magnitude ( mV ) A measure
apparent visual m agnitudes (mV ), describing how numbers larger than sixth of the brightness of a star as seen
magnitude to include by human eyes from Earth.
the stars look to human eyes observing from Earth.
Brightness is quite subjective, depending on both faint stars (Figure 2-4). flux A measure of the flow of
energy through a surface. Usually
the physiology of eyes and the psychology of perception. 3. Although some stars emit
applied to light.
To be scientifically accurate you should refer to flux—a large amounts of infrared
Earth with the stars stuck on the
FIGURE 2-4 inside like thumbtacks in a ceiling.
Modern astronomers know that the
Venus at Hubble
brightest Space stars are scattered through space at
Telescope different distances, but it is still use-
Sirius limit
ful in some contexts for you to think
Full
Sun moon Polaris of the sky as a great sphere enclosing
Naked Earth with stars all at one distance.
eye limit
The celestial sphere is an exam-
ple of a scientific model, a com-
mon feature of scientific thought
–30 –25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
(See How Do We Know? 2-1.). You
Apparent magnitude (mv)
can use the celestial sphere as a con-
Brighter Fainter venient model of the sky. You will
learn about more scientific models
The scale of apparent visual magnitudes extends into negative numbers
to represent the brightest objects and to positive numbers larger than 6 to in the chapters that follow.
represent objects fainter than the human eye can see. As you study Concept Art 2A,
“The Sky Around Us,” notice
three important points:
or ultraviolet light, those types of radiation (discussed 1. The sky appears to rotate westward around Earth each
further in Chapters 4 and 5) are invisible to human day, but that is a consequence of the eastward rotation
eyes. The subscript “V” in mV is a reminder that you of Earth. This produces day and night.
are including only light that is visible. Other magni- 2. What you can see in the sky depends on your lati-
tude systems have been invented to express the bright- tude. For example, Australians see many stars, constel-
ness of invisible light arriving at Earth from the stars. lations, and asterisms not visible from North America,
4. An apparent magnitude tells only how bright the star but they never see the Big Dipper.
is as seen from Earth but doesn’t tell anything about a 3. Astronomers measure distances across the sky as
star’s true power output because the star’s distance is angles expressed in units of degrees and subdivisions
not included. You can describe the true power output of degrees called arc minutes and arc seconds.
of stars with another magnitude system that will be
described in Chapter 9.
2-2b Precession
In addition to causing the obvious daily motion of
2-2 THE SKY AND ITS MOTIONS the sky, Earth’s rotation is connected with a very slow
celestial motion that can be detected only over centu-
ries. More than 2000 years ago, Hipparchus compared
The sky above you seems
positions of some stars with their positions recorded
to be a blue dome in the
nearly two c enturies previously and realized that
celestial sphere An daytime and a sparkling
the celestial poles and equator were slowly moving
imaginary sphere of very large ceiling at night. Learning
radius surrounding Earth to which across the sky. Later astronomers understood that this
to understand the sky
the planets, stars, Sun, and Moon motion is caused by a toplike motion of Earth known
requires that you first recall
seem to be attached. as precession.
the perspectives of people
scientific model A scientific If you have ever played with a gyroscope or top,
who observed the sky thou-
metaphor; a concept that you have seen how the spinning mass resists any sud-
organizes thought about an aspect
sands of years ago.
den change in the direction of its axis of rotation. The
of nature without necessarily being
2-2a The Celestial more massive the top and the more rapidly it spins,
literally true.
the more it resists your efforts to twist it out of posi-
precession The slow change Sphere tion. You may recall that even the most rapidly spin-
in orientation of the Earth’s axis
Ancient astronomers ning top slowly swings its axis around in a circle. The
of rotation. One cycle takes nearly
26,000 years. believed the sky was a weight of the top tends to make it tip over, and this
great sphere surrounding combines with its rapid rotation to make its axis sweep
How Do We Know? 2-1
Scientific Models
How can a scientific model be useful if it isn’t
entirely true? A scientific model is a carefully devised
conception of how something works, a framework that
helps scientists think about some aspect of nature. The
celestial sphere is a model that helps astronomers think
about the motions of the sky.
Chemists, for example, use colored balls to represent
atoms and sticks to represent the bonds between them,
almost like Tinkertoys. Using these molecular models,
chemists can see the three-dimensional shape of mol-
ecules and understand how the atoms interconnect.
The molecular model of DNA proposed by Watson
and Crick in 1953 led to our modern understanding of
the mechanisms of genetics. You have probably seen
elaborate ball-and-stick models of DNA, but does the
molecule really look like Tinkertoys? No, but the model
is both simple enough and accurate enough to help
scientists think about DNA.
A scientific model is not a statement of truth; it
John Harwood/Photodisc/Getty Images

does not have to be precisely true to be useful. In an
idealized model, some complex aspects of nature can
be simplified or omitted. The ball-and-stick model of
a molecule doesn’t show the relative strength of the
chemical bonds, for instance. A model gives scientists a
way to think about some aspect of nature, but need not
be true in every detail.
When you use a scientific model, it is important
A ball-and-stick model of a
to remember the limitations of that model. If you
short section of a DNA molecule.
begin to think of a model as true, it can be misleading
instead of helpful. The celestial sphere, for instance, can
help you think about the sky, but you must remember
that it is only a model. The Universe is much larger and
much more interesting than this ancient model of the
heavens.
out the shape of a cone. That motion is precession from vertical. Earth’s large mass and rapid rotation
(Figure 2-7a). In later c hapters, you will learn that keep its axis of rotation pointed toward a spot near
many celestial bodies precess. the star Polaris, and the axis would remain pointed
Earth spins like a giant top, but it does not spin constantly in that direction except for the effect of
upright in its orbit; its axis is tipped 23.4 degrees precession.
Concept Art 2A
THE SKY AROUND US
1
The eastward rotation of Earth causes the Sun, Moon, and Zenith
stars to move westward in the sky as if the celestial sphere
were rotating westward around Earth. From any location
on Earth you see only half of the celestial sphere, the half North
above the horizon. The zenith marks the top of the sky celestial
above your head, and the nadir marks the bottom of the West pole
sky directly under your feet. The drawing at right shows
Cel
the view for an observer in North America. An observer in
est
South America would have a dramatically different horizon, South North
ial
zenith, and nadir. Earth
eq
n
Horizo
ua
tor
The apparent pivot points are the north celestial pole East
and the south celestial pole located directly above Earth’s
north and south poles. Halfway between the celestial poles South
lies the celestial equator. Earth’s rotation defines the direc- celestial
pole
tions you use every day. The north point and south point
are the points on the horizon closest to the celestial poles. Nadir
The east point and the west point lie halfway between
the north and south points. The celestial equator always
touches the horizon at the east and west points.
North
celestial
1a
Ursa This time exposure of about 30 minutes shows stars as streaks,
pole
Major called star trails, rising behind an observatory dome. The
camera was facing n ortheast to take this photo. The motion
Ursa you see in the sky depends on which direction you look, as
Minor shown at right. Looking north, you see the star Polaris, the
North Star, located near the north celestial pole. As the sky
appears to rotate westward, Polaris hardly moves, but other
Looking north stars circle the celestial pole. Looking south from a location in
North America, you can see stars circling the south celestial
pole, which is invisible below the southern horizon.
Gemini Orion
Looking east
Canis
Major
P. Marenfeld & NOAO/AURA /NSF

Looking south
North celestial
Zenith pole a
Astronomers measure
distance across the
sky as angles.
Latitude 90°
North Angular distance

Zenith celestial
pole
W
Astronomers might say, “The star was two degrees
S
Latitude 60° E
N from the Moon.” Of course, the stars are much far-
ther away than the Moon, but when you think of
the celestial sphere, you can measure distance on
the sky as an angle. The angular distance between
2
North two objects is the angle between two lines extend-
Zenith celestial
pole
ing from your eye to the two objects. Astronomers
measure angles in degrees, arc minutes, 1/60th of
W a degree, and arc seconds, 1/60th of an arc minute.
L
Using the term arc avoids confusion with minutes
S N and seconds of time. The angular diameter of an
object is the angular distance from one edge to
Latitude 30° E the other. The Sun and Moon are each about half a
North
degree in diameter, and the bowl of the Big Dipper
Zenith celestial is about 10 degrees wide.
pole
W
What you see in the sky depends on your latitude as shown at left.
S
Latitude 0° E
N Imagine that you begin a journey in the ice and snow at Earth’s
North Pole with the north celestial pole directly overhead. As you
walk southward, the celestial pole moves toward the horizon, and
you can see farther into the southern sky. The angular distance from
3
South
celestial
the horizon to the north celestial pole always equals your latitude
Zenith
pole (L)—the basis for celestial navigation. As you cross Earth’s equator,
the celestial equator would pass through your zenith, and the north
W celestial pole would sink below your northern horizon.
S N
A few constellations Cassiopeia
Latitude –30° seen as circumpolar
E
from the U.S.
Cepheus Perseus
3a Circumpolar constellations are those

that never rise or set. From mid-northern
latitudes, as shown at right, you see a
Rotation Rotation
number of familiar constellations circling Polaris and Polaris
of sky of sky
never dipping below the horizon. As the sky rotates,
the pointer stars at the front of the Big Dipper always Ursa
point toward Polaris. Circumpolar constellations Minor
near the south celestial pole never rise when seen
from mid-northern latitudes. From a high latitude
such as Norway, you would have more circumpolar
constellations, and from Quito, Ecuador, located
Ursa
on Earth’s equator, you would have no circumpolar Major
constellations at all.
Earth has a slight bulge around its middle
because of its rotation. The gravity of the Sun and
FIGURE 2-5
Moon pull on the bulge, tending to twist Earth’s axis
“upright” relative to its orbit. If Earth were a per- To Polaris
fect sphere, it would not be subjected to this twisting
force. Notice that the analogy to a spinning top is not 23.5°
perfect; gravity tends to make a top fall over, but it Precession
tends to twist Earth upright. In both cases, the twist-

ing of the axis of rotation combined with the rotation Precession
of the object causes precession. The precession of n
atio
Earth’s axis takes about 26,000 years for completing Rot
one cycle (Figure 2-7b).
Because the celestial poles and equator are Earth’s
orbit
defined by Earth’s rotational axis, precession moves
these reference marks. Figure 2-5c shows the appar-
ent path followed by the north celestial pole over a b
thousands of years. You would notice no change at

all from night to night or year to year, but precise
Vega
measurements reveal their slow apparent motion.
Over centuries, precession has significant effects.
Egyptian records show that 4800 years ago the
north celestial pole was near the star Thuban (Alpha 14,000 CE
Draconis). The pole is now approaching Polaris
and will be closest to it in about the year 2100. In
another 12,000 years the pole will have moved to Thuban
Path of
the apparent vicinity of the very bright star Vega north
(Alpha Lyrae). celestial
3000 BCE pole
2-3 THE CYCLE OF THE SUN

The English language defines rotation as the turning
of a body on its axis. Revolution means the motion of Polaris
a body around a point outside the body. Earth rotates c
on its axis, and that produces day and night. Earth
Precession. (a) The rotation axis of a spinning top p recesses in a
also revolves around the Sun, and that produces the
conical motion around the perpendicular to the floor because
yearly cycle. its weight tends to make it fall over. (b) Earth’s axis precesses
around the perpendicular to its orbit because the gravity of
the Sun and Moon acting on Earth’s equatorial bulge tend to
2-3a Apparent Annual Motion of the Sun twist it “upright.” (c) Precession causes the north celestial pole
to move slowly among the stars, completing a circle in about
Even in the daytime the sky is actually filled with
26,000 years.
stars, but the glare of sunlight fills our atmosphere
with scattered
light and you can
see only the brilliant the Sun appears to be moving slowly eastward, rela-
rotation Motion around an axis
passing through the rotating body. blue sky. If the Sun tive to the background of the distant stars, as shown in
were fainter and you Figure 2-6. This apparent motion is caused by the real
revolution Orbital motion could see the stars orbital motion of Earth around the Sun. In early to mid-
about a point located outside the
orbiting body. in the daytime, you January, you would see the Sun in front of the constella-
would notice that tion Sagittarius. By the beginning of March, you would
FIGURE 2-6
Capricornus
Aquarius Sagittarius
Scorpius
Pisces
Libra
Earth’s orbit Sun
Aries
January 1 March 1 Virgo

Taurus
Leo Projection of Earth’s
Gemini Cancer orbit—the ecliptic
Sun
Sun
View from Earth View from Earth
on January 1 on March 1
The motion of Earth around the Sun makes the Sun appear to move against the background of the stars. The circular orbit of
Earth is thus projected on the sky as the ecliptic, the circular path of the Sun during the year as seen from Earth. If you could see
the stars in the daytime, you would notice the Sun crossing in front of the distant constellations as Earth moves along its orbit.
see the Sun in front of Aquarius. Note that your angle relative to its orbit. As you study Concept Art 2B,
of view in Figure 2-6 makes the Earth’s orbit seem very “The Cycle of the Seasons,” notice two important
elliptical when it is really almost a perfect circle. principles:
Through the year, the Sun moves eastward among
1. The seasons are not caused by variation in the distance
the stars following a line called the ecliptic, the appar-
between Earth and the Sun. Earth’s orbit is nearly
ent path of the Sun among the stars. Recall the concept
circular, so it is always about the same distance from
of the celestial sphere; if the sky were a great screen,
the Sun.
the ecliptic would be the shadow cast by the Earth’s
2. The seasons are caused by changes in the amount
orbit. In other words, you can describe the ecliptic
of solar energy that Earth’s Northern and Southern
as the projection of the Earth’s orbit on the celestial
Hemispheres receive at different times of the year,
sphere. Earth circles the Sun in 365.26 days, and, con-
resulting from the tip of the Earth’s equator and axis
sequently, the Sun appears to go around the sky once in
relative to its orbit.
the same period. You don’t notice this motion because
you cannot see the stars in the daytime, but the appar- The seasons are so important as a cycle of growth
ent motion of the Sun caused by a real motion of Earth and harvest that cultures around the world have attached
has an important consequence that you do notice—the great significance to the ecliptic. It marks the center
seasons. line of the zodiac (“circle of animals”), and the motion
of the Sun, Moon, and
the five visible planets
2-3b Seasons (Mercury, Venus, Mars,
ecliptic The apparent path of
the Sun around the sky.
The seasons are caused by the revolution of Earth around Jupiter, and Saturn) are
zodiac A band centered on the
the Sun combined with a simple fact you have already the basis of the ancient ecliptic and encircling the sky.
encountered: Earth’s equator is tipped 23.4 degrees superstition of astrology.
Concept Art 2B
THE CYCLE OF THE SEASONS
1 North celestial pole
You can use the celestial sphere to help you think about the sea-
sons. The celestial equator is the projection of Earth’s equator on Celestial
equator
the sky, and the ecliptic is the projection of Earth’s orbit on the sky.
Because Earth is tipped in its orbit, the ecliptic and equator are Autumnal equinox
inclined to each other by 23.48 as shown at right. As the Sun moves Winter
eastward around the sky, it spends half the year in the southern solstice
half of the sky and half the year in the northern half. That causes
the seasons.
Summer
Ecliptic solstice
The Sun crosses the celestial equator going northward at the 23.4°
point called the vernal equinox. The Sun is at its farthest north Vernal equinox
at the point called the summer solstice. It crosses the celestial
equator going southward at the autumnal equinox and reaches
its most southern point at the winter solstice.
1a
South celestial pole
Event Date* N. Hemisphere

The seasons are defined by the dates when the Sun crosses these Vernal equinox March 20 Spring begins
four points, as shown in the table at the right. Equinox comes from Summer solstice June 22 Summer begins
the word for “equal”; the day of an equinox has equal amounts of Autumnal equinox September 22 Autumn begins
daylight and darkness. Solstice comes from the words meaning Winter solstice December 21 Winter begins
“Sun” and “stationary.” Vernal comes from the word for “green.” The * Give or take a day due to leap years and other factors.
“green” equinox marks the beginning of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere.
risa
Pol
23.4°
To
1b 40°
N la
On the day of the summer sol- titu
de
stice in late June, Earth’s Northern
Hemisphere is inclined toward the
Sun, and sunlight shines almost
straight down at northern lati-
Sunlight nearly direct
tudes. At southern latitudes, sun- on northern latitudes
light strikes the ground at an angle
and spreads out. North America Equ
ato
r
has warm weather, and South To Sun
America has cool weather.
Earth’s axis of rotation points

toward Polaris, and, like a top,
the spinning Earth holds its axis
40°
fixed as it orbits the Sun. On one S la
titu
side of the Sun, Earth’s Northern de
Hemisphere leans toward the
Sun; on the other side of its orbit,
Sunlight spread out
it leans away. However, the direc- NASA
on southern latitudes
tion of the axis of rotation does
Earth at Northern Hemisphere
NASA
not change in the course of a year.

summer solstice
2
Noon sun
Summer solstice
light
West The two causes of the sea-

Sunset sons are shown at right for
C ele
someone in the Northern
s ti a
South North Hemisphere. First, the noon
le
summer Sun is higher in
qu
the sky and the winter Sun
ato
1c Light striking the ground
r
is lower, as shown by the
at a steep angle spreads East Sunrise longer winter shadows.
out less than light striking At summer solstice Thus winter sunlight is
the ground at a shallow angle. Light more spread out. Second,
from the summer solstice Sun strikes the summer Sun rises in the
northern latitudes from nearly over- northeast and sets in the
head and is concentrated. Noon sun northwest, spending more
Sunset West than 12 hours in the sky.
Winter solstice light The winter Sun rises in the
C ele
southeast and sets in the
s ti a
South North southwest, spending less
le
than 12 hours in the sky.
qu Both of these effects mean
ato
Sunrise r that northern latitudes
East receive more energy from
At winter solstice
the summer Sun, and sum-
Light from the winter solstice Sun mer days are warmer than
strikes northern latitudes at a much winter days.
steeper angle and spreads out. The
same amount of energy is spread over
a larger area, so the ground receives
less energy from the winter Sun.
ris
On the day of the

1d
a
Pol
23.4°
winter solstice in late
To
Sunlight spread out December, Ear th’s

on northern latitudes Northern Hemisphere is inclined
away from the Sun, and sunlight
40°
N la strikes the ground at an angle
titu
de and spreads out. At southern
latitudes, sunlight shines almost
straight down and does not
spread out. North America has
cool weather and South America
has warm weather.
Equ
To Sun ato
r Earth’s orbit is only very slightly
elliptical. About January 3, Earth is
Sunlight nearly direct
at perihelion, its closest point to
on southern latitudes the Sun, when it is only 1.7 percent
closer than average. About July 5,
Earth is at aphelion, its most dis-
40° tant point from the Sun, when it is
S la
titu
de
only 1.7 percent farther than aver-
age. This small variation does not
significantly affect the seasons.
Earth at Northern Hemisphere

NASA
winter solstice
any planet in the dawn sky is called a morning
FIGURE 2-7
star. Perhaps the most beautiful is Venus, which
Ec
can become as bright as magnitude −4.7. As Venus
Sunset, looking west
lip
tic
moves around its orbit, it can dominate the western
sky each evening for many weeks, but eventually
its orbit appears to carry it back toward the Sun
as seen from Earth, and it is lost in the haze near
Venus the horizon. A few weeks later you can see Venus
reappear in the dawn sky as a brilliant morning star.
Months later it will switch back to being an evening
star once again.
Mercury
Sun
2-4 C YCLES OF
a
THE MOON
Sunrise, looking east
tic
The Moon orbits eastward around Earth once a

lip
Ec
month. Starting this evening, look for the Moon in

the sky. If it is a cloudy night or if the Moon is in
the wrong part of its orbit, you may not see it; but
keep trying on successive evenings, and within a
week or two you will see the Moon. Then, watch
for the Moon on following evenings, and you will
Venus
see it move along its orbit around Earth, cycling
Mercury through its phases as it has done for billions
of years.
Sun
b 2-4a Motion of the Moon
If you watch the Moon night after night, you will
Mercury and Venus follow orbits that keep them near the Sun, so notice two things about its motion. First, you will
they are visible only soon after sunset or just before sunrise. Venus see it moving relative to the background of stars;
takes 584 days to move from morning sky to evening sky and back
second, you will notice that the markings on its face
again, but Mercury zips around in only 116 days.
don’t change. These two observations will help you
understand the motion of the Moon and the origin
of the Moon’s phases.
The Moon moves rapidly among the constellations.
(See How Do We Know 2-2.) The signs of the zodiac
If you watch the Moon for just an hour, you can see it
are no longer important in astronomy. You can look for
moving eastward against the background of stars by
the planets along the ecliptic appearing like bright stars.
slightly more than its own apparent diameter. Each night
Mars looks quite orange in color. Because Venus and
when you look at the Moon, you will see it is roughly half
Mercury orbit inside Earth’s orbit, they never get far
the width of a zodiac constellation (about 13 degrees) to
from the Sun and are visible in the west after sunset or
the east of its location the night before. This movement
in the east before sunrise, as you can see in Figure 2-7.
is the result of the motion of the Moon along its orbit
Venus can be very
around Earth.
bright, but Mercury
evening star Any planet
is difficult to see near
visible in the sky just after sunset.
the horizon. By tradi-
2-4b The Cycle of Moon Phases
morning star Any planet tion, any planet in the The changing shape of the illuminated part of the
visible in the sky just before
sunrise. sunset sky is called an Moon as it orbits Earth is one of the most easily
vening star , and
e observed phenomena in astronomy. You have surely
How Do We Know? 2-2
Pseudoscience
What is the difference between a science and a
pseudoscience? Astronomers have a low opinion
of beliefs such as astrology, not only because they
are groundless but also because they pretend to be
a science. They are pseudosciences, from the Greek
pseudo, meaning “false.”
A pseudoscience is a set of beliefs that appears
to include scientific ideas but fail to obey the most
basic rules of science. For example, some years ago a
claim was made that pyramidal shapes focus cosmic
forces on anything underneath and might have heal-
Astrology may be the
ing properties. Supposedly, a pyramid made of paper,
oldest pseudoscience.
plastic, or other materials would preserve fruit, sharpen
razor blades, and do other miraculous things. Many
books promoted the idea of the special power of pyra- but because people wanted and expected the claim
mids, and this idea led to a popular fad. to be true, they reported that they slept more soundly.
A key characteristic of science is that its claims can Vague claims based on personal testimony that
be tested and verified. In this case, simple experiments cannot be tested are another sign of a pseudoscience.
showed that any shape, not just a pyramid, protects a Astrology is probably the best-known pseudosci-
piece of fruit from airborne spores and allows it to dry ence. It has been tested over and over for centuries, and
without rotting. Likewise, any shape allows oxidation it doesn’t work. It has been proven beyond a reasonable
to improve the cutting edge of a razor blade. Because doubt that there is no connection between the positions
experimental evidence contradicted the claim and of the Sun, Moon, and planets and people’s personali-
because supporters of that hypothesis declined to aban- ties, or events in their lives. Nevertheless, many people
don or revise their claims, you can recognize pyramid believe in astrology despite contradictory evidence.
power as a pseudoscience. The disregard of contradic- Pseudosciences appeal to our need to understand
tory evidence and alternate explanations is a sure sign and control the world around us. Some such claims
of a pseudoscience. involve medical cures, ranging from using magnetic
Pseudoscientific claims can be self-fulfilling. bracelets and crystals to focus mystical power to aston-
For example, some believers slept under pyrami- ishingly expensive, illegal, and dangerous treatments
dal tents to improve their rest. There is no logical for cancer. Logic is a stranger to pseudoscience, but
mechanism by which such a tent could affect a sleeper, human fears and needs are not.
seen the full moon rising dramatically or a thin cres- 2. The changing shape of the Moon as it passes through
cent moon hanging in the evening sky. Study Concept its cycle of phases is produced by sunlight illuminat-
Art 2C, “The Phases of the Moon,” and notice three ing different parts of the side of the Moon you can
important points: see. You always see the same side of the Moon look-
ing down on you, but the shifting shadows make the
1. The Moon always keeps the same side facing Earth,
“man in the Moon” change moods as the Moon cycles
and you never see the far side of the Moon. “The man
through its phases (see also Figure 2-8).
in the Moon” (some cultures see “the rabbit in the
3. The orbital period of the Moon around the Earth is
Moon” instead) is produced by familiar features on
not the same as the length of a Moon phase cycle.
the Moon’s near side.
Concept Art 2C
THE PHASES OF THE MOON
1
As the Moon orbits Earth, it rotates to keep the same side facing
Earth as shown at right. Consequently you always see the same
features on the Moon, and you never see the far side of the Moon.
A mountain on the Moon that points at Earth will always point at
Earth as the Moon revolves and rotates.
(Not to scale)
First quarter
As seen at left, sunlight always illu-
2 minates half of the Moon. Because

you see different amounts of this
sunlit side, you see the Moon cycle
through phases. At the phase called
Waxing
gibbous Waxing
crescent
“new moon,” sunlight illuminates the far side of the Sunset

Moon, and the side you see is in darkness. At new North
Pole
moon, you can’t see the Moon at all. At full moon,
the side you see is fully lit, and the far side is in Full Midnight Noon New
darkness. How much you see depends on where
Earth’s Sunlight
the Moon is in its orbit.
rotation
Notice that there is no such thing as the “dark side Sunrise
of the Moon.” All parts of the Moon experience day
and night in a monthlong cycle. Waning
crescent
In the diagram at the left, you see that the new Waning
gibbous
moon is close to the Sun in the sky, and the
full moon is opposite the Sun. The time of day
Third quarter
depends on the observer’s location on Earth.
2a The first two weeks of

the cycle of the Moon are
shown below according to
The first quarter moon
is one week through
its position at sunset on 14 successive
Gibbous comes its 4-week cycle. evenings. As the Moon grows fatter
from the Latin word from new to full, it is said to wax
for humpbacked.
Wax
ous ing
g gibb cre
sc e
xin
Wa nt
The full moon is 8 7 6 New moon
2 weeks through 9 5 is invisible
its 4-week cycle. 10 4 near the
11 3 Sun
THE SKY AT SUNSET
12 Days since 2
Full moon new moon
rises at 13 1
sunset 14
East South West
The Moon orbits
3
New moon Sun eastward around
Ecliptic Earth in 27.32 days,
New its sidereal period
moon (pronounced si-
DARE-ee-al). This is how long the
Sagittarius
Scorpius Moon takes to circle the sky once
The Sun and Moon are near
each other at new moon. and return to the same position
among the stars.
One sidereal period A complete cycle of lunar

after new moon phases takes 29.53 days, the
Ecliptic Moon’s synodic period. (Synodic
Moon comes from the Greek words for
Sun
One sidereal period after new moon, “together” and “path.”)
Sagittarius the Moon has returned to the same
place among the stars, but the Sun Scorpius To see why the synodic period is
has moved on along the ecliptic. longer than the sidereal period,
study the star charts at the right.
One synodic period Although you think of the lunar

after new moon cycle as being about 4 weeks long,
Ecliptic it is actually 1.53 days longer than
Sun
4 weeks. The calendar divides the
New year into 30-day periods called
moon months (literally “moonths”) in
One synodic period after new moon,
Sagittarius the Moon has caught up with the Scorpius recognition of the 29.53 day syn-
Sun and is again at new moon. odic cycle of the Moon.
a
You can use the diagram on the opposite page to To think about the changing phases of
determine when the Moon rises and sets at different phases. the Moon, imagine facing the southern
sky, which is where people living in the
TIMES OF MOONRISE AND MOONSET Northern Hemisphere find the ecliptic.
The Moon crosses from west to east
Phase Moonrise Moonset night by night, following the ecliptic.
New Dawn Sunset

First quarter Noon Midnight
Full Sunset Dawn
Third quarter Midnight Noon
2b The last two weeks of

the cycle of the Moon
are shown below by its
The third quarter moon
is 3 weeks through its
position at sunrise on 14 successive 4-week cycle.
mornings. As the Moon shrinks from
full to new, it is said to wane.
Wan
cent ing
g cres gibb
nin ous
Wa
New moon is 22 21 20
invisible 23 19
near the 24 18
sun 25 THE SKY AT SUNRISE 17
26 16
Full moon
27 15 sets at
sunrise
14
East South West
From planet Earth you can see a
FIGURE 2-8 phenomenon that is not visible from
most planets. It happens that the Sun
is 400 times larger than the Moon
and, on the a verage, 390 times farther
away, so the Sun and Moon have nearly
equal apparent diameters. (See The
Small Angle Formula in the Math
Reference Cards MR .) Thus, the Moon
is just about the right size to cover the
bright disk of the Sun and cause a solar
eclipse. In a solar eclipse, it is the Sun
that is being hidden (eclipsed) and the
Moon that is “in the way.”
A shadow consists of two parts,
as you can see in Figure 2-9. The
umbra is the region of total shadow.
For example, if you were in the umbra
of the Moon’s shadow, you would see
no portion of the Sun. The umbra
of the Moon’s shadow usually just
barely reaches Earth’s surface and
covers a relatively small circular zone
(Figure 2-9a). Standing in that umbral
zone, you would be in total shadow,
unable to see any part of the Sun’s sur-
face. That is called a total eclipse, as
Castleski/Shutterstock.com
seen in Figure 2-9b. If you moved into

the penumbra, however, you would
be in partial shadow but could also see
Visual part of the Sun peeking around the
edge of the Moon. This is called a par-
In this sequence of lunar phases, the Moon shrinks from a thin crescent at
tial eclipse. Of course, if you are outside
upper left to the last crescent at lower right. You see the same face of the the penumbra, you see no eclipse at all.
Moon, the same mountains, craters, and plains, but the changing direction of Because of the orbital motion
sunlight produces the lunar phases. of the Moon and the rotation of Earth,
the Moon’s shadow sweeps rapidly
across Earth in a long, narrow path of
2-4c Solar Eclipses totality. If you want to see a total solar eclipse, you must
solar eclipse The event that be in the path of totality. When the umbra of the Moon’s
occurs when the Moon passes Eclipses are due to a seem- shadow sweeps over you, you see one of the most dra-
directly between Earth and the ingly complicated combi- matic sights in the sky—the Sun, totally eclipsed.
Sun, blocking your view of nation of apparent motions
the Sun. The eclipse begins as the Moon slowly crosses in
of the Sun and Moon, yet
front of the Sun. It takes about an hour for the Moon
umbra The region of a shadow they are actually easy to
to cover the solar disk, but as the last sliver of the Sun
that is totally shaded. predict once all the cycles
disappears, darkness arrives in a few seconds. Automatic
are understood. Eclipses
penumbra The portion of streetlights come on, drivers turn on their cars’ headlights,
a shadow that is only partially are also among the most
and birds go to roost. The sky usually becomes so dark
shaded. spectacular of nature’s
you can even see the brighter stars. The darkness lasts
sights you might witness.
The Moon moves on in its orbit and in an hour
FIGURE 2-9
the Sun is completely visible again.
Sometimes when the Moon crosses in
front of the Sun it is too small to fully cover the
Penumbra Sun, and then you would witness an annular
Umbra
eclipse. That is a solar eclipse in which an
annulus (meaning “ring”) of the Sun’s disk
Sunlight is visible around the disk of the Moon. The
eclipse never becomes total; it never quite
gets dark, and you can’t see the faint features
of the solar atmosphere. Annular eclipses
Path of total eclipse occur because the Moon follows a slightly
Moon
a elliptical orbit around Earth. If the Moon is
in the farther part of its orbit during totality,
its apparent diameter will be less than the
apparent diameter of the Sun, and thus you
see an annular eclipse. Furthermore, Earth’s
orbit is slightly elliptical, so the Earth-to-Sun
distance varies slightly, and consequently so
does the apparent diameter of the solar disk,
contributing to the effect of the Moon’s vary-
ing apparent size.
If you plan to observe a solar eclipse,
remember that the Sun is bright enough to
burn your eyes and cause permanent damage if
you look at it directly. This is true whether there
is an eclipse or not. Solar eclipses can be mis-
Daniel Good
leading, tempting you to look at the Sun in spite

b Visual
of its brilliance and thus risking your eyesight.
During the few minutes of totality, the bril-
(a) The umbral shadow of the Moon sweeps over a narrow strip of liant disk of the Sun is hidden, and it is safe
Earth during a solar eclipse. (b) From a location inside the umbral to look at the eclipse, but the partial eclipse
shadow, you would see the Moon cover the bright surface of the Sun phases and annular eclipses can be dangerous
in a total solar eclipse. Note faint features of the Sun’s atmosphere (Figure 2-10). See Figure 2-11 for a safe way to
around the edge of the Moon’s disk.
observe the partially eclipsed Sun. Table 2-1 will
allow you to determine when some upcoming
solar eclipses will be visible from your location.
only a few minutes because the umbra is never more than

270 kilometer (170 miles) in diameter on the surface of 2-4d Lunar Eclipses
Earth and sweeps across the landscape at over 1600 km/hr Occasionally you can see annular eclipse A solar
(1000 mph). On average, the period of totality lasts only the Moon darken and turn eclipse in which the solar
2 or 3 minutes and never more than 7.5 minutes. During copper-red in a lunar photosphere appears around the
totality you can see subtle features of the Sun’s atmo- eclipse. A lunar eclipse edge of the Moon in a bright ring,
or annulus. Features of the solar
sphere, such as red flame-like projections that are visible occurs at full moon when atmosphere cannot be seen during
only during those moments when the brilliant disk of the the Moon moves through an annular eclipse.
Sun is completely covered by the Moon. (The Sun’s atmo- the shadow of Earth.
lunar eclipse The darkening of
sphere will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.) As Because the Moon shines the Moon when it moves through
soon as part of the Sun’s disk reappears, the fainter fea- only by reflected sun- Earth’s shadow.
tures vanish in the glare, and the period of totality is over. light, you see the Moon
A Total Solar Eclipse
Sunlight
The Moon moving

from the right just Pinhole
begins to cross in
front of the Sun.
The disk of the Moon

gradually covers the
disk of the Sun.
Image of
partially eclipsed Sun
A safe way to view the partial phases of a solar eclipse.

Sunlight begins to
dim as more of the Use a pinhole in a card to project an image of the Sun
Sun’s disk is covered. on a second card. The greater the distance between
the cards, the larger (and fainter) the image will be.
not extinguished. In a lunar eclipse, it is the Moon that

is being hidden in the Earth’s shadow and Earth that is
During totality, pink “in the way” of the sunlight.
prominences are If the orbit of the Moon carries it through the
often visible.
umbra of Earth’s shadow, you see a total lunar eclipse,
demonstrated in Figure 2-12a. As you watch the Moon
in the sky, it first moves into the penumbra and dims
slightly; the deeper it moves into the penumbra, the
more it dims. In about an hour, the Moon reaches the
A longer-exposure umbra, and you see the umbral shadow darken part
photograph during of the Moon. It takes about an hour for the Moon
totality shows the
fainter corona.
to enter the umbra completely and become totally
eclipsed. The period of total eclipse may last as long
as 1 hour 45 minutes, though the timing of the eclipse
Daniel Good
depends on where the Moon crosses the shadow.

Visual images
Table 2-2 gives information about some upcoming lunar
eclipses.
This sequence of photos shows the first half of a total
When the Moon is totally eclipsed, it does not
solar eclipse.
disappear completely. Although it receives no direct
sunlight, the Moon in the umbra does receive some
sunlight refracted (bent) through Earth’s atmosphere.
gradually darken as it enters the shadow. If you were If you were on the Moon during totality, you would not
on the Moon and in the umbra of Earth’s shadow, you see any part of the Sun because it would be entirely
would see no portion of the Sun. If you moved into the hidden behind Earth. However, you would be able to
penumbra, however, you would be in partial shadow see Earth’s atmosphere illuminated from behind by the
and would see part of the Sun peeking around the Sun. The red glow from this ring consisting of all the
edge of Earth so the sunlight would be dimmed but Earth’s simultaneous sunsets and sunrises illuminates
TABLE 2-1 TOTAL AND ANNULAR ECLIPSES OF THE SUN, 2017 THROUGH 2024 *
Time of Mid- Maximum Length
Total/Annular Eclipse** of Total or Annular
Date (T/A) (UTC) Phase (Min:Sec) Area of Visibility
2017 February 26 A 14:55 0:44 South America, Atlantic, Africa, Antarctica

2017 August 21*** T 18:27 2:40 Pacific, United States, Atlantic
2019 July 2 T 19:24 4:33 Pacific, South America
2019 December 26 A 05:19 3:39 Southeast Asia, Pacific
2021 June 10 A 10:43 3:51 North America, Arctic
2021 December 4 T 07:35 1:54 Antarctica, South Atlantic
2023 April 20 A/T**** 04:18 1:16 Southeast Asia, Philippines, Indonesia, Australia
2023 October 14 A 18:00 5:17 United States, Central America, South America
2024 April 8 T 18:18 4:28 North America, Central America
2024 October 2 A 18:46 7:25 Pacific, South America
* There will be no total or partial solar eclipses in 2018.

** Times are Universal Time. Subtract 5 hours for Eastern Standard Time, 6 hours for Central Standard Time, 7 hours for Mountain Standard Time, and
8 hours for Pacific Standard Time. For Daylight Savings Time (mid-March through early November), add 1 hour to Standard Time.
*** The next major total solar eclipse visible from the United States will occur on August 21, 2017, when the path of totality will cross the United
States from Oregon to South Carolina.
**** Hybrid eclipse: begins as annular, becomes total, ends as annular.
Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
TABLE 2-2 TOTAL AND PARTIAL ECLIPSES OF THE MOON, 2017 THROUGH 2024
Date Time of Mid-Eclipse (UTC)* Length of Totality (Hr:Min) Length of Eclipse** (Hr:Min)
2017 August 7 18:22 Partial 1:55

2018 January 31 13:31 1:16 3:23
2018 July 27 20:23 1:43 3:55
2019 January 21 05:13 1:02 3:17
2019 July 16 21:32 Partial 2:58
2021 May 26 11:20 0:15 3:07
2021 November 19 09:04 Partial 3:28
2022 May 16 04:13 1:25 3:27
2022 November 8 11:00 1:25 3:40
2023 October 28 20:15 Partial 1:17
2024 September 18 02:45 Partial 1:03
* Times are Universal Time. Subtract 5 hours for Eastern Standard Time, 6 hours for Central Standard Time, 7 hours for Mountain Standard Time, and
8 hours for Pacific Standard Time. For Daylight Savings Time (mid-March through early November), add 1 hour to Standard Time. Lunar eclipses that
occur between sunset and sunrise in your time zone will be visible, and those at midnight will be best placed.
** Does not include penumbral phase.
Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
FIGURE 2-12
b
Motion of Moon
a
During a total lunar eclipse,

the Moon takes a number
of hours to move through
Earth’s shadow.
A cross section of
Earth’s shadow shows
the umbra and penumbra. Sunlight scattered from Earth’s
atmosphere bathes the totally
eclipsed Moon in a coppery glow.
Orbit of
Moon
© 1982 by Dr. Jack B. Marling
To Sun Umbra Penumbra (Not to scale)
A longer exposure was used to record the Moon while it was totally eclipsed. The Moon’s path appears curved in
the photo because of photographic effects.
the Moon during totality and makes it glow coppery red, Lunar eclipses always occur at full moon but not
as shown in Figure 2-12b. at every full moon. The Moon’s orbit is tipped about
If the Moon passes a bit too far north or south of the 5 degrees to the ecliptic, so most full moons cross the
center of Earth’s shadow, it may only partially enter the sky north or south of Earth’s shadow and there is no
umbra, and you see a partial lunar eclipse. The part of lunar eclipse that month (see Figure 2-13). For the
the Moon that remains outside the umbra in the penum- same reason, solar eclipses always occur during new
bra receives some direct sunlight, and the glare is usually moon but not at every new moon. The orientation of
great enough to prevent your seeing the faint coppery the Moon’s orbit in space varies slowly and as a result
glow of the part of the Moon in the umbra. solar and lunar eclipses repeat in a pattern called the
FIGURE 2-13
Full moon
Earth
New moon
Umbral shadows of Earth and the Moon. Because of the tilt of the Moon’s orbit relative to the ecliptic, it is easy for the shadows
to miss their mark at full moon and at new moon and fail to produce eclipses. (The diameters of Earth and the Moon are
exaggerated by a factor of 2 for clarity.)
Saros cycle lasting 18 years and 11 1 3 days. Prehistoric the Moon passes through Earth’s shadow. That is, the
peoples who understood the Saros cycle could pre- eclipse must occur between sunset and sunrise at your
dict eclipses without understanding what the Sun and location to be visible.
Moon really were. Table 2-2 will allow you
to determine when some Saros cycle The 18-year, 11 13 -day
Although there are usually no more than one or
period after which the pattern of
two lunar eclipses each year, it is not difficult to see upcoming lunar eclipses lunar and solar eclipses repeats.
one. You need only be on the dark side of Earth when will be visible.
What Are We? Along for the Ride

We humans are planet-walkers. We live on the surface around its orbit, the changing balance of sunlight
of a whirling planet, and on clear, dark nights we can produces the changing seasons. Winter and summer
look outward into space for billions of light-years. have cycled longer than there have been humans on
Most of the stars we see are actually not very far Earth, and when you watch autumn leaves turn golden
way. They are only hundreds, not billions, of light- you are part of one of the great astronomical cycles of
years from Earth. The vast majority of the stars in the your planet.
Universe are too distant and, consequently, too faint Through it all, the Moon orbits Earth and cultures
to see with the unaided eye. For centuries, human all through history have made it their timepiece. Your
cultures have labeled the visible stars with names and calendar is divided into months recognizing the cycle
divided them into constellations. The constellation of the Moon, and your months are divided into four
Hercules looked down on Plato and Aristotle just as it weeks recognizing the fourfold cycle of the phases.
looks down on you. Busy as you are, take a moment to look up and
Nearly all of the energy Earth receives comes from enjoy the cycles of the sky. They will remind you that
the Sun, and, as Earth spins on its axis and revolves you are a planet-walker.
STUDY
TOOLS 2 ASTRO ONLINE
Visit ASTRO Online at www.cengagebrain.com
◻ Interactive Reading
IN THE BOOK ◻ Practice Quizzing
◻ Tear Out the Review Card on User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns ◻ Videos and Animations
and Cycles. ◻ Exclusive Features
Questions 2
and Problems
REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. You are packing for a vacation on a planet orbiting
another star that is much like the Sun. Why might you
1. What is the difference between an asterism and a want some information about the planet’s orbit size
constellation? Give some examples. and axis tilt to know what to pack?
2. How does the Greek-letter designation of a star give 4. You happen to visit the Moon when some people
you a clue to its brightness? on Earth see a total solar eclipse. Who has a more
3. How did the magnitude system originate in the spectacular experience of this event, you or the friends
classification of stars by brightness? you left behind back on Earth? Why?
4. What does the word apparent mean in apparent visual
magnitude?
5. In what ways is the celestial sphere a scientific model? PROBLEMS
6. If Earth did not rotate, could you define the celestial 1. If light from one star is 40 times brighter (has 40 times
poles and celestial equator? more flux) than light from another star, what is their
7. Where would you go on Earth to place a celestial pole difference in magnitudes? (Hint: See Magnitudes in
at your zenith? the Math Reference Cards MR .)
8. Why does the number of circumpolar constellations 2. If two stars differ by 8.6 magnitudes, what is their
depend on the latitude of the observer? flux ratio? (Hint: See Magnitudes in the Math
9. If Earth did not rotate, could you still define the Reference Cards MR .)
ecliptic? Why or why not? 3. Star A has a magnitude of 2.5; star B, 5.5; and star
10. Why are the seasons reversed in the Southern C, 9.5. Which is brightest? Which are visible to
Hemisphere relative to the Northern Hemisphere? the unaided eye? Which pair of stars has an flux
11. Do the phases of the Moon look the same from every ratio of 16? (Hint: See Magnitudes in the Math
place on Earth, or is the Moon full at different times as Reference Cards MR .)
seen from different locations? 4. By what factor is sunlight brighter than moonlight?
12. What phase would Earth be in if you were on the (Hint: Refer to Figure 2-4, and see Magnitudes in the
Moon when the Moon was full? At first quarter? Math Reference Cards MR .)
At waning crescent? 5. If you are at a latitude of 35 degrees north of Earth’s
13. Why isn’t there an eclipse at every new moon and at equator, what is the angular distance from the
every full moon? northern horizon up to the north celestial pole? From
14. Why is the Moon red during a total lunar eclipse? the southern horizon down to the south celestial pole?
15. How Do We Know? How can a scientific model be 6. Given that Earth is 4.6 billion (4.6 3 109 ) years old,
useful if it isn’t a correct description of nature? how many precessional cycles have occurred?
16. How Do We Know? What are the main characteristics 7. Identify the phases of the Moon if on March 20 the
of a pseudoscience? Can you suggest other examples Moon were located at the position the Sun is located
of pseudoscience not described in the textbook? Can on: (a) March 20, (b) September 22, (c) June 22, and
you suggest other examples? (d) December 21.
8. Identify the phases of the Moon if at sunset in the
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Northern Hemisphere the Moon were (a) near the
eastern horizon, (b) high in the south, (c) in the
1. Using stars from one or more of the “official” southeast, (d) in the southwest.
constellations, create an asterism that is significant 9. Draw a diagram showing Earth, the Moon, and
to the culture of your school. shadows during (a) a total solar eclipse, (b) a total
2. You discover an ancient document that lists the location lunar eclipse, (c) a partial lunar eclipse, and (d) an
of buried treasure as 368 24' 11.9" N by 258 25' 35.4" E. annular eclipse.
You look on a map to see approximately where that is, 10. Phobos, one of the Moons of Mars, has an average
but when you start on your trip you find that your GPS diameter of 22.5 km and orbits 5980 km above the
is broken. How will you know when you’re at the right surface of the planet. What is the angular diameter of
latitude? Much harder question: How will you know Phobos as seen from Mars? (Hint: See The Small-
when you’re at the right longitude? Angle Formula in the Math Reference Cards MR .)
LEARNING TO LOOK 4. Figure 2-15 shows the annular eclipse of May 30, 1984.
How is it different from the annular eclipse shown in
1. To take the photos that are combined on the opening Figure 2-9? Why do you suppose it is different?
page of this chapter, was the photographer located
on the day or night side of the Earth? Was the
photographer in the Moon’s umbra, penumbra, or FIGURE 2-15
both? How do you know?
2. Look at Concept Art 2C. Find the person looking
at the third-quarter phase of the Moon at sunrise.
What percentage of the near side of the Moon is
illuminated? Likewise, what percentage is in the dark?
Repeat the exercise for the new phase of the Moon.
3. Figure 2-14 shows a crescent Moon. Explain why the
Moon could never look this way at night.
FIGURE 2-14
The New Yorker Collection 2006 Tom Cheney from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
Laurence Marschall
Visual
3 The Origin
of Modern
Astronomy
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY/Bridgeman Images

How you would burst out laughing, my dear Kepler, if you would hear what the
greatest philosopher of the Gymnasium told the Grand Duke about me . . .
From a letter by Galileo Galilei
GUIDEPOST This chapter is not just about the history of astron-

omy. As the astronomers of the Renaissance struggled to
The preceding chapters gave you a modern view of Earth. understand Earth and the heavens, they invented a new
You can now imagine how Earth, the Moon, and the Sun way of understanding nature—a way of thinking that is
move through space and how that produces the sights you now called science. Every chapter that follows will use
see in the sky. But how did humanity first realize that we the methods that were invented when Copernicus and
live on a planet moving through space? This realization others grappled with the ancient idea that Earth is the
required the revolutionary overthrow of an ancient and center of the Universe.
honored idea of Earth’s place.
By the 16th century, many astronomers were
becoming uncomfortable with the idea that Earth sat
3-1 ASTRONOMY BEFORE
at the center of a spherical Universe. In this chapter,
you will discover how an astronomer named Copernicus
COPERNICUS
directly challenged that idea, how Galileo Galilei To understand why Copernicus’s work was so impor-
changed the rules of the debate, and how Isaac Newton tant, you first need to backtrack to ancient Greece and
changed humanity’s concept of nature. (See CO 3.) Here meet the two great authorities of ancient astronomy, the
you will find answers to four important questions: brilliant philosopher Aristotle and a later follower of
• How did classical philosophers describe Earth’s place Aristotle’s principles, Claudius Ptolemy, whom you first
in the Universe? met in Chapter 2 Section 2-1c in the context of measuring
• How did Copernicus revise that ancient concept? the brightness of stars.
• Why was Galileo condemned by the Inquisition? Recall from Chapter 1 the differences among Solar
• How did Isaac Newton change the way people thought System, galaxy, and Universe. The early astronomers dis-
about nature and themselves? cussed here didn’t know there were other galaxies. They
CO 3 Galileo’s telescope revealed such things
as craters on the Moon, and he explained how
that evidence could be used to test the prevailing
Earth-centered model of the Universe. He was
condemned by the Inquisition in 1633.
didn’t know that we live inside a galaxy. They didn’t even Study Concept Art 3A, “The Ancient Universe,”
know that the stars were other objects like the Sun. They and notice three important ideas:
thought the entire Universe consisted of Earth, the Sun,
1. Ancient philosophers and astronomers accepted
the Moon, and five moving points of light they called
without question—as first principles— that heav-
planets. Furthermore, they did not know that the plan-
enly objects must move on circular paths at constant
ets are composed of substances much like Earth’s. They
speeds, and that the Earth was motionless at the c enter
imagined that all of this was enclosed inside the celes-
of the Universe. Although a few ancient writers men-
tial sphere that lay just beyond the most distant planet,
tioned the possibility that Earth might move, most of
Saturn. Their entire Universe was quite small, and they
them did so in order to point out how that idea was
imagined that Earth lay at the center.
“obviously” wrong.
2. As viewed by you from Earth, the planets seem to
3-1a Aristotle’s Universe follow complicated paths in the sky, including epi-
Philosophers of the ancient world attempted to deduce sodes of “backward” motion that are difficult to
truth about the Universe by reasoning from first explain in terms of motion on circular paths at con-
principles. A first principle was something that seemed stant speeds.
obviously true to everyone and supposedly needed no 3. Finally, you can see how Ptolemy created an elabo-
further examination. That may strike you as peculiar; rate geometrical and mathematical model to explain
modern thinkers tend to observe how things work and details of the observed
then from that evidence make principles and conclusions motions of the planets first principle
that can always be reexamined. Before the Renaissance, while assuming Earth Something that seems obviously
however, reasoning from evidence (which you might call was motionless at the true and needs no further
examination.
“scientific thinking”) was not widespread. center of the Universe.
CHAPTER 3: The Origin of Modern Astronomy 37
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CHAPTER XIV.
A LITTLE STRANGER COMES ON BOARD.
'SOMEHOW, husband,' said Mrs Paterson to her spouse next day when
they were alone together in the cabin, 'I feel strangely drawn towards that
child, Lotty.'
'She's a charming little thing, I must say. Glad we picked the mite up.'
'But,' continued his wife, 'with me there seems something more than mere
interest, George.'
'What mean you, wife?'
'I wish I could explain to you, but I can't even to myself. But did you
never think, dear, that the very expression of someone, a long time dead and
gone, may be seen again in the face of the living?'
'I can't quite follow you.'
'Neither can I follow myself,' said the good woman, smiling somewhat
sadly; 'but'——
. . . . . . .
This was going to be a real holiday for Lotty, and in her youthful capacity
for pleasure she was going to make the best of it. She had not to beckon
pleasure to come to her, it was coming, and would come without being
asked. The very novelty of her situation and surroundings was enthralling.
She had come or been brought into an entirely new world. It felt as if
Providence or Chance had staged for her a fresh and startling drama—new
scenery, new acting, new everything—and she had nothing to do but wait
and look on and be glad.
The weather got wilder, the skies harder and clearer, each wave that
passed, as it swirled and broke, sang to itself in the blue and frosty air. Even
the spray that dashed inboard fell rattling on the skylights like hail, and
sometimes quite a little snowstorm raged on the deck, the powdery snow
forming into small, shapely drifts against the coiled ropes or the green-
painted lower bulwarks.
For the first day or two Ben appeared shy and half-afraid of Lotty. To him
she was a being from another world, such as he had only read of in fairy-
story books. But he soon got over his timidity, and was bent apparently on
becoming her slave, was pleased to explain things to her, and assist her in
every way his somewhat slow nature might suggest. Then when she went off
to stroll arm-in-arm with the mate, whom she liked much better, he would
lean himself slantingly—as you might lean a garden-fork that you didn't
want to fall—against the lee bulwarks amidships, and dreamily watch her
every look and movement.
When she would come towards him at last he was all alive again, and as
eager-eyed and sprightly as a sheep when she sees the lamb she has to
protect. Perhaps the conversation was a trifle slow, because she had to pull
him into it. Ben wasn't very suggestive. Nevertheless, his somewhat dull
eyes sparkled with delight, and his face became transformed, in a manner of
speaking, when he found that he could give Lotty information and interest
her in things. Beauty has a wonderful power if it be beauty of the right sort,
consisting not merely in a lovely complexion, eyes, hair, and features, and a
nice figure, but all these etherealised—nay, but glorified—by refinement,
intellect, and innocence. Such a child as Lotty, wholly insensible of the
charm that surrounded her, was likely to, and did, make friends wherever she
went. And it is better to make friends than conquests.
'You've been up this way before, Ben, haven't you?'
'Ah! lots o' times.'
Silence for some seconds.
'Have you a full name? Ben isn't surely all.'
'A fool name, little un?'
'I mean what more than Ben is it?'
'Ah, lots, but I doesn't trot 'em out every day.'
'Ben what, then?'
'No, not Ben Watten, but Benjamin Thorley Metcalfe Evans Bradley; only
they's all melted down to Ben aboard ship.'
'Have you ever been farther north, Benjamin Thor'——
'Oh don't, little missie. Ben's the 'andle they allers lifts I by. Yes, been to
Archangel an' Iceland an' Spitzbergen 'arf a dozen times.'
'Were you always second-mate?'
'Lo'd no! Dog-boy fust, then slush-boy, then dirty-devil all over the ship,
then stooard's boy, then doctor'——
'Doctor?'
'Ay, missie, wot cooke the 'orse, an' fries the panhaggledy, an' biles the
spuds an' the dollop o' duff.'
'How very interesting!'
More silence.
'It must be wild and dreary on the sea of ice and snow, and so cold I
should freeze to death.'
'Bless yer little 'eart, I tells ye it's just skir-r-rumptious up near wot they
calls the Pole, though I never did see un—nary a pole.'
As he spoke Ben hung himself up, as it were, on a belaying-pin against
the bulwark, and Lotty stood looking at him. But he didn't look at her, only
beyond her or over her, for if he had looked right into her face or eyes I'm
certain the boy couldn't have spoken a sensible sentence.
'Just skir-r-rumptious! An' those hartist chaps wot 'drors pictures o'
hicebergs in books knows nuffin' whatsomediver about it; no more nor they
does about their Bibles. Goin' out north that way it's cold enough at fust, like
to freeze yer face like heverythink, an' if yer didn't watch the barber 'e'd
precious soon cut yer nose right clean hoff.'
'Do you carry a barber?'
‘’E comes an' carries 'isself—comes on board w'en the fermometer's
worked away down zero-ways. 'E ain't no man this barber, honly a white
mist wot rises off a calm an' frosty sea like the steam from a pot w'en she's
beginnin' to boil; an', oh, 'e's a sneezer! 'E 'ardens the beef in the riggin', an'
the sheets an' the stays as well, an' 'e 'eats the brass-work an' steel till they
burns worse nor 'ot pokers if ye're grampus enough to touch 'em. An' 'e
covers the decks an' the skylights an' the boats an' bulwarks, an' man an'
beast as well, till the dog's like a Polar bear, an' all 'ands looks like
Methuselahs, with white beards an' 'air an' heyelashes. That's wot the barber
does, does 'e. But mebbe the sun shines after this. Then heverybody grows
young again hall of a suddint, an' the barber flies north to the Pole.'
'Is the ice all like castles and steeples and pinnacled mountains?'
'Honly in pictur'-books, missie.'
'Plenty of skating, I suppose?'
'Lo'd love ye, no. 'Cause as 'ow the big flat or round-topped bergs is hall
covered feet-deep in snow.'
'Beautiful white snow, Ben?'
She was looking at him eagerly, earnestly. Little though he knew it, this
rough, illiterate sailor-boy was showing her glimpses of a new world, which
to her young poetic imagination must be all a kind of fairyland.
He cast one glance at the sweet face beside him, then hitched himself
more firmly on to the belaying-pin and swayed about for a moment in
evident shyness.
'Beautiful white snow, Ben, boy. It must be like Elfinland.'
'Never been there myself, missie—to Helfinland I means, though I've
'eard speak o' it. Ye lands from a ship in a boat like, an' as ye gets nearer an'
nearer to the pack-edge o' the big drearisome floes the sea hall around yer
gets blacker an' blacker till it's just like ink w'en it laps an' laps ag'in' the
rainbow ribbon o' icy shore.'
'But it isn't really black, Ben? Don't say it's really black, Ben—the water,
I mean.'
'Oh no, missie, it is clear as dew on a rose-leaf, an' it trickles from the
oar-blades like diamonds in the sun. Then there is the sky, as blue an' clear it
is, just like the 'eaven th' ould pa'son speaks about, only brighter. An' there's
the birds—they's beautiful too, 'specially the snow-birds that come so close
ye can look into their clear, red eyes, an' could almost shake their cold feet.
'An' w'en ye does land an' goes wanderin' hall by yerself away over the
'ard, crisp snow, ye mebbe meets a bear; but the bright sun's in 'is black eyes,
an' 'e just looks at ye an' goes on, for there be seals to catch, an' bladders an'
wallies,[E] an' 'e don't want to eat no hooman bein' s'long's 'e can get wallies.
But ye goes on an' on.'
'All by yourself, Ben, of course.'
'Well, if ye likes to put it that way. On an' on over sparklin' snow, with the
black sea away somew'ere behind, ye don't seem to ken nor care 'ow far,
'cause hevery breath ye breathes is liquid life, an' ye'd raither not look back.
There ye sits ye down on a 'ummock an' startles now to find the sea 'as gone.
That's the wu'st o' walkin' on the hice, ye walk so far an' never gets tired. Ye
doesn't min' bein' alone at fust, but after hours it begins to pall on ye, for the
silence is fearsome, an', like the cold, creeps up about the 'eart; the sun won't
speak to ye, the snow won't talk, an' the birds 'as flown away.'
'But the sea,' said Lotty, 'the sea, Ben?'
'Just like a whisper o' a far-away wind. But the sea is away, an' ye shades
yer eyes to look for it. It's gone, an' yer ship. Only a white mist lies yonder,
an' it rolls up an' creeps up slowly but sure, an' ye know the mist means
death. At fust ye're frightened, an' wish to run to'ards it an' fling yerself at it
as a man does at a ghost. Then ye screams an' wants to run, then ye sees
snowflakes a-fallin' at the other side o' ye, an' ye know then ye're in it, an'
'elpless. But something is shuttin' down yer heyelids, an' a sleep an' a dream
ye thinks would be very pleasant—especially the dream. It's the dream that
does it, the dream that drags ye into death.'
'Into death, Ben? Death in your fairyland?'
'Ay, death, missie, as sure as hever it came to a barn-door fowl, unless
they finds ye. Then, missie, the fust-mate brings ye up out o' the dream an'
out o' the death with a bally rope's-endin' for leavin' the boat.'
. . . . . . .
The ship sailed northwards and north, and King Winter now met the
Nor'lan' Star in icy earnest, for they passed through great fields of half-
melted snow that took the way quite out of her, and caused the sails to flap,
despite the wind, which, however, was none too favourable. Then there was
more blue-black polished sea, rendered blacker still when streams of
icebergs, mostly snow-clad, met them and bombarded the ship on both sides
with deafening noise as they sailed through. But there were bigger pieces,
and one was a gigantic white berg with clear, icy sides glittering green and
crimson, and on this lay a poor little lost sealkin.
Kind-hearted Paterson lowered the dingy after getting the mainsail aback,
and Lotty jumped with joy when she was asked if she would like to go. How
very large and dark the hull of the Nor'lan' Star appeared as they pulled
away from her quarter, and the waves now seemed higher than Lotty could
have believed possible! They rose and fell, playing such queer capers, racing
the dingy, pretending to poop her, changing their minds, and lifting her sky-
high only to hurl her down again into the blackness between two seas! So
Lotty had to keep her eyes fixed on the berg and the sleeping sealkin to
make sure they were advancing. But when she looked about, the Nor'lan'
Star seemed miles away.
The mate was steering.
'She won't forget and sail away and leave us, will she?' said Lotty.
'I don't think so, my dear, else we'll have to do what four of us did once
when we were cast away on an iceberg like that, only a trifle bigger. And
there was a seal on it too, else we couldn't have lived for three long weeks as
we did.'
'Did you kill it and eat it?'
'Oh dear no, Lotty. We found out a trick worth two o' that.
'We hauled up the boat after capturing that saddle-back, not that she was
much use, but she would do as a kind of bedroom you know, although she
wouldn't float. She would keep the cold wind off us, and it is warmer
sleeping on planks than on snow.
'Well, Lotty, we hadn't much to eat the first day, and slept but badly after
it. The second day we had less, and then we began to starve—ay, and would
have starved, too, but for an idea that Nat Pringle got hold of. For the saddle-
back had gone. "I have it, mates," he said. Then he got straight up and
walked to the boat, and back he comes with a big net and a long rope. We lay
and watched after sunset, for it was early in the Greenland year, and by-and-
by up comes the seal, and Nat lays hold on it quick, and in two minutes it
was dressed in the net, as you might dress a doll, nothing out 'cept the head,
the flippers, and the tail. That was a weary night, but joy came in the
morning. "I'm off," says the seal, turning head on to the water. "Oh, are ye?"
says Nat. "Well, good-day, and pleasant voyage to you."
'Away goes the seal, but the long rope was fastened by one end to the net
behind its shoulder, and Nat kept firm hold of the other. "Hallo!" says the
seal to himself after he had swam about thirty yards, "I'm fast, it seems.
Well," he says, "I may as well have my breakfast anyhow."
'So he dives like an eel, and up he comes with a fine big cod in the jaws
of him, and Nat and another hand bent on to that rope, and before you could
have said marling-spike they had landed seal and cod all complete.
'The saddler put down the cod, looking a kind of discomfited like. "Oh,
ye can go back again, my birkie," says Nat, "and have your own breakfast.
This will last us for the day."
'And sure enough we killed and cooked the cod, and the seal had fair
enough play, for he was left to fill himself in the sea till we had picked the
last bone. And every day we did the same, all the time we lay on that berg.
And it wasn't cod every day either; oh no, as often as not 'twas salmon, or
hal'but, or young sturgeon.
'But all the while that iceberg was getting smaller and beautifully less, but
at long last a merciful Providence sent a steamer our way, and so you see
—— Easy pulling, boys! Way enough. There we are!—Jump on shore, Ben,
and hand up the little lady.'
The seal was a baby one, and as lovely as a young lamb, and looked for
all the world like a pretty infant swathed up to the eyes in soft white flannel.
Only, no baby in all the wide world ever had such large and melting eyes.
'You've pulled well, lads,' said the mate, 'and all against the current too.
So you can have fifteen minutes of a rest, a smoke, and a tot of rum each,
then we'll start for off again.'
Lotty was charmed. She wanted to play at a game of romance, so she
lifted the baby seal in her arms and went away with it to a hummock of snow
on this great berg, quite out of hearing of anybody, and sat down with
nothing before her except the world-wide waste of ocean that went
stretching away without break to the haze of the limitless northern horizon.
She was trying to fancy herself all alone on the sea of ice, with only her
fairy godmother who had for the time being turned herself into a beautiful
wee baby sealkin.
CHAPTER XV.
'I WANT TO DREAM THAT DREAM AGAIN.'
T HE baby sealkin became a great pet on board and a kind of bond of

union between Ben and Lotty. This sailor wasn't much over sixteen, just
young enough still to delight in a game of make-believe. So he was papa
and Lotty was mamma to young Norlans. And without a doubt, Norlans was
the sweetest and the prettiest and the best-behaved baby that ever lived, and
boy and girl nursed it time about—that is, when Ben's watch wasn't on deck
Norlans's fur was so long that it had to have a bib when it was being fed.
There wasn't a cow on board, but there were lots of condensed milk and
gulls' eggs, and a sop was made of these, which his little lordship
condescended to suck up as long as Lotty kept a finger in his mouth and his
nose in the bowl, but no longer. But he also had fresh fish, for they got
becalmed on a sandbank, which no doubt had been an island once upon a
time in the world's history, and Norlans's daddy got out his lines, and, baiting
his hooks with only little tufts of gulls' white feathers, soon caught a tubful.
The small ones were all kept alive to feed Norlans, and the pretty mite
seemed to grow in strength and even size every day after this.
As the captain's wife was fond of pets of all kinds she made no objection
to Lotty's taking Norlans down to the saloon and to the stateroom or
sleeping-cabin every night. The latter was occupied now only by Mrs
Skipper—as the men called her—and our heroine, Ben having been banished
forwards, so that the mate had his bunk, and Paterson had the mate's cabin.
It is a fine thing for a sea-captain to be allowed to take his wife with him.
It is romantic too, and makes a honeymoon last for years, if not for ages.
Before getting spliced, which he was wise enough not to do until he was a
full-blown master-mariner, Paterson had always looked forward to having
his Maggie with him at sea. It had been the dream of his life, and lo! it was
fulfilled, the fact being that the sailor had worked out its fulfilment. When
visiting his fiancée while only a mate he used to sing to her snatches of an
old song which I have almost forgotten; but one verse runs through my brain
as I write:
Here in my proud ship
Upon the waters wide,
I roam with a glad heart,
Maggie's by my side;
My own love, Maggie dear,
Sitting by my side;
Maggie dear, my own love,
Sitting by my side.
Well, Norlans had any amount of nursing and really appeared to like it. If
Lotty put him down on the quarterdeck he used to make the most ungainly
efforts to waddle after her, often rolling over on his broad back in a very
ridiculous attitude. He liked to be scratched under the chin and beneath the
ear. He liked better to be nursed by his ma than his daddy; for when Lotty
would say to Ben, 'Here, papa, you take Norlans for a bit,' the mite would
roll those marvellous eyes of his round at the rough boy, then back
pleadingly towards the gipsy lass's face; and if she said, 'Well, well, then, he
sha'n't be taken by daddy,' he would nestle closer to Lotty, and soon be fast
asleep. As Ben said, he could do with bucketfuls of sleep.
With fur four inches deep, one wouldn't have thought Norlans could have
felt cold at night; but he was not averse, nevertheless, to be put to bed in his
small tub rolled up in a red blanket. Then Lotty would sit down on a
footstool beside him, and sing a cradle-song till he dropped off into 'little
sweet snores' as she called them, and he never stirred till morning. Was he
not, therefore, the best baby that ever lived?
The days were very short up north in these seas. A steamer would have
been into her port long ago; but the Nor'lan' Star had to wait for the wind.
Only, Lotty rather liked the length of the voyage than otherwise. By the time
Saturday came round she had been nearly a week on board. Well, the skipper
was fond of old-fashioned seaways, so he was wont to splice the main brace
on this night, which means that all hands have extra grog and spend the
evening singing and yarning and drinking to wives and sweethearts.
But Lotty had put Norlans to bed early, and was going herself soon after
she had a warm bath. It was while assisting her that Mrs Paterson made a
discovery which caused her to start and turn first red and then pale.
'Dear Mrs Captain, you're not ill, are you?'
'Oh no,' said the good lady, 'only a momentary spasm. Now it is gone.'
There was electric light in this cabin, which was really one of the prettiest
staterooms any master-mariner could have wished to have. Of course his
wife was the presiding genius; but without being at all overcrowded, because
all the fittings were of fairy-like dimensions, it was really home-like and
charming. Besides, a dear wee brass-domed stove burned cheerily in a
corner, and altogether it was as much like the interior of a caravan as
anything else.
To-night, after Lotty had got into her dressing-gown and hammock-socks,
Mrs Paterson sat down on a low rocking-chair close to the fire, and took her
on her knee. And there was a nice drink for both of them keeping hot on the
stove-top, so one may easily guess they were cosy.
The skipper and mate were smoking and yarning outside in the saloon;
but from the stateroom their voices sounded only like the happy murmur of
the sea on a summer's beach.
What was the discovery the good lady had made? It was a birth-mark—
nay, but two. And although such marks might be similar on two different
people, so strange a coincidence has never, perhaps, been known. And so
Mrs Skipper thought she knew now some secret of Lotty's history that the
child herself was ignorant of.
A rocking-chair at sea is a delightful contrivance when the weather is
fine, as it was to-night, and this one was swayed or swung only by the
vessel's gentle motion. It is a dreamy, drowsy movement; but there was no
thought of sleep in Lotty's mind at present, nor in Mrs Paterson's. Lotty
would have preferred to listen to a story or to hear a song.
'Sure I'm not too heavy, nursie?'
'Oh no,' was the answer, 'you are very light. Besides, darling, it is not the
first time that'—— Then she checked herself, and Lotty undertook to finish
the sentence.
'Not the first time you've nursed a little girl, you were going to say.'
'Ye-es,' assented the other.
Lotty snuggled closer to her.
'I wish you were my mother. But I never had a mother, never, never,
never. May I call you mammy?'
'You may call me mammy.'
Lotty had not seen that tear. This strange child had her sentimental
moments, and had come through grief enough, goodness knows; but
somehow mirth was never far away from sorrow.
'So now,' she cried, 'I have a ma, and Norlans has a grandma.'
'Lotty, think now,' said Mrs Skipper, 'were you always, always a little
gipsy lass? Think back child.'
The girl sat up more, to look the better at the kindly face and eyes.
'Always,' she said slowly. 'Only,' she added, 'there have been times when,
if I happened to be in the house of some rich and beautiful lady, reading her
palm you know, mammy, I've thought it strange that many things I saw,
which most gipsy girls might not have known the use of, were to me quite
familiar.'
'Yes?'
'The first harp I saw did not seem to have been the first. When asked to
play the piano, nothing about it struck me as new, and I felt familiar with
even the smallest of my drawing-room surroundings.'
'Yes?'
'But I know how to account for all that.'
'Well, dear?'
'It all comes, mammy, of reading books of romance and stupidity; and
some such stories I quite believed when quite a little tot, especially about the
baronet's baby-boy who was stolen by a bad sweep, and who, years and
years afterwards, was called to a great house to sweep chimneys and found
his real mother, and lived happy ever after. But I'm wiser now, mammy dear.
Now, mammy, will you do the first thing I ask you?'
'Yes, child.'
'Well, look there! I've finished my nice drink, and now sing me a song,
and I'll fall as sound asleep as your grandchild Norlans. Then don't wake me,
but just lift me into bed.'
Mammy had a sweet voice, and knew also how to modulate it, so softly,
tenderly she sang:
THE WIDOW'S LULLABY.
O safely sleep, my bonnie, bonnie bairn,

Rock'd on this breast o' mine,
The heart that beats sae sair within
Will not, will not awaken thine.
Lie still, lie still, ye cankered thochts,
That such late watches keep,
And if ye break the
Sleep on, sleep on, my ae ae bairn,
Nor look sae wae on me,
As if ye felt the bitter tear
That blin's thy mammie's e'e.
Dry up, dry up, ye saut, saut tears,
Lest on my bairn ye dreep,
And break in silence, waefu' heart,
And let my baby sleep.
If you know it not, oh reader! take lute or viol and learn it.
At the second verse Lotty had really dropped off to sleep; but as the last
words died in cadence soft and sad away she started and shook back her
yellow hair. Her open eyes had a strange wildness in them.
'Where—oh, where am I?'
Then she smiled and seemed to recover consciousness wholly; but she
squeezed mammy's arm against her chest with a vice-like grip as she gazed
into her face.
'Mrs Captain,' she cried, 'mammy then, I've had such a strange, strange
dream. I thought—but never mind, only tell me this: Did you ever sing that
strange song to me before? I have never heard it, and yet, mammy, I have.
How is that? Can you explain?'
Mammy did not reply at once.
'I think—I—can—Lotty, child,' she answered slowly. Then more quickly,
'Oh yes, dear, when you have been asleep, I dare say I did sing it to myself,
and you have half-heard me.'
'Yes, mammy, yes. That must be the explanation. But now, kiss me and
put me to bye-bye. I want to dream that dream again.'
CHAPTER XVI.
SAFELY BACK TO ENGLAND.
T HERE are such things as happy ships still in the merchant service of this
country, in which the crew are all, or nearly all, British men, and the
captain and mate honest fellows and not tyrants. English or Scotch
sailors work well for officers like these, and a bad word is never heard on the
ship's decks.
The Nor'lan' Star had scarcely changed a hand of her crew for several
years. They were like a family in fact. Every one knew his duty and did it.
When any dispeace occurred the matter was brought before the captain—of
course his word was law; and if there existed a malcontent on board he was
very speedily got rid of, for a tainted sheep affects a flock.
But, somehow, when a captain takes his wife with him the whole tone of
a ship is raised many degrees. But, over and above all this, Captain Paterson
owned the ship, or most of her, for the mate and some others had shares, and
this arrangement caused things to pull together better. This honest skipper
was a good example of what industry and carefulness in business can
accomplish, and love with honour, I may add; for he would have told you
that the best thing ever he did was marrying Maggie, and taking her to sea
with him.
Well, the Nor'lan' Star reached Trondhjem at last; and as the men were
not drunkards, but knew how to use without abusing God's gifts, every man
settled to work, and with the help of dockmen the unloading and the loading-
up again proceeded regularly and peacefully enough, and was all over in a
week. Then the orders were to clean ship before the granting of a few days'
leave off and on to the watches. In a very short time all signs of the loading-
up were obliterated, and from stem to stern the Nor'lan' Star looked as sweet
and clean as a new half-crown.
Ben and the mate had been very busy up till now, but Mrs Skipper had
taken Lotty on shore several times. The town, with its great cathedral, was in
its winter garb; but they found the streets regular and wide, and even pretty,
the older houses being of wood, plain in architecture, but very quaint. There
were many fine shops too, and the people therein were kindly in the extreme.
Everything here, especially about the suburbs, was very strange and foreign-
like, but with none of the fussiness found in French ports, where it is mostly
all palaver and insincerity. All her life at present was what, in the case of
busy men who have been laid aside for a time by illness, doctors call 'an
enforced holiday.' But it was a very delightful and restful one. She was free
for a time from the drudgery of show-work, of having to sing and act to
crowds of gaping rustics and others; free from the bullying and ill-treatment
of her father, Biffins Lee. She only wished that Wallace had been with her
now. As for the others—well, they would like her better when she came back
from a watery grave, or, more plainly, when the sea gave up the one they all
believed dead and gone.
But Wallace, what fun he would have had with little baby Norlans, and
how he would have rolled him up and down the deck, but gone to sleep
afterwards with the sealkin in his arms, like the good dog he was! A tub,
both she and Mrs Skipper admitted, was an awkward and somewhat
unsightly cot for the sealkin, so they had a look round the toy-shops, and at
one they found an assortment of dolls as big as the baby-children of Anak
must have been.
The shop-mistress curtsied and smiled, and felt certain the young lady
would buy one. She raised a garishly dressed specimen as she spoke, which
was half-doll, half-golliwog, and hideously ugly. But Lotty was not
impressed. She was too old, she said, for dolls like that; but had the good
woman bassinets for these?
'Oh yes,' she had, 'lovely little cradles, with rockers and all. Look!'
Lotty did look, and was delighted. These were just the thing for Norlans.
How sweet he would show in one of these, with its tiny cushion, its muslin
drapery, and its blanket of blue! And so one was bought and sent on board.
That night Norlans was put to bed in it. Lotty sat down and rocked her baby;
and as she rocked she sang a pretty cradle hymn:
'Baloo, baloo, my wee wee thing,
Oh, softly close thy blinkin' e'e;
Baloo, baloo, my dear wee thing,
Now thou art doubly dear to me.
Thy face is simple, sweet, and mild,
Like ony simmer evenin' fa';
Thy sparklin' e'e is bonny black,
Thy neck is like the mountain snaw.
Baloo, baloo, baloo.'
And baby Norlans was willing to give himself up entirely to the luxury of
the situation, and was soon sound enough asleep.
Then daddy Ben was called in—he had to walk on tiptoe—to take just
one peep at him.
'Isn't he just lovelier than anything on earth, papa?' said Lotty.
'Lovelier,' replied Ben, 'than biled cockles, and every bit as white and
clean.'
A day or two after this Lotty ran on deck when Ben was hung up as usual
on a belaying-pin, the ship having been put to sea again, and it being the
lad's watch off.
'Oh papa,' she cried, pretending to be awfully excited, 'you are to run
down below at once. Grandma says Norlans has cut a "toofams."'
Of course a 'toofams' meant a tooth; and Ben, keeping up the game, went
below at once and found it was the truth, and was wise enough to go into
raptures over the pearly little appearance.
But, happy though his home was, it was evident enough that the sealkin
retained a good deal of nature about him, and would fain have obeyed the
call of the wild, and plunged right away down into the clear sunny sea, a
blink of which he could catch through one of the scupper-holes on the lee
side. And always now, when taken on deck for what Lotty termed his
constitutional, it was towards a lee scupper-hole he crawled or waddled his
way, and seemed never to tire watching the waves. Sometimes when there
was a freshening breeze, with plenty of sail on her, the sea would gurgle up
as she dipped to leeward, and some portion would be under water. Then
Norlans spread his flippers at once and made pretence to swim, and had to
be taken away to be towelled and placed in the sunshine to dry.
It was about this time that Mrs Skipper had a quiet talk with her husband,
and told him about those curious birth-marks, and what she half-suspected,
and what she was going to do about it. Even the mate was taken into
confidence and his advice asked. But he had not much to give. He really was
both innocent and good, but knew more about handling a ship than anything
else.
'Seems to me, Mrs Captain,' this was all he said, 'as how it is a 'tarposition
o' Providence from first to last. And He—the great Power above us all—
does move in a mysterious way His wonders to perform.'
'Well,' said Mrs Paterson, 'you are both men-people and have your reason
to guide you. I am only a woman-person, and have merely my instinct; but,
Providence here or Providence there, something tells me that a great wrong
has been done to that dear child, and mebbe we may be put in the way to
redress it.'
'That is,' said the mate solemnly, 'if your suspeecions is right, Mrs
Captain. If they's wrong, then'——
'Well, then, of course, there will be no harm done, only we must take
good care to say nothing to Lotty one way or another till we see.'
'That's right, that is right, Mrs Captain; and I'm truly glad I've given you
good advice, which I hope you won't be above thinking over.'
As the honest mate had given no advice, one way nor another, it certainly
would not take very long to think it over.
That was a somewhat rough and stormy passage homewards; but the
wind was for the most part fair, and under such circumstances she 'skeeted'
along like a water-witch, and in due time the cliffs of Old England hove in
sight far off on the lee-bow, lying along like a gray cloud on the horizon.
Lotty could scarcely believe she was so near, for the voyage out had been
a lengthy one, and so many things had happened since she was picked up by
the Nor'larn' Star that she felt quite a year older at the very least.
That last evening the boy Ben was very sad indeed.
'Which,' he said to Lotty, 'we've 'ad a 'igh old time of it, missie; but lor!
it's gone now, and we'll maybe never see ye in life again—no, nor Norlans
either.'
'Oh,' said Lotty, with an attempt at good-humour, 'Norlans will be a big
boy before he sees his papa again. I'm going to take him to camp, and some
day, perhaps, his daddy will come right away down to see him, and his
mammy also.'
'Am just a-goin' to live an' dream about that day, Miss Lotty; an' who
knows but that when I'm a capting of a big ship you may not sail along o' me
again.'
'Who knows?' answered the gipsy lass.
And the last thing the girl saw as she left by the gangway, which led over
several vessels before she could reach the quay, was second-mate Ben
gazing sorrowfully after her. There were tears in his eyes, too, that he had no
need to be ashamed of.
And there was more than he looked after the little gipsy lass, and waved
her a hearty good-bye, for her presence on board had really brought light and
joy to many a man of the Nor'lan' Star.
There was nothing at present to keep Mrs Captain Paterson on the vessel,
so she went with Lotty back home to her house in the outskirts. About all
Lotty's luggage was Norlans in the bassinet, and that had been sent on before
by a trusty messenger. There was a beautiful garden here, but just exactly
what Norlans thought of it may never be recorded; for he was to be taken to
the camp anyhow, and would be more at home within sound of the sea.
. . . . . . .
Just two days after this, Frank Antony Blake received a letter, and was a
very happy man. It enclosed a note for Mr Biffins Lee. The letter to Antony
was quite a girl's, round-hand, language, and all; but so innocent, for it gave
Antony orders which he was to pass on to Mary, with a detailed list of the
articles of clothing she was to forward to care of Captain Paterson of the
bark Nor'lan' Star, Hull, and the amount of money Mary was to ask Biffins
for and send with the things.
It is needless to say there was joy now in the camp, and somehow it
seemed to communicate itself even to Wallace the Newfoundland. We never
know just how much a dog understands. Mary was daft with delight. Chops
was 'blubbering'—an ugly word; but it was one of the fat boy's own, and
when interpreted means 'weeping.' For it is not grief only which is capable of
bringing salt tears to one's eyes.
Frank Antony Blake did not take long to make up his mind as to what he
should do on this occasion. He thought, anyhow, that a railway journey
would do him no harm; but really, when he arrived at last, and Lotty threw
herself right into his arms to do a good cry, he thought it was the most
natural thing in the world to fold her to his breast.
He did not like Hull, simply because he did not like cities; and so, after
thanking, and more than thanking, the captain, his wife, and mate for all
their kindness to Lotty, and hoping to meet them again, he took first-class
tickets, and soon the fast train was bearing them back to the north, baby
Norlans and all. He had wired to Crona to have Wallace at the cottage, and
she had gone over on purpose to bring the faithful dog to her hut.
But no pen could portray the delight of this dear fellow when he was sent
off with a rush and a run to meet Lotty and Antony slowly winding their way
uphill to Crona's cottage.
CHAPTER XVII.
LIFE ON THE ROAD IN THE 'GIPSY QUEEN.'
F RANK ANTONY BLAKE had certainly not been hard upon the
handsome banking account which his father had so generously placed at
his disposal when he told him to go and have his fling for a few years, or
until he should come of age. Perhaps Antony was neither better nor worse
than the average modern son. For, of course, there are modern sons as well
as modern fathers; but the sin of extravagance was not one that could be laid
to this young fellow's charge. He liked to have one penny to rattle against
another simply for comfort's sake. Luxuries he considered rather effeminate,
and could do without them.
Now, however, he was going to let the wind into his banking account to
the extent of purchasing a team of four as good horses as could be had in the
Granite City, to which he paid a visit. He had been among horses all his life,
and knew a horse at sight, and to him a horse was not merely 'an animal with
a leg at each corner,' as it is to some. He advertised for what he wanted.
'That's biz, my son,' Biffins Lee had told him. 'Nothing done without
advertising.'
He had swarms of answers, from 'legs' and others. It may be of some
interest to know that a 'leg' is a worthless kind of scoundrel, with a straw in
his mouth, who deals in horses and everything else that will enable him to
turn a dishonest penny over. He calls his innocent victim a 'mug,' and when
he finds one, he sets about the operation of playing him at once. There was
very little of the 'mug' about Antony, and the fellows who tried to cheat him
had to retire early, defeated. He succeeded at last in securing a team which it
would have been difficult to beat anywhere, also a capital coachman as well
as a groom. This last was a young and modest young fellow, whom, from his
very looks, Antony concluded he could easily put up with, and he was not
disappointed. He was to follow the caravans or be with and about them on
his bike, assist the coachman, and with the latter put up every night at the
hotel or inn at which the horses should rest.
Antony returned from the city bringing his nags and servants with him,
and the whole were put under canvas until things were ready. And Biffins

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ASTRO 3: Introductory Astronomy -

Here and Now

User’s Guide to the Sky:

Reading YOUR Way Studying YOUR Way Learning YOUR Way

www.cengage.com/4LTRPRESS Now with ASTRO Online

+ Here and Now

User’s Guide to the Sky:

WEAK Rate and Organize

Printed in the United States of America

PART 1 EXPLORING THE SKY

PART 2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

PART 3 THE STARS

PART 4 THE UNIVERSE OF GALAXIES

Appendix A: Units and Astronomical Data 368

BRIEF CONTENTS iii

3-3 Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, and

Part 1 Planetary Motion 44

4 Light and Telescopes 60

4-3 Observatories on Earth—Optical and Radio 68

1 Here and Now 2

2 User’s Guide to the Sky:

3 The Origin of Modern

6 The Terrestrial Planets 108

7 The Outer Solar System 136 9 The Family of Stars 188

7-5 Neptune 151 9-4 Star Sizes 196

8 Origin of the Solar System and

11-5 Neutron Stars 254 14-2 The Big Bang 325

12 The Milky Way Galaxy 272

NOW WITH ASTRO ONLINE

1 Here and Now

The longest journey begins with a single step.

NOA A /NASA GOES Project

GUIDEPOST provide more specific insights into how scientists study

CO 1 Image of Earth from the GOES

FIGURE 1-1 FIGURE 1-2

© NASA, Landsat infrared photograph

relative sizes of Earth and Moon are shown in the inset

star A globe of gas, held is a bit larger than Earth’s

4 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

CHAPTER 1: Here and Now 5

This box ■ represents the relative size of the previous

by the glow of the stars and Visual

in diameter. Only a century ago astronomers thought it

FIGURE 1-12 FIGURE 1-13

M. Seldner, B. L. Siebers, E. J. Groth, and P.J. E. Peebles,

Milky Way Galaxy

8 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

CHAPTER 1: Here and Now 9

10 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

CHAPTER 1: Here and Now 11

GUIDEPOST • How does the motion of the Moon produce phases

• H ow are stars and 2-1a Constellations

12 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

Old constellation boundaries,

CHAPTER 2: User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Cycles 13

14 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

k b of saying that the star

CHAPTER 2: User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Cycles 15

16 PART ONE: Exploring the Sky

John Harwood/Photodisc/Getty Images

CHAPTER 2: User’s Guide to the Sky: Patterns and Cycles 17

P. Marenfeld & NOAO/AURA /NSF

North Angular distance

GUIDEPOST • How does the motion of the Moon produce phases

• H ow are stars and 2-1a Constellations

only a few minutes because the umbra is never more than