POWER QUALITY

Chapter IV

Power Quality Mitigation Techniques

4.1 Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapters, we know both users as well as generation and distribution units are
so much concerned about the quality of power consumed and delivered. There are certain unavoidable
circumstances which are out of control and thus there will be certain disturbances in the power system
and thus the quality of power will be inferior. Although utilities try to maintain the quality of power but
still there are instances which cannot be controlled. Certain techniques notably mitigation techniques can
be employed to maintain the quality of power in its permissible limits. Certain governing bodies decide
the permissible harmonic contents in the system, we all are aware that the %THD reduction is a better and
superior indication for the quality of power. Certain mitigation techniques can be employed for reduction
in the %THD. Some of the employable techniques include use of Harmonic filters, power quality
conditioners, Compensators etc. The design and implementation of these devices play a very important
role in controlling the Harmonic content. Locations in which these power quality conditioners are
employed are also vital from the point of Power quality .Before the actual implementation of these power
quality conditioners a detailed study in power system software’s is important, which can save time and
the expense occurred. Today there are various software’s available for such detailed power quality study
like ETAP (Electrical Transient Analyzer Program, MATLAB, PSCAD, EMTP etc which can be used for
optimization. Also Power quality analyzers are available for real time power quality monitoring.

4.2 Harmonic Filters

Harmonic voltages and currents are caused by non-linear loads such as Computers, variable speed drives
(VSD), and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), renewable sources, lighting system and switched mode
power supplies in devices such as personal computers. Non-linear loads generate electrical harmonics by
drawing current in abrupt short pulses, rather than in a smooth sinusoidal manner, introducing currents of
additional frequencies which are reflected back into the system, distorting the AC waveform.Harmonics
increase the amount of power required by the system due to a reduction in power quality, contributing to a
lower power factor and higher energy costs as a result of the reduced efficiency of the system.Harmonic
filtering acts to filter out the electrical harmonics in a system. This can reduce overheating of equipment,
reduce nuisance tripping of circuit breakers and fuses and improve power quality contributing to reduced
energy costs.
Types of harmonic filtering:

 Line and load reactors –Series reactors or chokes are used to limit the current.. Reactors oppose
rapid changes in current and hence limit spikes as a result of current pulses.

 Passive harmonic filtering – Use of combination of capacitors andreactors to filter out harmonic
frequencies without energy devices.

 Active Harmonic Filtering – It provides harmonic compensation by being installed on the line
side of the offending load (for example, VSD, Electronic Load of high power rating). They
introduce current waveforms which cancel out unwanted harmonic components.

Indications for Need of Harmonic Filter:

 Generator instability
 Motors experiencing overheating, audible noise and reduced service life
 Overheating of transformers and conductors
 Capacitor failure
 Telephone interference
 High energy costs
 Damage to or failure of sensitive electronic equipment including drive failure

Causes of harmonics:-
 Industrial electronic devices and non linear loads are the major cause of harmonic generation. As
the current drawn from the supply no longer remains sinusoidal thus the resultant waveform is
made up of a number of different waveforms of different frequencies.
Effects of harmonics:-
 Harmonics are a major cause of power supply pollution lowering the power factor and increasing
electrical losses. This results in premature equipment failure and higher rating requirement for
equipment.

Harmonic filters :-
 A harmonic filter is a device used to ‘filter out’ components of different harmonic order from
reaching and harming the load thus the name ‘harmonic filter’.

 Application of harmonic Filters:-

Harmonic Filters are applied at different points where power pollution due to harmonics is
observed above the desirable limits as recommended by IEE 519 standards. These are used in
parallel to load thus providing a bypass low impedance path for the flow of Harmonic currents of
specific frequency or harmonic number. Thus a separate harmonic filter branch is required for
each harmonic order to be removed. Thus a 3 branch filter might be used to filter out 3 rd,5th and
7th harmonic component.
  Types of harmonic Filter:-
There are two types of filters those are
1)Active Filter
2) Passive filter

To mitigate the harmonics, one can install passive or active filters. Though active filters are very
Effective to compensate harmonic currents and voltages they are still very expensive. Therefore, active
filters are only installed in large industrial plants. While for small installations passive filters are more
preferred.

Passive filters:-
Passive filters are inductance, capacitance, and resistance elements configured and tuned to control
harmonics. They are commonly used and are relatively inexpensive compared with other means for
eliminating harmonic distortion. However, they have the disadvantage of potentially interacting adversely
with the power system, and it is important to check all possible system interactions when they are
designed. They are employed either to shunt the harmonic currents off
the line or to block their flow between parts of the system by tuning the elements to create a resonance at
a selected frequency.

Fig 4.2: Passive Harmonic Filters

4.3 Shunt passive filters:-

The most common type of passive filter is the single-tuned “notch” filter. This is the most economical
type and is frequently sufficient for the application. The notch filter is series-tuned toPresent
lowimpedance to a particular harmonic current and is connected in shunt with the power system. Thus,
harmonic currents are diverted from their normal flow path on the line through the filter. Notch filters can
provide power factor correction in addition to harmonic suppression. In fact, power factor correction
capacitors may be used to make notch filters.To avoid problems with this resonance, filters are added to
the system starting with the lowest significant harmonic found in the system.
For example, installing a seventh-harmonic filter usually requires that a fifth-harmonic filter also be
installed. The new parallel resonance with a seventh-harmonic filter alone is often very near the fifth,
which is generally disastrous. Passive filters should always be placed on a bus where the short-circuit
reactance XSC can be expected to remain constant. While the notch frequency will remain fixed, the
parallel resonance will move with system impedance.

4.4 Series passive filters:-

Unlike a notch filter which is connected in shunt With the power system, a series passive filter is
connected in series With the load. The inductance and capacitance are connected in parallel And are tuned
to provide a high impedance at a selected harmonic Frequency. The high impedance then blocks the flow
of harmonic currents At the tuned frequency only. At fundamental frequency, the filter Would be
designed to yield a low impedance, thereby allowing the fundamental Current to follow with only minor
additional impedance and Losses. Series filters are used to block a single harmonic current (such as the
third harmonic) and are especially useful in a single-phase circuit where it is not possible to take
advantage of zero-sequence characteristics.

Fig 4.4 Series Passive Filters

4.5Low-pass broadband filters:-

Multiple stages of both series and shunt filter are often required in practical applications. in shunt
filter applications, a filter for blocking a seventh-harmonic frequency would typically require two stages
of shunt filters, the seventh-harmonic filter itself and the lower fifth-harmonic filter. Similarly, in series
filter applications, each frequency requires a series filter of its own; thus, multiple stages of filters are
needed to block multiple frequencies.

4.6 Active filters:-

Active filters are relatively new types of devices for eliminating harmonics. They are based on
sophisticated power electronics and are much more expensive than passive filters. However, they have the
distinct advantage that they do not resonate with the system. Active filters can work independently of the
system impedance characteristics. Thus, they can be used in very difficult circumstances where passive
filters cannot operate successfully because of parallel resonance problems. They can also address more
than one harmonic at a time and combat other power quality problems such as flicker. They are
particularly useful for large, distorting loads fed from relatively weak points on the power system.
 Fig 4.6 Active Filter at Load

4.6.1 Comparison between Passive and Active Harmonic filters

Passive Harmonic Filter Active Harmonic Filter

These type of Filters are actually harmonic These filters only inject opposite nature of distorted
type filters in the real manner. current in the line.
They stop harmonic current circulation in They do not stop harmonic current circulation.
network.
These types of filters clean the entire system They fail to possess such find of behavior.
both down and up the line.
They are rugged and maintenance free Maintenance is a problem due to use of multiple
electronic devices.
They are more economical They bear high cost comparatively
Running losses are low Running losses are higher
There is a possibility of getting overloaded They do not possess the tendency of getting
overloaded
They target single harmonic order They target from 2nd to the 50th order of harmonic
They are available in low and medium voltage They are available in low voltage applications.
applications
There is possibility of series and parallel Absence of any series and parallel resonance.
resonance
Delay in response to load changes Quick response with respect to load changes.

4.7 IEEE standard for Harmonic:-

IEEE Standard 519-1992
The limits on harmonic voltage and current based on IEEE Standard 519-199. It should be emphasized
that the philosophy behind this standard seeks to limit the harmonic injection from individual customers
so that they do not create unacceptable voltage distortion under normal system characteristics and to limit
the overall harmonic distortion in the voltage supplied by the utility. The voltage and current distortion
limits should be used as system design values for the worst case of normal operating conditions lasting
more than 1 h. For shorter periods, such as during start-ups, the limits may be exceeded by 50 percent.
Basis for Harmonic Current Limits

Table: 4.7.1 IEEE Standard 519-1992

Harmonic measurement of computer lab on Yokogawa CW240 Clamp-on power meter

Fig 4.7.1 Harmonic Measurement on Power Quality Analyzer

 Fig 4.7.2Total harmonic distortion of current for different harmonic orders of computer lab

4.8 Procedure for Harmonic Filter Design

The filter design procedure for determination of capacitance and inductance:

1) As per the data getting from harmonic power meter, calculate the KVAR required for improving
the power factor.
2) Once when we calculate the KVAR required, find out the capacitance value for filter design.
3) By using that value of capacitor, find out capacitive reactance at fundamental(50Hz) as well as
using the frequency for harmonic order number in which we are getting more harmonic
distortion.
4) Then consider resonance condition and find out the inductive reactance for harmonic order
number in which we are getting more harmonic distortion.
5) Then find out the inductive reactance at fundamental value by dividing order number at which we
calculate the filter to resonant inductive reactance value.
6) Then find out the inductance value which is required for filter design by using that fundamental
inductive reactance.
7) Then find out the RMS current value and total voltage drop across inductor, by using that values
find out the KVAR rating of inductor.
8) Repeat the same procedure for capacitor and find out the KVAR rating of capacitor.

Consider:
Load in KW= 0.42

Power factor=0.661

ITHD = 2.74amp

3rd harmonic current = 0.12

Assuming required power factor to be 0.97 we calculate the total KVAR required to rise the power factor
from 0.661 to 0.97

KVAR required = KW(tanɸ1 -tanɸ2 )

Cosɸ1 = 0.661 tanɸ1 = 1.135

Cosɸ2 = 0.97 tanɸ2 =0.25

KVAR required = KW(tanɸ1 -tanɸ2 )

Therefore KVAR required = 0.42(1.135 - 0.25)

= 0.3717 KVAR

Thus we required 0.3717 KVAR to raise the power factor to 0.97

1.Filter capacitance per phase:-

VAR
C =V2 ∗ 2πf∗10−3
371.7
=
173.12∗ 314∗10−3
C = 39.486 mfd
2.Capacitive reactance at 50Hz:-
1
Xc50 =
2πfc
1
Xc50 =
314 ∗ 39.486 ∗ 10−6
=80.61 Ω
Design of filter for 3rd harmonic distortion

3.Harmonic capacitive reactance at 𝟑𝐫𝐝 harmonic (capacitive reactance at 150Hz)

1
Xc150 =
2π ∗ 150 ∗ 39.486 ∗ 10−6
=26.871Ω
For resonance at 3rd harmonic we should have at resonance,
Harmonic capacitive reactance at 3rd harmonic = harmonic inductive reactance at 3rd harmonic
XL150 = Xc150
Therefore,
XL150 = 26..871 Ω
From above we can write,
26.871
XL50 =
3
= 8.957 Ω

So,

4.Inductance for harmonic filter

XL50
L=
2πf
8.957
L=
2 ∗ π ∗ 50
= 28.51 mH

5.Capacitor current at 50Hz

371.7
Ic50 =
173.1
= 2.147 amp
3rd harmonic current from the data is,
Ic150 = 0.12amp

6.RMS current considering both component

2 2
R.M.S. current =√Ic50 + Ic150

R.M.S. current =√(2.147)2 + (0.12)2

= 2.150 amp

7.KVAR rating of reactance

Voltage across reactor
VL = VL50 + VL150
VL50 = voltage drop across reactor due to fundamental current
VL50 = Ic50 ∗ XL50
= 2.147 * 8.957
= 19.23 V

VL150 = voltage drop across reactor due to 3rd harmonic current

VL150 = IL150 ∗ XL150
= 0.12 * 26.871
= 3.224 V
Total Voltage drop across reactor (VL )
VL = 19.23 + 3.224
 = 22.454 V
KVAR rating of single phase reactor
= Irms ∗ VL
= 22.454 * 1.93 * 10−3
= 0.0435 KVAR

8.KVAR rating of capacitor

Voltage across capacitor,
Vc = Vc50 + Vc150
Vc50 = 173.1
Vc150 = Ic150 ∗ Xc150
= 0.12 * 26.871
= 3.224 V

Vc = 173.1 + 3.224
= 176.324 V
KVAR rating of capacitor
= Irms ∗ Vc
= 1.937 * 176.324 *10−3
= 0.3415 KVAR

Calculation for filter gave following values:

L= 28.51 mH at 22.454 V and C= 39.486 mfd at 176.324 V.
The inductor and capacitor are designed as per the standard design procedure.

4.9 Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

An overall configuration of the hybrid type filters is the Unified Power Quality Conditioner abbr (UPQC)
it can also be termed as Universal active filter. UPQC is a multi function conditioner which can be used
for many applications like voltage fluctuation, harmonics, and voltage disturbances in power supply. It is
a custom device to protect sensitive loads from any variation in the power system. UPQC has shunt and
series compensation capabilities for power flow control, reactive power, harmonics, voltage disturbances
etc. A UPQC consist of two Voltage source converters with a DC link to maintain the voltage within the
permissible limits. One converter is connected in series through a transformer between source and load at
PCC and operates as Voltage source Inverter. The other converter is connected in shunt at PCC through
transformer and operates as current source inverter.The active series converter compensates for voltage
supply disturbances, performs harmonic isolation, and damps harmonic oscillations. The active shunt
converter compensates for load current waveform distortions and reactive power, and performs the DC
link voltage regulation.
 Fig 4.9.1: Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

Fig 4.9.2 Unified Power Quality Conditioner

4.10 Harmonic Filter design

Fig 4.10 Parameters for Harmonic filter design in ETAP software
 Fig 4.11 Parameters for Harmonic filter design in ETAP software

4.11 Definations related to flicker

Short Term Flicker Perceptibility (Pst) is the measure over a short period (a few minutes) of how
irritating flicker is thought to be. Irritation may be caused by consistent minor flicker or occasional major
flicker events. The statistical treatment used to obtain Pst is intended to model the way humans react.

Long Term Flicker Perceptibility (Plt) is a further measure for cumulative irritation caused by very
occasional gross flicker events, which may be too infrequent to cause meaningful Pst results.

4.12 Flicker Mitigation Techniques

There are various techniques available for Flicker Mitigation. Since flicker is caused by voltage
fluctuations, these methods should be based on reducing such power quality phenomenon. It must be
noted that the effects of voltage fluctuations are dependent on both the rate of their occurrence and its
amplitude. Generally, mitigation measures are focused on limiting the amplitude of the voltage
fluctuations.
Consequently, two approaches can be implemented for this purpose:

1. Reducing the load power variations, specifically the reactive component

Flicker compensation devices such as dynamic voltage stabilizers and/or synchronous machines are
installed at the point of common coupling (PCC) to meet this objective.

Synchronous Machines

They are conventional sources of continuous fundamental reactive power, which can either be leading or
lagging. Also, they can be the source of mechanical energy when operated as a motor and a compensator.

Synchronous machines are required to be operated in a closed-loop voltage control system with fast
excitation current control. This is to enable a fast rise time of the machine’s reactive current.

Dynamic Voltage Stabilizers

This is a general term use to describe devices that can control the amount of reactive power absorbed
from or injected into the power system. Subsequently, the RMS voltage at the PCC can be increased or
reduced.

These flicker-mitigating power quality devices include the following:

Dynamic Voltage Regulator (DVR)

Static Var Compensators (SVC)
Thyristor-controlled Reactors (TSR) w/ Fixed (FC) or Switched Capacitor (TSC)
Saturable Reactors
Thyristor-switched Capacitors (TSC)
STATCOM

Dynamic voltage stabilizers are a practical solution for the reduction or elimination of voltage
fluctuations. The effectiveness of these power quality devices depends primarily on their rated power and
speed of reaction.

2. Increasing the short-circuit power level (with respect to the load power)

This approach can be applied only at the design stage and are generally expensive. In addition, these
solutions can force the reconsideration of the electrical power system, basically adding to costs.
Common measures implemented to increase the short-circuit power are:

Constructing additional line to reinforce existing distribution line.

Supplying flicker-producing loads through dedicated lines.
Installing series capacitors.
Separating fluctuating loads from steady loads (i.e. light or lamps) using separate winding of a 3-winding
transformer.
Installing series capacitors.
Connecting the load at a higher nominal voltage level
Increasing the rated power of the transformer serving the fluctuating load.

Other Flicker Mitigation Techniques include

In some cases, the strategies stated below can reduce flicker problems:

-Use isolating transformers to separate the supply terminal that feeds the fluctuating loads, especially
from the lighting power supply.

-Implement changes in the operating practice and/or equipment design to minimize voltage fluctuations.
An example is limiting arc furnace transformer taps during the initial meltdown period, when flicker is
more perceptible. This reduces the operating voltage and decrease PST during these intervals.

- Lower the motor starting or inrush current to reduce voltage variations (e.g. softstart devices).

-Supplying the fluctuating loads from a decoupled source of the utility system (e.g. diesel–electric group).

-Operate flicker-producing loads at a time when they cannot disturb people. For example, operating the
load at night since most people are not working at this time.

-Connect the loads to a phase and feed the lighting systems from the non-disturbed phases. This solution
is applicable for single-phase loads connected at the low voltage or medium voltage systems.

Examples

Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD)

 Apply soft starter devices.

Welding Plant

 Connect single-phase welding machines to different phases from lighting circuits

 Connect single-phase welders to three-phase system for balanced load distribution between
phases.
 Supply the plant from a dedicated transformer.

Electric Arc Furnaces (EAF)

 Segregation and preliminary heating of charge

 Proper functioning of the electrode control system
 Install series or saturable reactors

It can be said that voltage fluctuation and flicker mitigation methods are easily available for
implementation. However, the best solution is usually not provided by a single method. This means that a
proper combination of the above mentioned approaches shall be considered.

4.13 Ferroresonant Transformers

The ferroresonant transformers are also termed as CVT s (Constant Voltage Transformers). These can
handle most voltage sag conditions. CVTs are most applicable for low loads, Variable loads with variable
input and high inrush current are unsuitable for CVTs. Ferroresonant Transformers are basically 1:1
transformers. The schematic of Ferroresonant transformers is presented below.
 Fig 4.13.1 Ferroresonant Transformer for Voltage sag mitigation

Capacitor Switching: Capacitor banks and systems are designed with switching mechanisms to connect
and disconnect them from the system as required, often several times. Switching a capacitor bank is
different from switching a normal load. In a capacitive load, the current waveform leads the voltage by
90°. A capacitor, at the time of switching on, offers a temporary short-circuit like condition to the supply
terminals, causing a heavy current inrush. Further, sudden voltage fluctuation and transient conditions
also give rise to heavy current surges in the capacitor. If the switch contacts close at the moment of 0
voltage, a sudden current surge will follow, overshooting the maximum peak value. The peak current
inrush magnitude is a function of the rated capacitor current and the strength of the system to which the
capacitor is connected, limited by the available short-circuit current of the system. The voltage and
current waveforms oscillate at a frequency much higher than the power system frequency. After a short
period of time, the waveforms settle down to their steady-state values. Fig 4.13.2 shows the resultant
waveforms under capacitor switching conditions.
 Fig: 4.13.2 Capacitor switching

4.14 Devices for overvoltage protection

When the voltage in a system, rises beyond its rated voltage, then it is known as overvoltage. The
main cause due to which overvoltage is produced in the power system may be conveniently grouped into
two categories, namely, internal and external. Internal overvoltage has got their origin within the system
itself, whereas external overvoltage is because of lightning on the lines. This over voltage may cause
damage to insulators and substation equipment. It is, therefore, necessary to provide a means to protect
the insulators and other apparatus from the harmful effect of overvoltage. Some devices are available to
reduce the amplitude and front steepness of surges. The following will be described here

1. Rod gap
2. Overhead Earth Wire
3. Surge Diverter

Overhead Earth Wire

An overhead earth wire or ground wire is one of the most common devices used to protect the lines
against lightning. It is the wire carrying the line supports and runs over the phase conductors. The purpose
of the earth wire is to block the direct lightning strokes, which would otherwise strike the phase
conductors. The waves of lightning reach the adjoining towers which pass them to earth safely.
 Fig 4.14.1 Overhead earth wire

Rod gap
The rod gap is one of the most common frames of protective devices. It is an air gap between the ends of
two rods. The gap setting should be such that it should break under all conditions before the equipment to
be protected is affected. The chief merits of this device are simplicity, reliability and cheapness.Rod gap
has a some restrictions like they are unable to prevent the flow of power which flows in the gap after the
breakdown. It is used in the places where continuity of supply is not of much importance.

Fig: 4.14.2 Rod gap

 Surge diverters
Surge-diverters or lightning arrester is a device used for distracting abnormal high voltage to ground
without affecting the continuity of supply. Surge diverters are three types

1. Expulsion-type surge diverter

2. Metal-oxide surge diverter
3. Valve-type surge diverter

4.15 Harmonic analysis at Point of common coupling

Study of harmonic distortion are usually performed at a point between the end user or customer and the
utility system where another customer can be served. This point is known as the point of common
coupling. The PCC can be located at either the primary side or the secondary side of the service
transformer depending on whether or not multiple customers are supplied from the transformer. In other
terms, if multiple customers are served from the primary of the transformer, the PCC is then located at
the primary. On the other hand, if multiple customers are served from the secondary of the transformer,
the PCC is located at the secondary.

4.16 Voltage sag mitigation techniques

Some of the Voltage sag mitigation techniques include:

1) Use of Dynamic voltage Restorer (DVR)

2) D-STATCOM
3) Ferroresonant Transformer
4) UPS
5) Motor Generator sets

DVR :

DVR is a series connected power electronic device used to inject voltage of required magnitude and
frequency. The rated voltage is generally compared with the voltage variation and the DVR injects the
difference voltage into the load.
 Fig 4.16.1 Structure of DVR

D-STATCOM :

It is a shunt connected device designed to regulate the voltage either by generating or absorbing the
reactive power. It compensates either the bus voltage or the line current, it can operate in both voltage and
current mode of operation.

Fig 4.16.2