Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Research papers

A comprehensive review on advanced charging topologies and

methodologies for electric vehicle battery
Mohd Khalid a, Furkan Ahmad b, c, *, Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi a, b, Luluwah Al-Fagih c
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
b
Center for Automotive Research and Tribology (CART), Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
c
Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The rise of greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere is a severe climate change concern. A significant part, such as
Electric vehicles CO2 emission, comes from internal combustion engine-driven vehicles, incited the automotive sector to focus
Charging topologies more on the sustainable electric transportation system. However, electric vehicles face significant charging time,
Advanced converters
charging methods, and range anxiety challenges. To overcome these challenges, charging technologies for
Charging methodologies
electric vehicle batteries play an essential role. Many types of electric vehicle charging topologies have been
discussed in the literature and implemented in many practical applications. This paper presents a state of art
criticism of advanced converter topologies and charging methodology for electric vehicle applications. Apart
from the conventional topologies, this manuscript has covered the comparative criticism of the recently proposed
EV charging technologies regarding charging methods, control strategies, and power levels. Further, this paper
discussed the different onboard chargers with their power factor correction topologies, drawbacks, and required
corrections. This manuscript provides the research directions for the academic and industrial communities.

bidirectional chargers. The ability of bidirectional power flow of a

1. Introduction
Harmful environmental changes such as ozone depletion, the rise of
average earth temperature, and ever-decreasing fossil fuels have alerted
the world to minimize the emission of carbon dioxide. A sustainable
energy system provides a feasible solution to every field's carbon emis­
sion concerns [1]. The eco-friendly, sustainable electric vehicles (EV)
alternative in transportation systems is rapidly taking over internal
combustion engine-driven vehicles. In this regard popularity of EVs is
spreading very fast, primarily because of smaller reliance on fossil fuels
and zero-emission of fuel gas. International Energy Agency is estimated
that by 2030, EVs will be over 145 million throughout the globe [2]. A
growing number of EVs penetration will raise severe problems for the
distribution grid of power systems, such as enhancing the damage to the
lines, depilation of distribution transformers, and, above all, deterio­
rating power quality (PQ). Most of the added issues in the power system
grid due to EVs are directly related to the type of EV charger and method
of charging. One very efficient solution is integrating renewable
distributed generation into the EV charging infrastructure [3].
Control of the power flow of chargers creates unidirectional or
charger enables numerous demand-side management planning such as
vehicle to grid (V2G) and grid to vehicle (G2V) applications [4]. These
technologies can help enhance the wholesome reliability of the distri­
bution grid, such as flattening the load curve under unexpected system
failures. Further, a heavy penetrated V2G can reduce investment in the
new power generation infrastructure. Hence, selecting suitable charging
technology is critical when choosing a charger [5]. Several charging
topologies are being used to control the output of a charger to recharge
the Li-ion batteries. The most common are constant-current/constant-
voltage (CC/CV) tropology. However, this topology does not consider
internal factors such as internal resistance, aging effects, etc. Hence,
many new topologies are being presented based on a detailed model of
Li-ion batteries [6].
The various advancement in the charging topologies done by the
research community has been summarized in multiple review article.
The work presented in [7] examines the current status of Level 2
charging technologies for EVs and their deployment, characteristics, and
standards published in the open literature and their interaction with
smart grids and possible safety precautions. In [8], the authors present a
comprehensive examination of solar PV-EV charging systems

* Corresponding author at: Center for Automotive Research and Tribology (CART), Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India.
E-mail addresses: kkhalidamu@gmail.com (M. Khalid), furkanahmad@zhcet.ac.in (F. Ahmad), bkpanigrahi@ee.iitd.ac.in (B.K. Panigrahi), lalfagih@hbku.edu.qa
(L. Al-Fagih).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105084
Received 6 April 2022; Received in revised form 2 June 2022; Accepted 10 June 2022
Available online 18 June 2022
2352-152X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Nomenclature L Inductor
Li-ion Lithium-ion
AC Alternating current MPC Model predictive controller
BESS Battery energy storage system N Number of turn ratio
BEVs Battery Electric Vehicles NPC Neutral point clamped
BMS Battery management system PFC Power factor correction
BoCBB Boost-cascaded buck-boost PID Proportional–integral–derivative
BoCBu Boost-cascaded buck PHEV Plug-in hybrid EV
BSS Battery swapping station PQ Power quality
BTMS Battery thermal management system PSFB Phase-shift full-bridge Converter
BuCBB Buck-cascaded buck-boost PSO Particle swarm optimization
C Capacitor PV Photovoltaic
CC Constant current PWM Pulse width modulation
CC-CF Constant current-constant frequency QZS Converter Quasi-Z source converter
CHB Cascade H-bridge RC Resonant circuit
CV Constant voltage S Switch
CC-VF Constant current-variable frequency SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
D Diode SEI Solid electrolyte interface
DC Direct current SEPIC Single-ended primary inductance converter
DoD Depth of discharge SM Submodular
EIS Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy SoC State of charge
EMI Electromagnetic interference SPM Single particle model
ESS Energy storage system SRC Sinusoidal-ripple current
EV Electric vehicle THD Total harmonic distortion
EVSE EV Supply Equipment THDi Current THD
FBC Full bridge converter TSBB Two-switch buck-boost
FBLLC Full-Bridge LLC resonant converter VC-CF Variable current-constant frequency
G Gate VDS Drain source voltage
G2V Grid to vehicle VD-VPC Variable-duty voltage pulse charging
HFT High-frequency transformer VF-VPC Variable frequency voltage pulse charging
IBC Interleaved boost converter V2G Vehicle to grid
ICBB Interleaved-cascaded buck-boost ZCS Zero current switching
kW kilowatt ZVS Zero voltage switching

worldwide. The authors propose analytical methods to determine the
charging behavior of electric vehicles, modes of charger operation, and
the geographical location of charger users. In [9], the research focuses
on the state-of-the-art technology for fast charging of EVs, including
extensive descriptions of research done to address challenges and
roadblocks in implementing it. The manuscript compared conductive
and inductive charging methods, summarized the charging standards,
and discussed the topologies for fast charging stations described in the
literature. We could soon see gasoline vehicles refueling like electric
vehicles with fast-changing technology. In [10], the authors have
reviewed the state-of-the-art EV charging infrastructure and focused on
the extremely fast-changing technology, which will be necessary to
support the current and future EV refueling needs. Further, the authors
have presented the design considerations of the extreme fast-charging
stations and reviewed the typical power electronics converter topol­
ogies suitable to deliver extremely fast-changing. An extensive overview
of the wireless and wired charging technologies available for Battery-
EVs (BEVs) is presented in [11]. Based on how the batteries of BEVs
are connected to the grid, there are two types of wired charging tech­
nologies: AC (Alternating current) and DC (Direct current). After that,
the configurations and common topologies of wireless charging tech­
nology for BEVs are thoroughly discussed. [12] discusses how battery-
swapping station (BSS) works, what infrastructure is required, how
techniques are applied, what benefits overcharging stations provide, and
the challenges associated with BSS. Lastly, an S34X-smart swapping
station for electric vehicles is proposed, and a study for a BSS is discussed
as a critical thrust. Further, the article in [13] discusses electric vehicles'
current status and implementation, their charging infrastructure, and
battery chargers. Charging systems can be classified as off-board or on-
board and provide unidirectional or bidirectional power flow. Unidi­
rectional charging simplifies interconnection and reduces hardware re­
quirements. Grid energy can be injected back into batteries using
bidirectional charging. Due to weight, space, and cost considerations,
these problems can be avoided by incorporating the charger into the
electric drive. EV charging station power topologies are discussed in
[14]. A review of battery technology has examined the existing stan­
dards for charging stations and power converters and the impact of
battery technology. A study of current chargers has identified some
disadvantages, such as power factor and poor efficiency. A review of
current chargers has identified some drawbacks, such as power factor
and poor efficiency. This paper [15] surveys the main topologies for EV
battery charging systems that employ either induction motors or per­
manent magnet motors and focuses on the types that do not require or
almost no hardware reconfiguration. The traction system components
are used for onboard integrated charging devices to avoid weight, size,
and cost constraints. In [16], a review of the topologies employed by
integrated onboard EV chargers. According to the integrated compo­
nents, three topologies can be distinguished among onboard integrated
chargers. As the first type, only the converter is integrated into the on­
board charger as a single unit. A filter inductor is required for the grid
side as well. The second type of onboard charger is based on the
switched reluctance motor, which integrates both the converter and the
motor windings into one device. Further, the authors in [17] have pre­
sented an in-depth review and complete state-of-the-art investigation of
bidirectional onboard charges. An overview of the current status is
provided, reviewing architectures and configurations, intelligent oper­
ations, industry standards, and significant components. In this study,
promising bidirectional onboard charge topologies, including two-stage

2
M. Khalid et al.
and single-stage structures, are explained in great detail. The availability
of many various technologies of onboard and off-board chargers, as well
as varying prices, dimensions, weights, power ratings, and so on, makes
choosing an appropriate charging system even more challenging.
The above-summarized review literature indicates that most articles
have explained the general theory related to advancement in the
charging infrastructure. However, the concise advanced literature,
which includes the details of charging architecture, topologies, meth­
odologies, and futuristic proposals, are missing.
Thus, this manuscript has the following contributions compared to
the presented literature.
• This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on advancing converter
topologies and charging methodologies for EV applications.
• Apart from the conventional topologies, this manuscript has covered
the comparative criticism of the recently proposed EV charging
technologies regarding charging methods, control strategies, and
power levels.
• Further, this paper discusses the different on-board and off-board
chargers with their power factor correction (PFC) topologies, draw­
backs, and required modifications.
• Based on the comparative critics, this manuscript provides the
research directions for the academic and industrial communities.
The remainder of the manuscript is as follows; In Section 2, the de­
tails of the EV battery-charging infrastructure are explained. Section 3
has covered in-depth research on DC-DC Converter topologies used for
EVs charging applications. On-board and off-board charger's complete
architectures are presented, and their operating principles are
explained. In Section 4, the detailed comparative advancement in the
concept of fast-charging stations is introduced. The encroachment in
modular multilevel converters for EVs applications with particular
attention to the charging methods most suitable for DC fast is covered in
Section 5. Further, Section 6 has summarized the concept of a universal
charger, followed by advancements in charging methods in Section 7.
Furthermore, based on the presented comparative criticism, Section 8
has suggested the future direction for the research and industrial
community.
Based on Based on power Based on
placement rating physical contact
On board Conductive Inductive/Wirele
Level 1
charger charger
Off board
charger
Level 2
Level 3
Fig. 1. Detailed methodological classification of EV charging technologies.
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
2. Electric vehicles battery charging infrastructure
The first round of plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) production has provided
several lessons for the next game of the development of charging sta­
tions. A charger for an electric vehicle can range from a household plug
to a high-powered supply. This led to the establishment of the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the USA. SAE has developed specific
guidelines regarding EVs [18]. The diversification of chargers with the
different organizations can be classified as shown in Fig. 1. Based on
their physical contact during the charging method, EV battery charging
can be divided into conductive and inductive charging methods. In the
conductive charging method, the power transfer mode is through direct
contact with the vehicles; hence, it is more efficient [19].
However, there is no physical contact between the vehicle and power
supply in the inductive charging method, and power is transferred by
utilizing an electromagnetic field. Hence, it is also known as the wireless
charging method. Wireless charging can be used as an automated
charging of EVs, and it eliminates the shock risks owing to wires,
whereas the shortcoming is low efficiency due to high power loss.
Inductive charging can be classified into three modes: Static inductive
charging, Quasi-dynamic wireless charging, and Dynamic wireless
charging. Static charging has the advantage of appropriate charging
locations such as home garages, parking lots, traffic signals, etc. How­
ever, they cannot solve the main issue about the EVs, which is the
driving range on highways. Quasi-dynamic charging is used on short­
stops during driving, such as at traffic signals. It boosts the driving range
of EVs. In dynamics inductive charging, vehicles are charged continu­
ously while driving through a specially designed charging road.
Wholesome inductive charging has some aesthetic qualities, such as
being very user-friendly, reliable, etc., with technical challenges such as
lower power efficiency, short-range, bulkiness, and cost-effectiveness
[20]. Conductive or direct contact charging methods are a more effi­
cient way of power transfer; hence, it is more common and established
than wireless charging systems.
Based on the position of chargers, conductive charging is divided
into two categories: Onboard charging, where the charger is placed in­
side the vehicle, and Off-board charging, where the charger is placed
outside the vehicle. On-board chargers are majorly applied as slow
EVs Chargers
Based on current Based on power Based on
type flow direction Protection
Unidirectional
AC charger Isolated charger
ss charger charger
Bidirectional Non-isolated
charger charge
Static charger DC charger
Universal
Dynamic charger
charger
Quasi-dynamic
charger
3
M. Khalid et al.
chargers, whereas Off-board chargers can be fast chargers.
SAE and EPA have categorized EV chargers as Level-1 (AC), Level-2
(AC), and Level-3 (DC) based on the power rating of the chargers. Level 1
charging is performed at the customer's location, and the PEV battery is
charged during the night using an existing, typically single-phase elec­
trical circuit at residential units (2–3 kW). In another charging option,
AC level 2 chargers are located at public parking lots (e.g., workplaces,
shopping malls, etc.). These chargers deliver 6 to 7 kW of power to
stationary vehicles. Lastly, fast-charging or ultra-fast charging can
transfer DC power at rates of 50 kW to 350 kW; it follows the CHAdeMO,
which supports up to 500 kW charging with a maximum current of 600
A, and also the voltages up to 1500 V [1]. In contrast, fast models (50
kW) can provide enough energy to manage a 100-mile trip within 30
min, but ultrafast models are preferred for high-end vehicles with large
batteries. The details of the charging level and their characteristics for
public installations of level 1, level 2, and DC fast charging are sum­
marized in Table 1 [8,21].
2.1. Unidirectional and bidirectional chargers
The direction of power flow between EVs and the power grid divided
the charger into two categories. If power can flow only from G2V is
termed as unidirectional chargers, and it restricts the power injection
into the grid, which shows the limitation of unidirectional chargers. The
bidirectional power flow enables numerous demand-side management
planning V2G and G2V applications [23]. These technologies can help
enhance the wholesome reliability of the distribution grid, such as
flattening the load curve under unexpected system failures. Further, a
heavy penetrated V2G can reduce investment in the new power gener­
ation infrastructure [24]. Hence, selecting suitable charging technology
is vital when choosing a charger. Several charging topologies are being
used to control the output of a charger to recharge the Li-ion batteries.
CC/CV topology is by far the most common method of charging. There
are, however, numerous internal factors that are not taken into account,
like internal resistance, aging, etc. Accordingly, a comprehensive model
of Li-ion batteries [24] has been used to derive many new topologies
[25].
The typical circuit of the unidirectional charger contains an elec­
tromagnetic interference filter with a bridge rectifier as an initial part,
then added PFC circuit. The desired isolation transformer can be
cascaded considering cost, size, and efficiency factors. The heavy load
on the grid by multiple EVs charging demands the simple and easy
operation of chargers provided by the unidirectional charger [26]. An
example of a unidirectional full-bridge resonant charger for level 1
charging is shown in Fig. 2. Chargers with the active front part can
control the phase angle of current even with uni-direction of current
(power) flow which can be utilized to control the local reactive power of
the grid. Increasing heavy penetration of EVs and unidirectional char­
gers with active current control can help the grid meet most utility ob­
jectives; however, it avoids bidirectional chargers' performance and
economic efficiency [27].
Table 1
Characteristics comparison for public installations of various levels of charger [22].
Fast Charging Level 2
Charging duration Half hour 1–3 h
Range/h 75+ miles 10–20 miles
Ratings 480 V, 20 kW (150A) 1&3-phase 240 V, up to 182 kW (80 A)
200-600VDC up to 240 kW (400A) 200–450 VDC, up to 90 kW (200A)
Usability Fast charging while on a long trip to reach Home use for EV owners desiring a fast
a destination or to extend the length of trip charging, Charging at commercial places, At
parking lots
Location Near high volume roadway access points Municipal or private parking lots in downtown,
suitability shopping centers, etc.
Desirable Amenities at the charging site Transit services, Pedestrian facilities, Lit, safe
characteristics place, etc.
4
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
In general, bidirectional chargers are made up of two-part: the first
part is an ac-dc bidirectional converter to manage grid power factor, and
the second part is a dc-dc bidirectional converter to control output pa­
rameters such as voltage and current regulation of the battery. It can
charge and discharge the battery with the sinusoidal current on the grid
side [29,33]. Injecting power into the grid is referred V2G mode and can
be used to stabilize the electric grid. It can be isolated and non-isolated,
as shown in Fig. 3 [31,34]. The demerits of bidirectional chargers reflect
on the battery due to the frequent charging-discharging cycle. Smart
metering in the advanced distribution system is a must for successfully
implementing such technology with the essential safety factors. Bidi­
rectional charging infrastructure is suited only to level-2 charging due to
its cost-utility and primary purpose. Level-1 lags in terms of cost-
effectiveness, while fast charging conflicts with basic aspirations. The
details of the charger characteristics and qualitative comparison of
control, safety, and suitability of power level of unidirectional and
bidirectional chargers are summarized in Table 2 [28–33].
2.2. Requirement of isolation and safety standards in EVs chargers
All functionalities of the EV, such as the batteries, converters, and
inverters for controlling the electric motor, and charger module con­
nected to the grid, require isolation [35]. However, the transformer is
the essential component in the contact between the present electrical
system and the EV Supply Equipment (EVSE). Whether the EV body has
onboard or offboards chargers, the battery must be connected to the
earth during the charging process. Isolation monitoring is necessary
when there is no electrical separation between the charger and the
battery [36].
Non-isolated dc-dc converters have the benefits of simple structure,
high efficiency, high reliability, low cost, small size, and weight, among
other benefits such as the conversion stage of the low-frequency tech­
nique; however, it does not provide galvanic isolation [37]. Further, a
line-frequency transformer that provides galvanically isolates the bat­
teries from the grid is required. Because of the necessary magnetic
materials, this charging station strategy, when combined with the line
frequency transformer, results in an extensive and expensive system.
Therefore, the operating switching frequency must be increased with
galvanic integrated into the dc-dc conversion stage to lower the amount
of magnetic material and reduce the total volume requirements of the
charging station [24,38].
Because of the considerable size and weight of the requisite inductors
(L), capacitors (C), cooling system, and isolating transformer, battery
chargers are frequently intended to be employed as off-board arrange­
ments [39]. A high-frequency transformer provides galvanic isolation in
the dc-dc converter step in a high-frequency isolation scheme. Trans­
former design is critical for minimizing size, cost, and losses. Isolation
from high-frequency transformers also allows for voltage modification
for improved control, load equipment safety, compactness, and appli­
cability for EV applications [19]. In addition, the design of the trans­
former can influence the soft switching of converters, especially under
Level 1
6–10 h
5 miles
120 V, 1.4 kW (12 A), 120 V, 1.9 kW (16A)
200–450 V DC, up to 36 kW (80A)
Home use, Employee parking during the workday, Long term
(>8 h) parking, Charging while on a carpool, walking, or
transit trip.
Employee parking areas, Long term customer/visitor parking,
etc.
Workplace, Transit services, Pedestrian facilities, Lit, safe
place, etc.
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

PFC circuit

Lpfc Dpfc S1 S3 Lo
D1 D3
Rectifier L1 L2

Battery
R

+
Spfc
Y ~AC C1 -
Co
B -DC S4 S2
High frequency D2
transformer D4
AC grid

Fig. 2. Unidirectional full-bridge series resonant charger.

S1
Bidirectional Bidirectional S1 S3 S5 S7 Lo
AC grid AC-DC
AC-DC converter L1 L2 HFT
converter

+
R R Co
L1

Battery
~AC ~AC L2
Y
Y
+

B -DC S2 B -DC S4 S2 S8 S6

-
C1
Co
Battery

Isolation/
-

step-down
transformer AC grid

(a) (b)

Fig. 3. (a) Bidirectional non-isolated two-quadrant charger (b) Bidirectional isolated dual active bridge charger.

Table 2
Comparative analysis of unidirectional and bidirectional chargers [28–33].
Type Basic characteristics Safety issues Available Power Cost Effects on Advantages Challenges
controls rating comparisons Battery

Unidirectional Only G2V power Both isolate and non- Active For all Less costly No additional Provides Connection with grid
chargers flow, Diode (D) isolated configurations control, power damage n reactive
bridge cascade with are available Control for level battery life power
one-way converter energy control
pricing Voltage and
available frequency
control
Bidirectional Two-way power Isolated or non-isolated Complex Only High cost Degradation Grid Sensors
charger flow, Bidirectional with extensive safety control, Extra suitable due to frequent balancing suitable metering for
communication for measures, Issue of anti- drive control for Level- discharging ancillary measuring power
charging/ islanding 2 reduces life services, flow communication
discharging interconnection Load and power loss
protection following
coordinate
charging

partial-load conditions. The existing electrical supply must be stepped
down to a level that can work with Level 1& Level 2 charging equipment
to provide appropriate power for Level 2 charging equipment. If one is
not already on site, an isolation transformer capable of stepping energy
to 208–240 V for Level 2 charging or up to 480 V for Level 3 charging
will be required [40]. The guideline for personnel protection systems for
EV supply circuits covers the requirements for devices or systems
designed to decrease the risk of electric shock to the user in grounded or
isolated circuits for charging EVs. The relevant technical standards for
EV safety are summarized in [18,41].
3. DC-DC converter topologies for EVs charging application
The development of the EV industry is critically dependent upon the
development of battery chargers. The life and charging time of the EVs
battery are directly related to the characteristic of the charger. A charger
must have high power density, efficiency, and a reliable cast. The
operation of a charger is based on the converter used in it, the control
algorithm, and the switching strategy. Power quality on the grid side is
an essential part of any battery charger. The non-linear load of EV during
charging should induce a minimum harmonic in the grid [42,43]. A
converter circuit is added to fulfil the requirement of a set of grid
standards; this circuit is termed a PFC unit. Battery chargers induce
many low-frequency harmonics hence PFC circuit in power conversion is
required [44]. Charging of a lead-acid battery can be done by single-
stage ac-dc conversion, as it does not require precise voltage and cur­
rent ripples [45]. However, a precise low voltage ripple is required for
the Li-ion battery. Two-stage power conversion (AC-DC/DC-DC) circuit
can inherently reject low-frequency ripples [46]. Therefore, for the
charging of LI-ion batteries, a two-stage conversion approach. This

5
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

section discusses several kinds of DC-DC Converter topologies that may is its operating power rating. The circuit of the interleaved boost con­
be used for EVs charging applications. Based on the discussion in Section verter (IBC) contains two parallel boost converters with a 180-degree
2.2, the DC-DC converter is categorized into isolated and non-isolated phase shift between the operations of two switches, as shown in Fig. 5
topologies. (a). Hence, it can be operated in the power range of 3–3.5 kW even
though power loss in the converter's input side, i.e., rectifier circuit, is
almost similar to boost PFC. The interleaved circuit can be made with n
3.1. Non-isolated DC-DC converters topologies
channel by dividing the phase shift uniformly among converter switches
[56–58]. It could reduce the input current ripple and cancel the ripples
In EV charging topologies, step-up DC-DC converter topologies are
at the output. An asymmetrical design of interleaved converter can help
the norm, and the topologies discussed in this section are step-up and
lessen the EMI filter's size at the input side by managing the phase shift
step-down non-isolated converters. Non-isolated converters are
operation of the switches. It can help reduce the peak noise, which will
preferred for EVs' medium and high power applications due to their
affect the size and cost of the converter. The current in the converter is
simplest structure, high power density, and reachable control strategies
the summation of all inductor current, which can cancel out the ripples
[47,48]. The most commonly used converter is the conventional boost
in the input current. Hence, a multi-channel interleaved converter gives
converter and interleaved structure for higher power rating. The ad­
much improved results in terms of the design of the EMI filter, the life of
vantages and disadvantages of the different non-isolated DC-DC con­
the output capacitor, and the overall efficiency of the converter. A
verters, which can be used for charging applications of EVs, are
battery charger for EVs with a modified interleaved Landsman converter
discussed in detail.
is presented in [59] for enhanced quality (PQ) charging.
Because of the enhanced PQ qualities of interleaved Landsman
3.1.1. DC-DC conventional boost converter
converter, a built-in wave shaping is obtained at the charger front-end.
The circuit diagram of a conventional boost converter as a PFC unit is
The input and output currents are shared in this PFC converter, con­
shown in Fig. 4(a). It is straightforward in design and easy to operate;
structed in discontinuous conduction mode. Due to the current sharing
hence its most commonly used topology is in PFC application. This
at the input, the input current ripple is minimized, as is the peak current
converter has a good output voltage gain. The switch may be easily
stress through the switch. In [56] author has presented an IBC with 92 %
pushed against the ground, the input current is continuous, and filtering
efficiency at a 30 kW load. Adjusting from discontinuous current mode
and achieving electromagnetic interference (EMI) requirements are easy
to continuous current mode produces an efficiency reduction of about 8
[49,50]. A modest efficiency of 83.5 % at full load can be reached using
%. However, this converter is sensitive to changes in the duty cycle ratio.
the design depicted in Fig. 4 [51]. Because the output voltage is single
Magnetic core influence due to load variation is also noticeable, and the
polarity and the circuitry is simple, the cost is low, making it a good
component count is high [60,61–63].
choice for BEV and PHEV powertrains. However, it possesses a few
limitations. High voltage gain is not ideal for this converter because of
3.1.3. Interleaved DC-DC buck converters topology
the need for a large capacitor to decrease the ripple at the output
A typical DC-bus architecture has a voltage range of up to 600 V,
voltage, making the volume relatively large and heavy in weight. This
higher than the battery voltage range of 200 V to 450 V [64]. A single-
topology gives efficient operation under medium power rating up to 1
phase buck converter can be utilized to charge the batteries for the DC
kW (kilowatt). It is becoming difficult to control and sense the voltage
bus architecture. On the other hand, the single-phase buck converter
and current at a higher power rating. The size of the inductor also in­
requires a giant inductor in high-current applications to keep inductor
creases as the power rating goes higher [52].
current ripples to a minimum. The large inductor increases the con­
Further, the main switch (S) converter diode goes through the
verter's cost and size [65]. A multi-phase interleaved buck converter
reverse recovery period during turning on. In this period reverse re­
very similar to interleaved boost converter contains, as shown in Fig. 5
covery current of the diode cause a spike-shoot in the output capacitor
(b), can be used instead of the enormous inductor. The multi-phase
resulting in electromagnetic interference in the circuit. The switching
interleaved buck converter's different inductors are utilized to enhance
losses of the conventional boost converter is relatively high, majorly due
the converter's efficiency. This converter shares the currents from the
to turning on and turning off under non-zero voltage and non-zero
multi-phase modules. The size of the inductor shrinks as the number of
current condition [53–55]. To handle these challenging tasks, a boost
phases is multiplied by the fundamental frequency of each inductor as
converter with an auxiliary circuit is added for the soft switching of the
the number of phases is increased [66–70]. Despite its many advantages,
converter, which is termed resonant converter PFC as shown in Fig. 4(b)
this converter has yet to gain widespread acceptability due to its
[54].
compatibility with systems that feature a front isolated-low-frequency
transformer and phase current with significant total harmonic distor­
3.1.2. Interleaved boost converter topology
tion (THD). In [71], the authors discussed a design methodology for
One of the significant limitations of the conventional boost converter

Lb Db Lb Db
D3 Lr
D3 D1
D1
Battery

Cb Cr +
+

AC input Dr
AC input Sb Sb
C0
Battery
-
-

D4 D2
D4 D2 Saux

Auxiliary circuit
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Working diagram of (a) Conventional boost converter (b) ZVT boost converter topologies.

6
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

L1
D1
L1
S1
L2
D1 D3 D2 L2
D1 D3 S2
Cb + L3
S3 +

Battery
-
AC input

Battery
S1 Co
AC input

-
S2 D1
D4 D2 D2
D4 D2 D3

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Circuit diagram of (a) Interleaved boost converter (b) Interleave buck converter charging topology.

passive components in interleaved buck converters; however, the con­ [83,84].

trol design strategy is not explained. The paper [72] presents an alter­
nate modeling and implementation approach for interleaved converters
based on a direct relationship between every inductor leg current and
the duty cycle of its corresponding switches. However, the digital
execution of interleaved buck converters has not been discussed. In [73],
the author discusses a three-leg interleaved buck converter for EV fast-
charging stations. The current control is with the total output current
control decoupled from the circulating current control.
3.1.4. Bridgeless and semi bridgeless boost converter
The conventional and interleaved boost converters have input rec­
tifiers to convert AC into DC first; however, this converter named
‘bridgeless boost converter’ itself says that it does not have an input
diode rectifier. Hence this converter will eliminate the issues related to
the input diode bridge, such as heat management. At the same time, in
this topology, both the switches are coupled, and the common mode
adds more input noises [74–77]. However, sensing the input voltage in
bridgeless PFC is quite tricky because of the floating input lines to the
PFC ground, as shown in Fig. 6(a) [78].
Other bridgeless topologies are being studied, such as the Dual boost
converter, where the switches of the bridgeless converter are decoupled
[79]. Dual boost topology is similar to two parallel-connected boost
converters, as shown in Fig. 6(b). This topology reduces the switching
losses as we conduction loss at light loads. However, the issue of floating
input lines is still there [80]. This issue is addressed in the semi-
bridgeless converter, as shown in Fig. 6(c). The semi-bridgeless
voltage and current sensing can quickly be done through a resistance
method or a Hall Effect sensor [75]. Two slow operating diodes connect
the converters ground to the input source in a semi-bridgeless PFC boost
converter, as discussed in [81,82]. Diodes have lower conduction losses
because the current does not always pass through them. After all, in­
ductors have a low impedance at supply frequency. However, only field-
effect transistor intrinsic body diodes will carry a considerable current.
The switches are exposed to more stress than a typical converter
There are some other hybrid topologies for PFC converters designed
with the combination of two or more enhances the advantages of them,
such as phase-shifted semi-bridgeless boost converter PFC shown in
Fig. 7(b) [85] and Interleaved bridgeless boost converter PFC shown in
Fig. 7(a) [56]. Synthesizer methods can do the current sensing of the
phase-shifted semi-bridgeless boost converter. The size and cost of the
charger will be minimum when this PFC is utilized in the charger. The
interleaved bridgeless topology could be used for the charger above 4
kW power ratings with low EMI in the input and low ripples at the
output capacitor [86]. The author in [87] discussed an Interleaved
bridgeless converter with reduced input current ripple and output
capacitor voltage ripple with four-channel interleaving inductors. This
design eliminates the diode bridge rectifier and addresses the tempera­
ture control issue. However, it suffers from EMI and component stress
because its output is floating.
3.1.5. Resonant circuit-based boost converter
The conventional boost converter has an issue of power loss for BEV
and PHEV applications. The use of soft switching can help it to overcome
that issue. Hard switching causes boost converter losses in general. At
the same time, soft-switching eliminates switching losses by pushing the
voltage (i.e., drain-source voltage (VDS)) or current (i.e., drain-source
current (IDS)) to zero during the switching transition [88]. The
voltage VDS or the current IDS becomes zero during the switch ON or
turn OFF transition phase. As a result, the voltage and current product
are zero. As a result, switching losses can be minimized, allowing the
device to run at a higher switching frequency, significantly influencing
the converter's volume and heatsink [89]. As presented in Fig. 8, the
soft-switching converter layout comprises two switches: a primary
Switch S1 and an auxiliary switch S2. The primary switch S1 has a higher
duty cycle than the auxiliary switch S2, determining the converter's
average output voltage.
On the other hand, the auxiliary switch S2 allows the primary switch
to function in soft switching mode. The auxiliary switch can operate in

L1 D1 D2 L1 D1 D2 L1 D1 D2
AC input
Co Co Co
+

L2 L2 L2
Battery
Battery

Battery
-

-
-

AC input AC input
S1 D3 D4 S1
S2 S1 S2 S2
G G

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6. Circuit diagram of non-isolated charging topology using (a) Bridgeless boost converter (b) Dual boost converter (c) Semi bridgeless boost con­
verter topologies.

7
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

L1 D1 D3
D2 D4 L1 D1 D2
AC input
L3
Co Co

+
+
L2 L2

-
Battery
L4

Battery -
AC input D3 D4
S1 S2
S1
S2 S3 S4

(a) (b)

Fig. 7. Working diagram of hybrid topologies (a) Bridgeless interleaved boost converter (b) Phase shifted bridgeless boost converter.

Lb Db

Lr
D1 D3

Battery
Cb C0
S1 +
AC Input

Cr -

D4 D2
Dr
S2

RC

Fig. 8. Diagram of Resonant circuit-based Boost converter charging topology.

zero current switching (ZCS) mode due to the existence of the resonance
[90]. Furthermore, by turning on the main switch, the zero voltage
switching (ZVS) mode is ensured resonant circuit-based boost con­
verter's gentle switching features ensure that the converter's size and
weight are reduced since a big heat sink is not required [91]. The con­
verter readily complies with safety standards since the power to the load
is not impeded. Since most resonant conversions directly control the
voltage across a resistive load, the most widely used control method
relies on analog closed-loop control of the output voltage, with the
switching frequency regulated by a voltage-controlled oscillator [92].
However, because most battery chargers work in a current-controlled
mode, closed-loop control of the output converter current is required.
The converter will remain protected even if abnormal situations such as
over-voltage or under-voltage occur. However, this converter is only
suited for 5 kW systems, there is no significant output voltage increase,
and bidirectionality is not achievable.
3.2. Isolated DC-DC converter topologies for EVs charging application
Isolated DC-DC converters are commonly used for vehicles' low and
medium power applications. The most typical topology is the full-bridge
isolated DC-DC converter for EVs charging applications. Generally, there
are three primary stages of operation DC/AC/DC of the isolated DC-DC
converter. The intermediate AC stage boosts the input voltage to a
greater level using a high-frequency transformer (HFT). Galvanic
isolation and high voltage gain are essential features in EVs, and the HFT
may deliver both. The standout topologies for EVs applications of five
main types of standalone DC-DC converters are widely addressed here
[93].
3.2.1. Conventional full-bridge converter
The operation of the full-bridge converter shown in Figure10 can be
divided into three parts, DC to AC conversion at the start and then HFT
with a turn ratio of N to change the magnitude of the voltage, followed
by the AC to DC rectification. The negative part of the B–H curve of the
transformer core is being utilized to decrease the chances of core satu­
ration as current flows in the opposite direction after each half cycle
[94].
As a result, the core flux has altered from negative to positive.
Because of its high efficiency, high power density, reliability, and
isolation capacity, the full-bridge DC-DC converter architecture pre­
sented in [95,96] is highly preferred for Isolated conversion. However,
transformer leakage inductance and external series inductance caused
the drawbacks such as loss of ZVS during turn-on at light loads, sec­
ondary duty cycle loss, high circulating current, and high voltage spikes
on output rectifier diodes. The duty cycle of the pulse width modulation
(PWM) signal may be quickly raised or reduced, ensuring that the output
voltage remains constant even when the input source voltage varies
[97]. However, the duty ratio must be kept above 50 % to safeguard
semiconductor switches; as a result, in two legs with half-period dura­
tions, identical control signals are employed. A high step-up voltage is
feasible when an HFT is utilized. It also offers galvanic isolation between
the input and output sides. The converter's efficiency is around 91.5 % at
a 30 kW load [98]. Fig. 9 displays a current fed full-bridge converter
(FBC). The efficiency may be enhanced by utilizing the ZVS method with
phase-shifted PWM control. Due to the existing fed architecture, EMI

8
M. Khalid et al.
AC grid S1 S3
~AC
Y Cf
B -DC
S4 S2
Rectifier
Fig. 9. EVs charger infrastructure using Isolated full-bridge converter.
filter suppression must comply with IEEE standard-519 [99]. Because of
the considerable electrical stress in the switching circuit, the influence of
the HFT leakage inductance is critical, notwithstanding the converter's
high efficiency. To alleviate the peak voltage issue in the switching
circuit, a clamping circuit (passive/active) is necessary.
3.2.2. Full bridge resonant converter
The Full-Bridge LLC resonant converter (FBLLC), as illustrated in
Fig. 10 [100], is another possible converter for use in the DC-DC stage of
a rapid EVs charger. The LLC resonant converter can perform either as a
voltage or a current source [101]. The FBLLC resonant converter can
operate at high voltages with excellent efficiency and a wide range of
ZVS for the main switches. Furthermore, because the sinusoidal current
waveform is shaped, there is no oscillation voltage and reverse recovery
current on the rectifier diodes [102]. The FBLLC resonant converter
generally utilizes frequency modulation, phase-shift modulation, or a
redesigned structure control technique to perform CC and CV charging
for batteries.
In contrast to frequency modulation, phase-shift modulation can
reduce the transformer's peak-to-peak flux density [103]. The trans­
former's core loss can be reduced considerably, and high efficiency can
be achieved under a light load. The research works in [104–107]
concentrate on the design of LLC resonant converters for an extensive
output voltage range used in battery charge applications. Despite its
numerous benefits, the main disadvantage of this architecture is that it
requires a broad range of switching frequencies to regulate the battery's
output voltage. This complicates the filter and transformer designs
significantly, and the operation of the converter becomes less efficient
once the battery voltage is low. The author in [107] presented a design
AC grid
S1 S3
R
~AC
Y Co
Cf
B -DC
S4 S2
Rectifier
Fig. 10. Full-bridge LLC resonant converter for EVs charging.
9
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
D1
Battery
D3
+
Co
-
HFT
D4 D2
methodology for LLC resonant converters employing a capacitor-diode
clamp to reduce the current under overload scenarios. An interleaved
model of LLC resonant converter is proposed for high-power applica­
tions to minimize output voltage ripple [108] to restrict the impact of
component tolerances. However, outside the resonant frequency oper­
ation of the resonant converter, it loses its significant merits, such as
minimal switching loss and low circulating current. When used under a
higher switching frequency than resonate frequency, the primary
switches of the FBLLC resonant converter suffer from a high turn-off
current. On the other hand, if the switching frequency is fewer than
the resonant frequency, a high frequency circulating current flows on
the primary side. Moreover, a wide range of frequency cause difficulties
in the optimization of the magnetic components.
3.2.3. PWM isolated zero-voltage switching converter
Cold starting, soft switching, and isolation necessitate an isolated
zero-voltage switching (ZVS) DC-DC converter. This architecture fea­
tures simpler circuitry, no full device rating implications, effortless
control, soft switching without extra circuits, and greater efficiency than
traditional full-bridge step-up DC-DC converters [109]. Fig. 11 shows a
dual half-bridge topology on each side of the main transformer used in
this isolated ZVS converter [110]. A tiny parallel capacitor is included in
each switching device for soft switching. Without any extra components,
the ZVS converter achieves unified ZVS in any direction of power flow
[111].
This converter has a high power density since the component sizes
have decreased compared to bridge converters. Control and accessory
power requirements are higher than full-bridge rivals [112]. These new
characteristics enable effective power conversion, simple control, and
Lo
D1 D3
+
Battery
-
HFT
D4 D2
M. Khalid et al.
AC grid
S1
R
~AC
Y Co
Cf
B C2
-DC S2
Rectifier
Fig. 11. Isolated dual half-bridge converter EVs charging.
lightweight, compact packaging. As a result, the ZVS converter topology
is a good substitute for the FBC topology [113]. However, there is still a
lot of voltage stress across the power switches in high-power applica­
tions. As a result, the whole load current must be managed by distrib­
uting DC capacitors (C1-C4) among the four switches (S1-S4). Moreover,
a ripple-free output voltage requires a high filter capacitance (Co).
However, it is challenging to achieve ZVS for lagging leg switches for
moderate loads, and there is an issue with secondary side duty cycle
losses.
Furthermore, ZVS converters are not suitable for high power (>12
kW) automotive applications due to the lack of fault tolerance [114].
Range with full load ZVS can be achieved by combining a full-bridge DC-
DC converter with an auxiliary current source network. The ZVS range is
improved by using a single inductor auxiliary current source network
like the one presented in [115]. However, the uncontrolled added
auxiliary current increases the converter's circulation and conduction
losses. The author in [116] offers passive adaptive auxiliary current
source networks. The auxiliary reactive current is adaptable with a
phase shift between two legs of a full-bridge DC-DC converter.
3.2.4. Isolated phase-shift full-bridge converter
Fig. 12 [117,118] shows that the phase-shift full-bridge (PSFB)
converter is the most common converter utilized in high-power appli­
cations. PSFB converters have ZVS features without auxiliary circuitry.
As a result, PSFB converters have a better total conversion efficiency
than typical FB converters [119]. However, it has drawbacks of higher
conduction losses created by the primary side circulating current and
duty cycle losses due to inefficient power transfer. PSFB converters
AC grid
S1 S3
R
~AC
Y Cf
B -DC
S4 S2
Rectifier
Fig. 12. Phase-shifted full-bridge converter EV charging.
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
Lo
C1 S3
C3
Battery
+
-
HFT
S4 C4
generally provide several appealing characteristics, including soft
switching for primary switches, a simple control mechanism, and min­
imal current stress on devices [120]. However, PSFB converters have
several disadvantages, such as a high circulating current during the
freewheeling time and high voltage stress on the rectifier bridge.
Many studies have presented improvement strategies to address the
shortcomings mentioned above in PSFB converter efficiency and per­
formance. Author in [56], for example, increased the ZVS range of the
PSFB converter and other related converters, allowing the PSFB con­
verter to achieve ZVS in the full-load range; the Author in [121,122]
made a case for lowering the circulating current to reduce losses. In
[123–125], secondary-side conduction loss was reduced, energy transfer
efficiency was increased, and secondary-side ringing was removed.
Although these solutions help with PSFB issues, they increase design
expenses and complicate things.
3.2.5. Isolated multiport converter topologies
The isolated multiport DC-to-DC converter gives a solution to utilize
conditions such as multiple inputs or outputs with needed isolation
between the load and source. The multiport converter is categorized into
three: single input, multiple outputs, multiple-input, and multiple input-
output converters [126–128]. However, various sources can be utilized
to charge the battery higher for EVs' charging applications. Therefore,
multiple input single output with multi winding isolated transformer
could be used, as shown in Fig. 13. The interleaving technique is being
used to connect the input sources to minimize the ripple in the input
current and limit the output voltage ripples [129,130].
The interleaving control technique of connecting in parallel with
Lo
D1 D3
+
Co
Battery
-
HFT
D4 D2
10
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

S5 Lo
AC grid
S7
S1 S3

+
R Co

Battery-1
~AC
Y S8 S6
B -DC S4 S2

AC-DC converter HFT

S9 S11
Lo

+
Co

Battery-2
-
S12 S10

Fig. 13. Pictorial representation of single input multiple outputs isolated charger.

shifted communication of different phases would highly improve the
performance of the DC-to-DC converter [131]. This controller utilizes
the PWM switching technique for all the switches. Model predictive
controller (MPC) has the capability of bidirectional power flow with a
high energy density that improves the usefulness and functionality of the
converter. However, the drawback of MPC is that it has a high compo­
nent count and synchronization is difficult [132,133]. Also, the sensi­
tivity of the load step on the duty cycle makes it difficult to analyze the
steady-state and transient conditions of MPC. The detailed comparative
analysis of isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters for EVs charging
applications is summarized in Table 3 [48,134–136].
4. Development in converter topologies for fast charging
Fast charging stations are divided into two types based on bus design:
common AC-bus architecture and common DC-bus architecture
[137,138]. Fig. 14 shows a common AC bus design structure with a
common connection on the AC grid side and a dedicated separate AC-DC
converter and high-frequency transformer for each charging station
[139–141]. However, this architecture has certain drawbacks, such as
the necessity for a high number of equipment, which increases the
number of devices and control circuits for each charging unit, lowering
the system's efficiency and dependability. As illustrated in Fig. 15, the

Table 3
Comparative analysis of isolated and non-isolated DC-DC converters for EVs charging applications [48,134–136].
Type Topologies Required devices count Merits and drawback

Non-Isolated DC- Conventional boost 1L,1D,1S,2C + Rectifier bridge Simple circuit to control, low cost, high ripples, large capacitor, low power rating, and,
DC converter converter low voltage gain.
Interleaved boost 2L, 2D, 2S, 2C (Subject to dimension) + Simple in control, reduces ripples in input current, high gain in voltage, large
converter Rectifier bridge component count, high switching loss, high power application.
Interleaved buck 3L,3D, 3S, 2C (Subject to dimension) + Reduces component size, simple in control, reduces ripples in input current, large
converter Rectifier bridge component count, high switching loss, high power fast charging application.
Bridgeless boost 2L, 2D, 2S, 1C Reduce device count, Reduce power loss, Difficult for current sensing, High input noise.
converter
Resonant boost 2L, 2D, 2S, 4C + Rectifier bridge Soft switching possibilities, reduction in heat dissipation, size reduction, minute gain in
converter voltage, no bidirectional capacity.
Conventional full 1L, 4D, 4S, 2C + Rectifier bridge, 1HFT High range of output voltage, galvanic isolation, reduction on voltage stress on
bridge switches, large capacitor requirement, clamp circuit is needed, high current stress.
Isolated DC-DC Full bridge resonant 1L, 4D, 4S, 2C + Rectifier bridge, 1HFT Reduction in voltage stress across switches, high conversion efficiency, high power
converters converter rating (FC), complex control, and reduction in efficiency under low voltage operation.
ZVS PWM converter 1L, 4D, 4S, 6C + Rectifier bridge, 1HFT No need for clamping circuit, high power density, reduction in switching losses, large
number of capacitors, fault tolerance capability is low.
Phase shifted Full 1L, 4D, 4S, 2C + Rectifier bridge, 1HFT Simple design and control architecture, capable of fast charging applications, voltage
bridge stress is high and reduction in efficiency under low voltage operation.
Multiport isolated 2L, 12D, 12S, 2C (Depends on Lowest ripples in output voltage, very high voltage gain, bidirectional possibility of
categorization) + Rectifier bridge, 1HFT power flow, difficulties in synchronization, high sensitivity toward duty change.

11
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

AC-DC conversion DC-DC conversion stage with isolation

R +
~AC -DC ~AC +
Y ~ ~ Point-I

Available multiple charging ports

B ~AC -
-DC - -DC

R
+ ~AC +
Y ~AC -DC ~
B ~ Point-II
-
-DC - ~AC -DC

R +
Y ~AC ~AC +
-DC ~ ~
B -DC -DC -Point-n
- ~AC
AC grid
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of fast charging station with common AC bus architecture.

DC-DC conversion EV fast/regular charging port Wind integration

AC-DC
Intermediate

conversion + +
-DC
BESS

-DC ~AC
R ~AC + - -DC -DC -DC
Y - AC-DC Conversion

Bipolar common DC
-DC R p
- + + ~AC
B -DC EV Y z
charging -DC n
Common B Isolation/
- -DC - port
AC grid DC bus step-down -DC -DC
transformer
-DC -DC
AC grid
EV fast/regular charging port BESS/PV integration

(a) (b)

Fig. 15. (a) Fast charging station with unipolar dc voltage bus proposed in [63] (b) Fast charging station with bipolar dc voltage bus proposed in [64].

common DC bus architecture consists of a central AC-DC converter with
a single low-frequency transformer and a separate non-isolated DC-DC
converter for each charging station [142,143]. The inclusion of DC links
in the topology makes it modular and aids in integrating energy storage
systems (ESS) and renewable energy into the system.
Further, unipolar DC-bus and bipolar DC-bus architecture are two
types of common DC-bus architecture. Fig. 15(a) shows the unipolar
layout for the rapid charging station adopted in [144,145]. The line-
frequency transformer provides necessary isolation between the AC
and DC sides. The cascade H-bridge (CHB) multilevel converter pro­
duces a unipolar common DC voltage bus at the output, allowing com­
mon AC to DC conversion for all charging points. An LLC resonant
converter might conduct the power interface from the dc bus to the
integrated EV battery or storage [146]. The proposed [147,148]
charging station is depicted in Fig. 15(b) in bipolar dc bus design. The
output of the bipolar dc bus has three polarities, which are needed to
feed the multilayer DC-DC converter. The main benefit of this archi­
tecture is that it improves the fast charging station's integration and
power capabilities while lowering THD. On the other hand, this method
requires extra DC power balance management contrivance [149].
4.1. Fast charging infrastructure: requirements and challenges
One of the biggest challenges of EVs is driving range anxiety and
charging time. To increase the popularity of EVs worldwide, there is a
strong need for such charging infrastructure, which may be able to work
as the current exiting oil station. A fast-charging station can charge an
electric vehicle up to 80 % state-of-the-charge (SoC) within a half-hour
of charging time [150,151]. Fast-charging stations are required to be
placed mainly in commercial and residential areas. Charging stations in
this area may lead to a surge in power demand in the existing power
distribution system, failing to satisfy the adequate demand. The factor of
fast EV chargers, such as the desired level of charging (level-3), per­
centage load of EV penetration, and scheduled usages of the vehicle, can
quickly overload the distribution lines and transformers [152]. EV load
penetration in the grid leads to significant voltage deviation, an increase
in the peak demand, transformer losses, and higher-order current har­
monics distortions due to the nonlinear nature of EV load and a decrease
in the life of distribution equipment.
In contrast, the distribution network needs to follow the standards
IEEE 519–1992, IEC 61000–3-12/2–4, and EN50160 [1]. These impacts
on the equipment significantly affect the newly developing smart grid's
reliability, security, efficiency, and economy. Compared with the no
penetration of EV load to a transformer, the life of transformers reduces
to 200–300 % by 50 % of EV penetration [3].
Further, the life of transformer insulation is being studied in the
paper [153] under different EV penetration. The aging effect of a low-
voltage transformer is being modeled and simulated with various

12
M. Khalid et al.
percentages of PEV penetration [154]. It was shown that aging is
quadratic due to PEV load. [155] have demonstrated the impact of EVs
on underground distribution cables. It would be sufficient, whereas 30 %
penetration of EV load demands 108kVA with a line current of 163A.
Hence, the transformer needed to be replaced by 125kVA, and 4 × 95
mm2 must replace conductors to deal with extra EVs, load growth, and
additional peak load.
ESS can mitigate these impacts by the fast-charging station V2G ar­
chitecture to shape the peak power demand with additional network
services [156,157]. An energy storage system (ESS) can also control the
voltage dip in a considerable voltage drop [22]. Integration of renew­
able energy resources within the distribution system can minimize the
impact of fast charging. For example, the EV battery can be charged
through integrated solar PV energy during the scheduled daytime to
manage the overloading of the distribution network [158]. Various
methods for energy storage have been shown in the literature to be used
along with charging stations [22]. A combined model of a fast-charging
station and battery energy storage system (BESS) with superconducting
magnetic energy storage is proposed in [159], which optimizes the rate
of change of power and power magnitude of the fast-charging station by
Hybrid energy storage systems compensation. There are various
methods to place the EV fast charger in the network studied in [160,161]
by considering factors such as optimal voltage deviation, voltage
sensitivity factor, minimal power loss, etc.
4.2. Fast charger's AC-DC conversion topologies
4.2.1. Three-phase bridgeless boost converter
Much Like a single-phase bridgeless boost converter, a three-phase
bridgeless boost converter like the one depicted in Fig. 16 might
benefit from power factor adjustment [162]. However, it also favors
increasing power capability, lowering switch stress, and shrinking the
filter size. The three-phase single-switch boost PFC converter features
zero-current turn-on for the switch, no reverse recovery in the diode,
operates at a fixed frequency, is easy to regulate, and is cost-effective.
Still, it is only suitable for low-to-medium power conversions [163].
With substantial harmonic content of fifth and seventh harmonics,
converters running with a constant duty cycle in the control of the
bridgeless boost converter have a relatively low power factor. While
using variable duty cycle control, the findings show a substantial
improvement. Compared to a constant duty cycle, the power factor is
nearly twice as high, but the total harmonic distortion of current (THDi)
is low due to fewer semiconductor losses. To decrease the losses and size
of the converter, many control techniques are addressed, including
sliding mode control [164], sinusoidal PWM [163], hysteresis current
+ nation converters. In author proposes an active current filter feature
S1 S3 S1
V1 L1
Unipolar DC bus
V2 L2
Cf
V3 L3
S2 S4 S2
AC grid side
- ever, it operates on the same principles as a three-phase bridgeless boost
Fig. 16. Circuit diagram of three-phase bridgeless boost converter for unipolar
bus architecture.
13
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
control, and space vector modulation [165]. Furthermore, the boost
inductor has significant power stress for all control systems. However, it
can only function in bidirectional mode with step-down mode during dc-
to-ac power conversion and step-up mode during ac-to-dc power con­
version or rectifier.
4.2.2. Three-phase three-level neutral point clamped converter
Neutral point clamped (NPC) multilevel inverters are well docu­
mented in the literature; however, the NPC's reverse operation (AC to
DC) will be discussed here. The three-phase three-level NPC converter
structure is shown in Fig. 17, which is a little complex [166]. Therefore,
it requires more components, but the increased complexity has many
advantages, including improved voltage behavior, smaller filter sizes,
lower acoustic noise, less EMI, and a power factor that is close to unity
[167]. Because half reduces the voltage stress on components due to the
positive, negative, and zero state DC link voltage, the blocking voltage
capacity required by components is also reduced by half.
As a result, it necessitates low-cost, low-power components. It has an
immense power capacity and the ability to connect several input sour­
ces. The 3-level NPC converter, among the different 3-level AC/DC
converters, provides excellent reliability, safety, low input harmonics,
and a low-rated voltage [168]. However, the NPC converter has a
fundamental problem with power imbalance between the positive and
negative DC-buses; this imbalanced power can result in a lower grid-side
current, which can cause grid instability. The author has introduced an
external converter approach to compensate for the DC component of NP
current to reduce the DC-link voltage imbalance produced by asym­
metrical loads [169]. A compensator that determines the amount of
current that the external converter must inject at NP controls the DC-link
voltage differential between the positive and negative poles in this
approach. However, it requires an additional power hardware circuit
and becomes complex and costly.
4.2.3. AC to DC matrix converters topology
Matrix converters were first created as a potential AC/AC converter
topology and later expanded to AC/DC topology and various other uses
[170]. Direct matrix converters and indirect matrix converters are the
two types of matrix converters. The AC/DC matrix converter derives
most of its advantages from the indirect matrix converter. It has favor­
able characteristics such as bidirectional conversion, the elimination of
massive energy storage components, and the reduction of device losses,
among others [171]. The structure of an AC/DC matrix converter is
virtually identical to that of a voltage source bridge-type converter,
except that it uses bidirectional switching components, as shown in
Fig. 18. Matrix converters give a well-controlled rectification as
compared to traditional bridge-type converters. This eliminates the
requirement for a separate DC voltage control mechanism. [172] goes a
step further and examines many AC/DC multilevel and matrix combi­
using an AC to DC matrix converter [173]. Another PFC topology [174]
is a three-phase to one-phase cycloconverter based on a matrix converter
with wave modeling of redundant switches used to build the filter to
eliminate the harmonics. In paper [175], the author uses an indirect
matrix converter to directly convert grid ac power to battery voltage.
The dual-active bridge handles power factor adjustment and power
distribution simultaneously. However, this converter assumes the
permission of the double-frequency current ripple to the battery;
moreover, this circuit is considered a potential for high-efficiency (97 %)
and high-power-density (4 kW/L) electric car onboard chargers.
4.2.4. Three-phase Vienna rectifier
Fig. 19 shows the structure of a three-phase Vienna rectifier. How­
design with fewer active switches [176]. The regulation of high-
frequency PWM is used to control the Vienna Rectifier. It possesses
the inherent advantages of the accessible neutral point, making it
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Sa1 Sb1 Sc1 +

Dc1

One Phase Leg

Sc2
L1 Da1 Db1 C2
Sa2 Sb2

Bipolar DC bus
L2

L3

Sa3 Da2 Sb3 Db2 Sc3

AC grid side
C1

Sa4 Sc4
Dc2
Sb4
-

Fig. 17. Working diagram of three-level three-phase NPC AC-DC conversion for EV charger.

Sa1 Sb1 Sc1 L4 +

Sa2 Sb2 Sc2

L1
V1

Unipolar DC bus
One phase Leg

L2 C3
V2 C2

L3 C1
V3
Sa3 Sb3 Sc3

AC grid side
Sa4 Sb4 Sc4

Fig. 18. Circuit diagram of matric AC-DC converter for application of fast charging of EVs.

favorable for fast charging DC bus architecture [177]. The commutation
of the switches during turning off is taken care of by diodes which means
this converter has no dead time issue. However, this converter requires a
high voltage on the output DC side. Since one of the three controlled
switches remains turned off at all times, the minimum voltage across the
capacitors will be the line's peak to the input AC voltage line. Further,
Unbalanced grids degrade the performance of the Vienna rectifier to­
pology by generating ripples in the dc-link voltage and input active/
reactive power that are double the fundamental frequency. Therefore,
the minimum DC voltage needed to be at least twice the line to line AC
voltage [178].
The publication [179] presents a controller with a constant power
strategy that can remove power ripples; however, its operating area is
relatively small. For increasing the power density of the converter, high-
speed current controllers are required. The paper [180] shows how the
operating region of a constant power control approach can be expanded
by inserting a modest amount of power ripple. The author in [181] has
presented a 10 kW converter with high-switching frequency converters
and a low utility current harmonic of 1.4 %. Moreover, its bipolar nature
of DC output with high power application makes it a suitable converter
for the fast charging bipolar DC-bus architecture.
4.2.5. Quasi-Z source converter
The Z-source converter was first defined as an impedance network
between the power source and the switch network in 2002. The ability to
alter the output voltage regardless of the magnitude of the input bus

14
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Da1 Db1 +
Dc1
C2

L1
DSa1
DSa3 DSb1 DSb3 DSc1 DSc3

Bipolar DC bus
L2

One phase leg

L3

S1 S2 S3
C1
DSa2 DSa4 D DSc2 DSc4
Sb2

Da2 Db2 DSb4 Dc2

-

Fig. 19. Pictorial representation of the three-phase Vienna charging topology.

voltage is one of the key advantages of the Z-source converter [182]. constant input current and low voltage stress on capacitors. However,
Therefore, the impedance network has been combined with other con­ this converter increases the component count. The comparison of the
verter topologies to create new converters that can both buck and boost. AC-DC converters used for EV charging is tabulated in Table 4.
For bidirectional grid interfacing converters, the aforementioned capa­
bility has shown to be extremely useful. [183] presented a bidirectional 5. Concept of modular multilevel converters for EVs
Z-source converter using an impedance network coupled to a voltage transportation
source converter. However, the main disadvantage of this converter is its
discontinuous input current, which might reduce the battery life of EVs. Typical characteristics of a multilevel converter to reduce the stress
Therefore, the quasi-Z source converter (QZS) [184] is a modified Z- on the circuit component and size make it more inclined toward fast EV
source converter used to avoid the discontinuous current issue. The QZS chargers. It also helps to reduce the size and cost of filters while adding
network has several significant features, including constant input cur­ more components and complicated control. Single-phase onboard
rent, minimal voltage stress on capacitors, and common ground between chargers are more popularly used in EVs. A single-phase unidirectional
the circuit's input and output. Because of these characteristics, this multilevel on-board charger is generally used for low power charging
impedance network is appropriate for a wide range of applications. where the characteristics of multilevel converters may not be adequately
Maintaining a constant input current while controlling various voltages utilized. However, a three-phase bidirectional multilevel structure is
makes it a viable candidate for AC-DC conversion for quick charging. recommended for fast charging applications. These converters can give
Fig. 20 shows a modified quasi-z source converter that can simulta­ excellent power quality with low noises, THD, and almost ripple-free
neously link two energy storage devices [185]. However, this converter output voltage. These converters could be utilized in applications like
has a limitation of low voltage gain in conversion. To boost the voltage charging stations [191].
and gain the QZS impedance network, high-frequency transformers Explaining further multilevel application, the concept of Modular
were utilized in [186], and coupled inductors were used in [187]. multilevel converters (MMCs) with needed quality such as modularity
However, voltage/current stress on the diodes and switches will increase for enhancing power rating, high-quality output waveforms for charging
and have higher weight, volume, and power loss. In [188] author pre­ standard, transformerless operation with high power density, higher
sented a high-step-up QZS converter to obtain significant voltage gains;
this converter employs a hybrid switching capacitors switched-inductor
Table 4
technique. The discussed converter overcomes the basic QZS converter's
Comparative analysis of AC-DC converters topologies for EV charging applica­
voltage gain limitation while maintaining its key benefits, such as
tions [40,189,190].
AC-DC converter Required Merits and Drawbacks
topologies components
Charging point Three-phase 3L, 6S, 0D, 1C High efficiency, no need for neutral
+ - bridgeless boost connection, less component required,
converter high stress, and complex control
C2 Three-phase three- 3L, 12S, 6D, 2C Distribute voltage stress, high power
AC-DC conversion
Fast charging point

AC grid L1 level NPC rating, bipolar output, large components

converter requirement, and complex control
+ Three-phase matrix 4L, 12S, 0D, 3C Higher efficiency, bidirectional power
L2 converter flow capability, high power density, and
S higher component counts
C1
C3 Three-phase Vienna 3L, 3S, 18D, 2C Control is simplest, with no need for
rectifier neutral connection, high efficiency, low
output current ripple, and higher
- component count
Quasi-Z source 5L, 1S, 6D, 3C Bidirectional power flow, multiple
converter output charging points, discontinuous
input current, and low voltage gain
Fig. 20. Power conversion circuit diagram using the quasi Z-source converter.

15
M. Khalid et al.
efficiency, fault-tolerance ability, and low EMI is becoming the new
variety of multilevel converters [192,193]. The application of MMCs for
transportation is gaining much attention over convention two-level
converters due to its paramount quality in terms of waveform
improvement, reduction in devices losses, lower electromagnetic inter­
ference, and common-mode voltage (CMV); many topologies of the
multilevel converter with their applications are explored in [194].
However, the major challenge for the application of MMCs is the
assembling of converters and balancing of the DC link capacitors.
Vehicle safety standard (ISO26262) enforces the topologies to provide
fault tolerance capability with enhanced scalability flexibility in as­
sembly, especially under limp home load. The aforementioned features
can be achieved by MMC, which has gained attention in battery charging
infrastructure, battery ESSs, emerging electric ships, and battery EVs
[22]. However, some operational issues related to the assembling and
control of MMC are discussed in detail with examples.
The three-phase configuration of the MMC is shown in the Figure.
Depending upon the application's required power scalability and con­
trol, the MMC can be designed using submodular (SMs) variants, such as
isolated or non-isolated DC-DC converter topologies. The most
commonly used SMs for electric transportation applications are half-
bridge and full-bridge isolated DC-DC converters, as shown in Fig. 21
[192,195,196].
Comparatively challenging of the MMC are as follows: output ter­
minal parameters (current/voltage), balancing of SM capacitor/ SOC,
minimizing circulating current in inner loops, and voltage ripple of SM
capacitor, input grid standards (IEE-1547). The control of these pa­
rameters is a necessity for the safe and reliable operation of the MMC.
The issues related to SMs capacitors majorly depend on the capaci­
tors' suitable sizing and voltage balancing technique. A proper voltage
balancing technique for capacitors is essential to adjust the voltage of
the floating capacitor within the tolerance band [197]. The capacitor's
voltage balancing is categorized as distributed and centralized control
approaches. A different method of voltage balancing of the capacitors,
such as sorting algorithm and individual cell balancing, is discussed. A
closed-loop controller is utilized in the distributed control method to
regulate each SM capacitor voltage by a fixed reference voltage. How­
ever, an algorithm regulates each SM capacitor voltage for the central
control.
Another major issue in the desired operation of the MMC is circu­
lating currents in inner loops under a different mode of operation. The
appropriate sizing of arm inductance helps minimize the circulating
current to a certain point. However, the size of the arm inductor puts a
significant contribution to the overall size, weight, and cost of the
SM1
SMn
SM1
AC grid side
Phase Arm
SMn
Fig. 21. Schematic diagram of modular multilevel converters for topology for EV charging infrastructure.
16
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
converter, which is especially detrimental for EVs charging applications
[198]. Therefore, it is essential to have a circulating current clampdown
closed-loop active control to minimize the size of the arm inductance.
Other than that, the selection of the arm inductance is limited mainly
due to switching frequency components and not by low-frequency
harmonics.
Further, the voltage ripple of the SMs capacitor is also one of the
significant issues in the MMC-fed charging infrastructure [199]. These
ripples in voltage are dominated by 2nd and 4th order harmonic com­
ponents, leading to increases in the CC with associated ripple frequency.
Oversizing the SMs capacitors is one way to reduce voltage ripple, which
will lead to increases in the size and cost of the overall system. However,
another way to reduce voltage ripple is by injecting high-frequency CMV
into the modulation signals. Various methods for minimizing SM ca­
pacitors have been reported [200]. Among the described methods, the
injection of CMV at three times and two times the fundamental fre­
quency of the CC gives the most effective solution.
Another application of MMC to feed a 4.16 kV, 3.9 MW propulsion
motor is utilized in [201] to reduce the motor terminal over-voltage and
motor insulation failure. Further, an application of MMC for ultra-fast
charging architecture with a full-bridge AC/DC converter employed
module with integrated batteries and full-bridge isolated DC/DC con­
verter is described in [202] to minimize the power flow from the grid.
However, more work is needed to address the issues of MMC connected
with the grid, such as power quality, an optimal connection of EVs to the
grid, security, thermal loading on the line, and finance of evolving smart
grids. The integration of the PV panel modular feature of the MMC is
being utilized in [203] for direct connection to ac/dc grids without a
transformer. Besides, it could help for the changing of vehicles at night-
time by integrating a feasible option of BESS. Another MMC variant for
wireless power transfer connects the primary converter and resonant
circuit to balance the capacitor voltages with a low ripple.
One primary concern in the MMCs is their low reliability due to a
significant component count. The reliability of MMC can be evaluated
based on the potential failure of each component. The delicate compo­
nents such as switching devices and capacitors are majorly responsible
for the failure of the power converter. The reasons for the disastrous
failure of IGBT are discussed in [204]. Even the modular nature of the
MMC helps to improve the reliability by augmenting redundant SMs in
the arm. However, this faulty SM can be diagnosed by a fault diagnosis
system with quick detection and make it bypass continuous converter
operation. Finally, it could be said that the future of MMC for electric
transportation applications and autonomous e-mobility is widely related
to the evolution of advanced converter topologies, advanced control
+
SM1 SM1
DC bus/fast charging port
SMn SMn
One phase
Submodul
SM1 SM1
SMn SMn
-
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

schemes, and fault-tolerant strategies with enhanced reliability.

6. Concept of universal charger L1 D5 D6

D1 D3 S2

Achieving the high power factor at the charger's input and low

-
harmonic distortion is essential, whereas active PFC converters are L2
pretty popular, as discussed above. However, the discussed boost AC input C1
S1 C2

+
converter-based PFC topology gives efficient operation under the

scheme when the output DC voltage exceeds the input voltage peak.
Moreover, unidirectional chargers with Rectifier Bridge have high
power loss in diodes, which bridgeless topologies could eliminate;
however, it adds electromagnetic interference. Because of this reason,
the charger for the versatile range (100 V–270 V RMS) has an output
voltage range >380 V dc. This will limit the converter to specific ap­
plications [205]. The terms ‘universal’ itself says that acceptable to all
under different variations in the input and output side of the charger. A
universal charger is a charger that can adjust to a large varying type of
input voltage and range to give the desired output range [206,207].
Hence converters that can be used to upstream or downstream the
output voltage and maintain a high input power factor could be used in
universal charger design. Such charger can be classified into two cate­
gories as follows:
6.1. Single switch buck-boost (SSBB) configuration
Several buck-boost converters with a single switch are available,
such as conventional buck-boost converter, flyback converter, single-
ended primary inductance converter (SEPIC), Cuk converter, etc.
[208], as shown in Fig. 22. In general, the battery charger gets minimal
effect from the low-frequency ripples in the charging of the EVs; how­
ever, the size of the converter due to its passive components is directly
related to their energy storage capability during diode operations [5].
These converters are capable of giving a flexible output voltage in the
required range; however, stresses (voltage and current) on the switch
and other components are on the high side compared to the boost PFC
converters. Hence, their application limits only to a low power range.
6.2. Two-switch buck-boost configurations
There are two essential requirements of converters operating at a
high-power level, i.e., high efficiency and compact size. There is a linear
view of the research to utilize the two-switch buck-boost configurations
to operate a wide output voltage range. TSBB can provide non-inverting
output voltage and low voltage stresses on components of the converter
in comparison to SSBB [209]. Buck, boost, and buck-boost in cascaded
form make Two-switch buck-boost (TSBB) converters. TSBB configura­
tions have been widely used for various applications such as power
supply equipment, fuel cell system, and telecommunication sectors.
There are several cascaded models, such as buck-cascaded buck-boost
(BuCBB), boost cascaded by buck (BoCBu) as depicted in Fig. 23, and
boost cascade by buck-boost (BoCBB), and interleaved-cascaded buck-
Battery
D4
D2
Fig. 23. Two-stage universal charger for EV using boost cascaded
buck converter.
boost (ICBB) converters. The ICBB and BuCBB converters have limita­
tions in terms of the additional requirement of an LC filter on the input
side for the operation of the converter in continuous conduction mode
when the buck switch is turned off [207,210].
Boost configuration as an initial part of the cascaded model as BoCBu
and BoCBB do not have the same limitation because the inductor is
inherently present at the input side, making them highly efficient and
compact converters. However, TSBB topologies with boost configuration
have zero in the right-hand plane, limiting the bandwidth of the control
loop and transient response's deterioration under continuous conduction
mode operation. The researchers have tried different control topologies
to overcome this issue, such as Input voltage feed-forward control,
Voltage mode control with two PID (proportional–integral–derivative)
controllers, average current mode control, and Peak-current mode
control. All mentioned control strategies give satisfactory results under
different ranges of input and output voltage variation, while isolation is
not present in any of these chargers [211–213].
7. Advancement in EV charging methodologies
The commercialization of the Li-ion batteries for EVs is an outcome
of their characteristics such as higher energy density, longer lifespan,
and the highest cost compared to their lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride,
and other alternatives [214]. The rising demand for Li-ion batteries for
EVs has augmented the enlargement of some new optimal charging
methods to advance the speed and consistency of the charging technique
without weakening the battery performance. The charging of the battery
is the most crucial issue in battery management systems (BMS), as
described in [215]. In general, a battery charger has three following
functions, delivering charge to the battery, optimizing the charge rate;
and terminating the charge. Depending on the battery's chemistry, the
charge can be delivered to the battery through different charging
methods. However, the Li-ion battery needed a particular charging
method since the charging method and battery temperature dramati­
cally affects the actively electrochemical reactions that happen

L1 D
D3 C1 L2 D1 D3
D1
C1
+
+
Battery

D C2 C2
Battery

S
-
-

AC input AC input S
D4 D2 D4 D2

(a) (b)
Fig. 22. Single switch universal charger using (a) non-isolated Cuk converter (b) isolated flyback converter.

17
M. Khalid et al.
underneath the battery, which directly affects the life cycle of the bat­
tery. The charging time, charging efficiency, and impact on battery life
cycles vary by algorithm, as do the implementation complexity, sensors
required, cost, and popularity. They range from the simplest charging
algorithms, such as CC-CV, to the most inventive, such as closed-loop
model-based algorithms [216].
In general, charging current magnitude is directly associated with
the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI). It will generate a
thick SEI film under high current magnitude. Because an increase in SEI
film thickness induces an increase in battery impedance, the thickness of
the SEI film has an inextricable link with battery performance.
Furthermore, in the final charging phase of a battery, an extremely high
current causes the powerful crystal to build up around the terminal post,
resulting in irreversible damage to the battery [217,218]. The ultimate
objective is for an EV with a 100-mile range (24 kWh battery pack) to
charge fully in 10 min with a 6C rate (C-rate refers to the capacity
discharge rate based on its maximum capacity. 1C rate means the bat­
tery will be discharged entirely within one hour based on the discharge
current. This corresponds to a discharge current of 100 amps for a bat­
tery with 100 amp-hours capacity). Increasing the charging rates alone
may result in a significant temperature rise and accelerate side reactions
in the battery. The trade-off between quick charging and battery health
must be considered simultaneously. As a result, the battery optimal
charging system has gotten a lot of interest in the EV/PHEV research
field.
As a result, finding the best method for charging a battery in the
shortest time while maintaining high efficiency and avoiding damage to
the cells has become a new challenge for many experts. Over these years,
many methods have been studied to find the best charging strategies; in
this section, the many charging methods for EV batteries are deployed.
Numerous studies have been focused on developing innovative charging
technologies that reduce charging time and increase battery life. The
classification of the different changing methods is described in Fig. 24
[219].
7.1. CC, CV, and CC-CV charging methods
Constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) are pre-set in­
struction-based passive charging schemes. CC charging needs to main­
tain a constant current throughout. This method has a limited current to
avert the overcurrent, but it is easy to determine the charging current.
This method is commonly used to charge nickel‑cadmium batteries
[220]. However, it has an issue in the state of charge (SoC) estimation
due to cumulative errors, which can cause overcharging or under­
charging, leading to a reduction in the life cycle of the battery. A shallow
rate of CC charging (0.01C-0.1C) provided continuously to overcome the
EVs battery charging methods
Static charging Sinusoidal current
based AC charging
CV charging
Battery equivalent circuit
based charging
CC charging
Trickle-CC charging
Standard-CC charging
Fig. 24. Detailed Classification of various charging methods used for battery charging of EVs.
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
battery's self-discharging is termed the Trickle charging method. This
method is widely used for repairing and activating batteries. CV
charging method needs a constant power supply voltage with adjusting
charging current control by estimated SoC [221–223]. However, during
initial charging large current may damage the batteries. A CC-CV
method is driven to take advantage of both CC and CV methods while
incapacitating their drawbacks by optimizing the CC for initial and later
CV changes. Primarily, CC charging is used for up to 85 % of the CC-CV
charging process for Li-ion batteries. The CC-CV charging method pos­
sesses many advantages, such as being easy to design, implement and
operate as it does not require the knowledge of the battery model. The
CC-CV charging process flow chart is shown in Fig. 25(b) [224,225].
However, it has several drawbacks, such as the CV process takes more
considerable time, making it inappropriate for fast charging, higher
polarization voltage due to aging of the battery, inability to distinguish
between the cells, and lack of consideration of battery parameters such
as internal resistance and temperature, etc. may result into a drop of
efficiency.
Modern BMS has seen an addition of a trickle charging with CC-CV as
described in [25,226]. In the first charging stage, trickle charging is
activated only for the deep discharging state of the battery, and in the
last stage, the end of charge is triggered when the charging current drop
to the pre-set threshold current, which makes this method highly
effective to enlarge the life cycle of Li-ion batteries. CC mode is divided
into five-step with CV mode, which accelerates the charging process by
11 %. However, pre-set charging process, especially under CC mode, can
cause a surge in the temperature leading to a reduction in efficiency. A
real-time control charging process based on the prediction of SoC and
SoH is discussed in [227]. An improvement in the CC mode as a pre
accelerated charging method [228] where a high deaccelerating
charging current is being used before CC to reduce the charging time;
however, a temperature control needed to be added for the safety and
efficiency of the battery.
An improvement in CV mode is suggested in [101] as predicted CV
mode, where an improved optimized charging current trajectory is uti­
lized to accelerate the charging process up to 34 % faster with a 7 %
increase in charge efficiency. However, a real-time measured internal
resistance could be used to predict the charging current under CV mode;
temperature predicted close loop needed to be added. The flow chart of
the grey predicted CC-CV charging process is shown in Fig. 25(b), and
the waveform of voltage and current change during charging is shown in
Fig. 25(a).
7.2. Pulse charging method
The pulse charging method was first introduced for fast charging of
Model based charging Optimization based charging
CC-CV charging
Battery electrochemical CT-CV charging
reaction-based charging
Multi-step charging
Voltage & current
pulse charging
Boost charging
18
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Trickle Constant current
charge
Constant voltage/current
Constant voltage fault diagnosis sensors could give more safety and speed. A proper se­
lection of the current waveform can prevent the side reaction affected by
the Li saturation; however, it is a complex task to track the diffusion
coefficient in real-time. Compared with the CC-CV and pulse charging

with the same average current [234], more power loss in pulse charging
Voltage leads to a higher temperature and more battery aging. However, it
Current needed to be explored more with better optimization and cooling
technique for fast charging schemes. The Pulse charging process flow
chart is shown in Fig. 26(b), and the waveform of voltage and current
change during charging is shown in Fig. 26(a).

7.3. Sinusoidal charging method

Charging time The AC charging method, specifically the sinusoidal-ripple current

(SRC) methodology, has recently gotten much attention in Li-ion bat­
(a) Voltage and Current change in CC-CV mode of charging
teries. SRC, except pulse charging, utilizes a sinusoidal current that is
Start superimposed on a DC as the charging current [231]. SRC charging
method aims to minimize frequency-dependent impedance by charging
Setup CC-CV charger Li-ion batteries at an appropriate frequency determined by electro­
chemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) study. Generally, for the SRC
No
Tmin<T<Tmax

Yes

Voltage/ Current characteristic

Vbattery<Vcutoff Trickle mode

Yes Yes
No Voltage
CC mode Vbattery>Vcutoff
Current
No
Vbattery=4.2V

Yes
CV mode Time
(a) Voltage and current of the battery during pulse charging
No Start
Icharge<Icutoff

Yes Setup CC-CV charger

End
(b) Flow chart of the CC-CV mode of charging
No
Tmin<T<Tmax
Fig. 25. (a) Voltage and Current change in CC-CV mode of charging. (b) Flow
chart of the CC-CV mode of charging. Yes

the lead-acid battery with the characteristic to reduce the polarized Vbattery<Vcutoff Trickle mode
voltage and accept the high current methods, then further explored for
other batteries. It adds a shorter rest/discharging duration with a higher Yes Yes No
average current than other charging methods. This charging method can Pulse mode Vbattery>Vcutoff
be described as a discontinuous CC or CV charging model. The type of
pulse used is divided into voltage pulse charging and current pulse
Frequency No
charging. A variation of frequency has been included to categorize the tune
Icharge<Ioptimal
current pulse charging further as follows: constant-current and constant
frequency (CC-CF), constant current and variable-frequency (CC-VF), Yes
and variable-current and constant-frequency (VC-CF) have been pro­ f = foptimal
posed in [229].
Yes
These charging methods based on different charging and rest dura­
tion reduce the possibilities of voltage polarization during the charging No
Icharge<Icutoff
process to poise ion concentration and ensure the internal equilibrium of
the battery. However, the voltage pulse method is further divided into
Yes
variable-duty voltage pulse charging (VD-VPC) and variable frequency
voltage pulse charging (VF-VPC) [230]. VD-VPC has accelerated the End
charging speed by 14 %, enhancing 3.4 % efficiency compared to the CC- (b) Flow chart of the pulse charging method
CV method, while VF-VPC is more efficient (10 %) and faster (24 %).
However, better optimizing the duty and frequency with thermal and Fig. 26. (a) Voltage and current of the battery during pulse charging. (b) Flow
chart of the pulse charging method.

19
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

charging method, the ac-impedance model of a Li-ion battery includes a Start

charge transfer, a Warburg impedance, a double-layer capacitance, an
ohmic resistance, and an anode inductance, are being utilized. In terms No
1 min delay
of charging rate, charging efficiency, and temperature rise, SRC
10<Battery temperature <45

charging is the most efficient when compared to CC-CV charging; SRC Yes
charging improves charging time by 17 %, charging efficiency by 2 %, No
the maximum temperature rises by 45.8 %, and service life by 16.1 % 38<Battery temperature <42 End

[232,233]. However, a battery pack impedance analysis was carried out Yes
in [234,235], using the identical circuit-based model to show that bat­ Step 1
Output capacitor charge
tery impedance is not minimum at the optimum frequency when
incorporating DC offset in SRC charging. Further, an electrical second- No
order RC battery model is presented in [240] to investigate the battery 38<Battery temperature <39 39<Battery temperature <42
impedance with a DC component. This model comprises two RC parallel No
Yes Yes
circuits and a series resistance connection to calculate the measured
Battery temperature check
voltage and current waveforms at different frequencies in the SRC
Battery temperature check

charging process. Detection optimal frequency

CC charging with 0.1C
There is substantial uncertainty on whether SRC-CV charging
methods can boost Li-ion battery charging effectiveness. There are also Sinusoidal charging
some inconsistencies in shown experimental results about temperature
rise during SRC charging, [236] shows a low-temperature rise while
CV charging
[237] has shown a high-temperature increase. In conclusion, more
theoretical and experimental studies are needed to better understand Battery temperature check No
SRC charging before being utilized. The sinusoidal ripple charging
process flow chart is shown in Fig. 27(a), and the waveform of voltage
and current change during charging is shown in Fig. 27(b). Battery current ≤ 0.1C

Yes Step 2
7.4. Multi-step charging method End of charge

Another alternative to reduce the excessively long charging time Battery disconnect
required in the CV phase of the CC-CV charging is multi-step CC Step 3
charging. A high current is needed for the charging process to shorten Output capacitor discharge

the charging time, leading the terminal voltage to quickly reach the (a) Flow chart of the sinusoidal charging method
upper limit of the cut-off voltage while failing to achieve the intended
charging capacity. Multi-stage CC charging can provide a solution to fix
this problem. A stepwise CC charging may be applied based on either the
SoC uppercut interval or the upper cut-off terminal voltage of the bat­
tery. A multi-target function is designed with series constraints based on
the maximum current, SoC, upper and lower cut-off voltage, etc. In
[239], the author used a five-stage current (2.1C, 1.7C, 1.5C, 1.3C, and
1.0C) to charge Li-ion batteries based on an ant colony system algo­
rithm. They can charge the battery to roughly 71 % of its rated capacity
(930 mAh) in 30 min. With a 25 % attenuation ratio, this charging
method can prolong battery cycle life by 25 % compared to the tradi­
tional CC-CV approach. Different algorithms can be used to find the
charging current at each step to obtain better and fast optimization as
the particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique, which is known for its
quick convergence, is being used in [240] to estimate the optimal (b). Battery charger under the SRC charging algorithm [238]

charging current for each step of the multistage CC charging method.

Simulating the behavior of PSO in 16 cells and identifying the weights of
charging time, charging capacity, and shifting condition based on the
upper cut-off voltage was employed to optimize the charging current.
Results have shown that its charging time is reduced by 57 %, with an
enhancement in battery life by 21 % compared with CC-CV charging.
However passive nature of the charging makes it venerable in terms of
actual operating temperature, efficiency, etc. moreover, aging effects on
upper and lower cut-off constraints are difficult to include. The
orthogonal array methodology suggested a four-stage CC charging
method in [241] based on the SoC cut-off interval; the entire charging
process is separated into four stages with each 25 % SoC interval (1.8C,
1.3C, 0.9C, and 0.5C). Results have shown that its charging time is
reduced by 23 %. However, real-time SoC estimation is a challenging
task. The flow chart of the multi-step charging process is shown in
Fig. 28(a), and the waveform of voltage and current change during
charging is shown in Fig. 28(b). Different methods require diverse
convergence times with various charge capacities; the comparison with
the CC-CV charging method of the optimization technique used for
Fig. 27. (a) Flow chart of the sinusoidal charging method. (b). Battery charger
under the SRC charging algorithm [238].
multistep charging is described in Table 5.
7.5. Battery physical model-based charging method
Thus far, only current and voltage constraints are considered in all
charging methods. However, these restrictions do not accommodate the
aging process and side reactions inside the cell. So, they may be overly
cautious for fresh batteries and immensely damaging for older batteries
due to changed behavior and characteristic. Alternative charging algo­
rithms are being developed and studied to solve the challenges of
charging consequences on battery health and aging [242]. The electro­
chemical and equivalent circuit models present a separate genre of
charging methods to compute quantitatively and almost accurately the
amount of battery aging and directly decrease the aging during the
charge period. The commonly used battery physical model-based

20
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Start suitable for simulating significant charging/discharging rates. An

equivalent Thevenin model-based battery charging is described in
Setup CC-CV charger [248,249]. Fig. 29(b) depicts the optimization of the charging process
using a genetic algorithm. The planned SoC during the charging process,
Tmin<T<Tmax
No the SoC at the end of charging, the upper limit of battery temperature,
and the maximum allowable current during the charging process are
Yes considered constraints in this optimization issue. The charging time and
Vbattery<Vcutoff Trickle mode temperature rise of the equivalent circuit/temperature model-based
charging strategy may be reduced by 7.89 % and 38.8 %, respectively,
compared with CC-CV charging. Data proves that the optimization en­
Yes Yes No
CC mode Vbattery>Vcutoff
hances charging performance. However, additional sensors make it
No complex to control. CC-CV is almost the best charging technique for
Vbattery=4.2V
minimizing power loss at the level I while considering the temperature
Yes constant. When comparing the charging efficiency of the optimal cur­
5 step mode charging=I stage rent profile to the CC-CV under the matching conditions of charging
capability and charging duration, only a 0.42 % difference has been
seen. Because the difference in power loss is minimal, and the optimal
Vbattery=4.2V
current profile and CC-CV curves are similar, CC-CV charging can be
Stage+1

Yes thought of as a close approximation to power loss minimization. How­

No ever, for level 2 and level 3 charging, bound with high charging currents,
Icharge<Icutoff
battery temperature control can be achieved by incorporating temper­
Yes ature as a state variable into the power loss model.
End In [245], the author has presented a constant temperature constant
(a) Flow chart of the multi-step charging method current (CT-CV) active technique using a second-order thermal model;
the charging process is divided into three-step. Initially, the battery is
charged with a 2C rate up to a pre-set temperature and then another
Voltage/ Current characteristic

I1
mode of extended constant temperature and then CV mode. A PID
I2 controller is utilized to control the charging current. CT-CV reduces 20
Voltag
I3 e % of the charging time with the same temperature rise as CC-CV.
However, the method is not being tested for fast charging, and accu­
Current
I4
I5
rate sensorless extermination of the temperature is a further challenge in
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 this work.
Charge time The author in [246] has used nonlinear-MPC approaches based on an
(b) Voltage and current waveform during pulse charging method SPM for the close loop charging of the battery to achieve a rapid
charging speed without avoiding excessively aging the cell. However,
Fig. 28. (a) Flow chart of the multi-step charging method. (b) Voltage and the electrodes in the SPM are formed by two single spherical porous
current waveform during pulse charging method. particles that undergo intercalation and de-intercalation; the author has
ignored the variations in electrolyte concentration and potential. The
detailed electrochemical model was discussed in [247]. The author used
Table 5
a linear time-varying MPC to maximize charging poles. The rapid
Quantitative comparison of various Multistep charging methods.
charging process was structured as a restricted linear time-varying MPC
Optimization Convergence Charging Reduction in Improvement
problem by applying a fast-moving horizon estimation to monitor the
technique rate capacity charging in efficiency
(%) time (%) (%)
battery's internal states in model inadequacy, noise, and disturbances.
Furthermore, health-related constraints were factored into the
Taguchi 45 95 11.2 1.02
approach. However, the specified charging strategy charged the battery
technique
Orthogonal 175 94 11.5 1.10 with a maximum current of 15C at first, and the cell voltage exceeded
arrays the upper bound of 4.2 V during charging.
method
Ant colony 58 71 NA NA
7.6. Comparison and design method
system
Battery 1 100 12 0.55
equivalent Different charging methods are offered to achieve trade-offs between
based MSCC certain optimization goals, such as charging time, temperature accel­
Fuzzy logic 115 92 57 0.42 erating rate, charging efficiency with minimum power loss, the
based
complexity of the control method, and battery life cycle. Various vital
aspects must be compared to determine which charging technique is best
charging categorization is shown in Fig. 29(a). for a given application. The qualitative compression in terms of mini­
Regarding controllability of charging parameters, the battery model mum, average, and higher are tabulated in Table 6. To design a new
is deliberately developed to be lower-order and simple [243]. The goal optimal charging method for the battery charging of EVs, the first step
of creating such a battery model is to replicate the real-world dynamics should be to identify the optimization goals, including charging time,
of a battery system under a specific loading current profile. However, charging efficiency, life cycle, and temperature rise. To avoid over­
the prediction of the lower-order model will not be that accurate. Due to charging a cell, the uniformity of each cell in a battery pack should be
its physical-based equations, electrochemical-based models have huge maintained as it is charged.
benefits over comparable circuit models. The Partial-Two-Dimensional Further, the second step is establishing an optimization method by
model is undeniably precise; however, it's very rigorous [244]. The defining the limits of charging parameters such as limits of voltage,
single-particle model (SPM) is good for quick reactions; however, not current, and temperature, then determining the controlled input power,
whether its voltage or current, and choosing the type as Constant,

21
M. Khalid et al. Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084

Main

First order RC
circuit System initial
Electrical circuit
model
Second order Initial UART
RC circuit

Single particle Initial ADC

model

Battery physical Partial two

Electrochemical No
model based dimentional
model
charging model
A/D sensor Charge
If Icharge= Ifuzzy
battery voltage control
Other simplified Yes
model

Battery voltage Battery

Temprature compare equalization
based model
Equivalent
circuit model
Power loss Send voltage to A/D sensor
model URAT battery current

(a) Classification of model-based battery charging method (b) Flow chart of the model-based charging method

Fig. 29. (a) Classification of model-based battery charging method. (b) Flow chart of the model-based charging method.

Table 6
Qualitative comparisons of discussed charging methods.
Methods CC CV CC-CV PC SRC Model-based

Life cycle Low Low Medium Low High High

Control complexity Low Low Medium Medium/High High Medium/High
Charging efficiency Low Low Medium Medium Medium/High High
Charging time Medium High Medium Medium Medium Low/Medium

Variable, Pulse or Sinusoidal and then define the workflow of the
generated advanced optimization algorithm. Furthermore, The BMS
must have well-designed hardware and software, data collecting, high
processing capabilities, and appropriate control to achieve an effective
charging strategy and the management system capability. The optimal
charging strategy should be included in the intelligent BMS. This intel­
ligence BMS will use big data and better infrastructures like optimal
charging piles and smart grids to enable cloud computing, fast charging,
and even energy resource allocation, resulting in a growing city. The
step process for designing an optimal charging method is shown in
Fig. 30.
8. Future aspects of EVs charging development
Despite their low environmental effect and remarkable energy effi­
ciency, EVs have yet to gain widespread acceptance. One of the signif­
icant problems in EVs is a shortage of charging infrastructure. The
development of charging infrastructure necessitates a substantial
financial investment from the governments and private sectors. There
are certain obstacles to overcome for the global success of the installa­
tion of infrastructure, such as codes and standards, construction,
installation costs, utility infrastructure planning, consumer awareness,
metering, contractor roles, and permitting procedures are all things to
consider. The demand for charging infrastructure is fuelled by many

Fig. 30. Step by the process for designing an optimal charging method.

22
M. Khalid et al.
factors such as penetration rates, degree of charging, and range anxiety.
Because of the convenience and low cost of electricity at a lower
distribution level, Levels I and II slow charging will be the most popular
in the futuristic EV world. Home charging will be most crucial for
reaching high rates of EV deployment; however, public charging will be
even more important for getting past the early stages of EV adoption.
This infrastructure is the most cost-effective because it does not require a
wall box. However, as EV battery size and range improvements, and
some EVs may require Level III rapid charging in the future to extend
their driving range, there is a greater demand for off-board charging
infrastructure. Because of the high expense of constructing a fast-
charging infrastructure and the difficulty of extracting vast amounts of
energy from the power grid, overnight home charging and normal
charging will continue to be the most popular car charging methods. For
mass commercialization, the necessity for recharging in the community
and on highways, preferably quick charging, is critical.
Many researchers frequently mention bidirectional converters for
charging applications to enable the V2H power flow, which also helps to
improve the balance load curve and more excellent grid stability;
however, unidirectional converter designs could also provide virtually
the same functionality without the difficulties of back feed, safety, or
islanding protection [145,190]. Thus, it can be said that the future of the
EVs charging development will highly depend on the following factors:
❖ The selection of converter for different charging schemes will
majorly consider charger reliability, durability, and safety which will
help consumer acceptance of EVs.
❖ Due to the high current conduction ability and low cost, IGBT/
MOSFET has been the outstanding choice for bidirectional con­
verters. The Wide bandgap (WBG) devices such as SiC and GaN have
much higher conduction and switching characteristics and can
withstand higher voltage and temperature, better durability, and
higher reliability. Thus, WBG devices have been expected in
emerging applications such as hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy generation and storage. However, WBG devices
now have a relatively higher price; they are still getting to large-scale
applications. The application of WGB devices also may bring chal­
lenges such as matching gate drive, PCB layout, and dead time design
❖ The converter efficiency and reducing charger costs will also be
crucial for developing futuristic chargers.
❖ Converter with suitability for V2G-bidirectional power flow, smart
metering, and communication featuring.
❖ Concerning the power converter control, developing a control
strategy with flexible bidirectional power flow regulation ability,
grid-friendly interaction characteristics, intelligent scheduling
capability, battery life optimization, and multi-function integration
capability is reasonably necessary.
❖ In power converter topologies, developing a bidirectional AC-DC
converter with flexible power level adaptability, high power con­
version efficiency, high reliability, high power density, high inte­
gration, and cost-effective characteristic is quite vital for V2G
applications.
❖ Fast charging systems that can accommodate high-power charging at
the adequate charger placement will provide more flexibility and
choices to the consumer.
❖ Charging method and setting limits for charging time and access
rules to maintain the durability and health of the battery and opti­
mizes charging time.
❖ Developing a suitable charging converter and infrastructure; the
conductors, EV connectors, attachment plugs, devices, power outlets,
or other gear mainly installed to properly transmit energy from the
premises wiring to the EVs are also necessary parts for complete
charging development.
❖ The ease of use of the charger and connector, as well as how user-
friendly consumers consider it; all these things will contribute to
the growth of the EV industry and wide adoption of the technology.
23
Journal of Energy Storage 53 (2022) 105084
❖ International research institutes, utilities, and the automobile in­
dustry should work together to develop global standards that enable
EV consumers to profit from managed charging programs while also
benefiting the electric power system. Commercial enterprises in the
distribution industry also require regulatory procedures and policies
for charging and discharging EVs load.
9. Conclusion
The large-scale integration of EVs with electrical power networks has
brought many opportunities and challenges to the smart grid. In the
smart grid development context, V2G technology becomes an intelligent
way to dispatch power grids by using EVs. Generally, it is essential to
develop a high-performance bidirectional converter and control system
to handle the power flow between the energy storage and the grid
automatically and efficiently. This paper has presented a state-of-the-art
review on advancing converter topologies and charging methodologies
for EV applications. Apart from the conventional topologies, this
manuscript has emphasized the comparative criticism of the recently
proposed EV charging technologies regarding charging methods, control
strategies, and power levels. Further, the presented manuscript has
explained the different on-board and off-board chargers with their
power factor correction (PFC) topologies, drawbacks, and required
modifications. This manuscript has established a pillar of research di­
rections for academic and industrial communities based on the
comparative critics.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Authors Contributions
Mohd Khalid Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Original draft
preparation
Furkan Ahmad Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Original draft
preparation, Revision
B K Panigrahi Supervision, Reviewing and Editing
Luluwah Al- Supervision, Reviewing and Editing, Revision
Fagih
Declaration of competing interest
We don't have any kind of conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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