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 6th edition

Connie L. Dotson
 SIXTH EDITION

FL \DA V E\TALS
RADA \TALS OF

OMENS!
vE-ROLOGY
 My gratitude to

Charley Dotson, and Robert and Mary Bills—

You encourage and inspire me.

And in memory of

Earl Bills, for my first set of micrometers.

A B INTERNATIONAL
BOOK DISTRIBUTORS
DISTRIBUTO1S
NEW DELHI
 SIXTH EDITION

EN TALS OF
DAN/ ENTALS
FU \DAM

DIMENSIONAL
v ET ROLOGY
CONNIE L. DOTSON

..s
• • CENGAGE
CENGAGE
Australia • Brazil • India • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
CENGAGE
Fundamentals of 0 2016, 2006 Cengage
Cengage Learning®.
Learning®
Dimensional Metrology,
Sixth Edition This edition is reprinted with license from Cengage Learning, for sale in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal
and Sri Lanka.
Connie
Connie L.
L Dotson
Dotson
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 CONTENTS

PREFACE X

CHAPTER 11 MEASUREMEN i AND

MEASUREMENT AND METROLOGY
1-1
1-1 Measurement as the Language of Science 2
1-2 The Uses of Measurement 3
1-3 Communications about Measurement 5
1-4 Acts and Applications of Measurement 6
1-5 Codification of Measurement 8
1-6 A Look Ahead 8
Summary 9
End-of-Chapter Questions 9

CHAPTER 2 AND SYSTEMS

LANGUAGE AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 11
2-1
2-1 Communications Considerations 13
2-2 How Big? 13
2-3 How Far Apart? 14
2-4 From End to End 16
2-5 Accuracy, Precision, and Reliability 18
2-6 Accuracy Versus Precision 22
2-7 The Evolution of Standards 22
2-8 The Origin of the Metric System 25
2-9 The Legality of the Metric System in the United States 26
2-10 The International Inch 26
2-11
2-11 Fundamental Criteria 26
2-12 The Best System 27
2-13 Practical Criteria 27
2-14 The Decimal-Inch System 28
2-15 Metrological Considerations 28
vi .. Contents

2-16 Computational Considerations 29

2-17 Rounding
Rounding Off Numerical Values
Off Numerical 30
Summary 36
End-of-Chapter Questions 36

CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER MEASUREMENTAND
MEASUREMENT ANDTOLERANCES
TOLERANCES ................................................................. 40
.................................................................4(t
3-1 . The Meaning of Tolerance
Meaning of 40
3-2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 41
3-3 The Application of Geometric Tolerancing 52
Summary 70
End-of-Chapter Questions 70

CHAPTER 44
CHAPTER AND METROLOGY
STATISTICSAND
STATISTICS METROLOGY- .......................................................................... 72
4-1 Basic Statistics Second Line 73
4-2 Probability 77
4-3 Acceptance Sampling · 80
Summary 86
End-of-Chapter Questions 86

CHAPTER
CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT WITH GRADUATED SCALES
WITH GRADUATED INSTRUMENTS.....
SCALEDINSTRUMENTS
AND SCALED
SCALESAND 87
.....87
5-1 The Steel Rule 89
5-2 · The Role of Error 92
5-3 Scaled Instruments 97
5-4 Transfer Instruments
Calipers: The Original Transfer Instruments 104
Summary 117
End-of-Chapter Questions 121

CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER VERNIER INSTRUMENTS .................................................................................. 125
6-1 Vernier Instruments
Vernier Instruments 126
6-2 Vernier Caliper 129
6-3 Vernier Depth Gage 139
6-4 The Vernier Height Gage
Vernier Height 140
6-5 Three Elements of Measurement
Measurement 147
Summary 148
End-of-Chapter Questions 148

CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER MICROMETER INSTRUMENTS .........................................................................
MICROMETER ....... .... 150
7-1 Micrometers 151
7-2 Using the Micrometer 164
7-3 Care of Micrometers 170
7-4 Variations of Micrometers 174
Summary 179
End-of-Chapter Questions 180
 Contents vii

CHAPTER 8 DEVELOPMENT AND USE

USE OF
OF GAGE BLOCKS 183
8-1 Development of Gage Blocks
8-1 183
8-2 Modern Gage Blocks 189
8-3 Calibration of Gage Blocks 196
8-4 Gage Block Applications 197
8-5 Combining Gage Blocks 205
Summary 219
End-of-Chapter Questions 220

CHAPTER 9 CALIBRATION 224

9-1 The Role of Error
9-1 226
9-2 Basic Calibration Procedure 231
9-3 Record and Correct Calibration Readings 242
Summary 245
End-of-Chapter Questions 245

CHAPTER 10 MEASUREMENT BY BY COMPARISON

COMPARISON 250
10-1 The Dial Indicator 254
10-2 Selection of a Dial Indicator 274
10-3 Use of Dial Indicators 276
10-4 Calibration of Dial Indicators 278
10-5 Accessories and Attachments 279
10-6 Constructive Use of Error 285
Summary 291
End-of-Chapter Questions 292

11
CHAPTER 11 REFERENCE PLANES 295
11-1 Background
11-1 295
11-2 Flatness 296
11-3 Perpendicularity 301
11-4 Modern Reference Planes 303
11-5 How Flat Is Flat 308
Summary 310
End-of-Chapter Questions 3W
310

CHAPTER 12 ANGLE MEASUREMENT 312

12-1 Angles
12-1 314
12-2 Angle Measurement 317
12-3 The Level 324
12-4 The Protractor 332
12-5 Trigonometric Functions 338
12-6 Sine Bars and Plates 341
12-7 Mechanical Angle Measurement 351
viii Contents

12-8 Measurements to Seconds of Arc 354

12-9 Accuracy and Precision in Angle Measurement 355
12-10 The Degree, Grad, and Gon 358
Summary 359
End-of-Chapter Questions 360

CHAPTER 13 SURFACE MEASUREMENT

SURFACE MEASUREMENT 364
13-1 Background
13-1 366
13-2 Surface Evaluation, Stylus Method 368
13-3 Numerical Values for Assessment 374
13-4 Surface Texture Specimens 378
13-5 Surface Evaluation, Other Methods 380
13-6 Roundness 380
13-7 Notation
Notationfor
forSurface
SurfaceAssessment
Assessment 383
Summary 384
End-of-Chapter Questions 384

CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER HIGH-AMPLIFICATIONCOMPARATORS
14 HIGH-AMPLIFICATION COMPARATORS 388
14-1
14-1 High-Amplification
High-Amplification Comparators
Comparators 390
14-2 Electronic Measurement 394
14-3 Applications Unique to Electronic Measurement 407
14-4 Metrological Advantages of Multiple Scales 409
Summary 420
End-of-Chapter Questions 421

15 PNEUMATIC
CHAPTER 15 PNEUMATIC MEASUREMENT 424
15-1 Background
15-1 424
15-2 From
FromHistory
Historyto
to Semantics
Semantics 425
15-3 Principles of Pneumatic Instruments 425
15-4 Application of Pneumatic Metrology 429
15-5 Metrological Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators 434
15-6 Reading the Pneumatic Comparator 436
Summary 439
End-of-Chapter Questions 441

CHAPTER 16
16 OPTICAL
OPTICAL FLATS
FLATS AND
AND OPTICAL
OPTICAL ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT 444
16-1 The Importance of Standards
16-1 446
16-2 Light Waves as Standards 446
16-3 Measurement with Optical Flats 447
16-4 Applications of Optical Flat Measurement 457
PrinciplesofofOptical
16-5 Principles OpticalMetrology
Metrology 460
16-6 Alignment Telescope—Straightness Measurement 463
16-7 Optical
OpticalSquares—Squareness
Squares—Squareness 477
16-8 Sight Level—Plumbness 486
16-9 Optical Polygons—Angles 489
 Contents ix

16-10
16-10 Jig
Jig Transit—Planes
Transit—Planes 495
16-11 Theodolite—Angles and Planes 500
16-12 Beyond Vision 502
Summary 506
End-of-Chapter Questions 507

CHAPTER 17 OPTICAL METROLOGY 512

Principlesofofthe
17-1 Principles the Microscope
Microscope 513
17-2 Applications 518
17-3 Comparison of Optical Comparators and Microscopes 519
17-4 Optical Considerations 521
17-5 Applications
Applicationsofofthe
theOptical
Optical Comparator
Comparator 524
17-6 The Accuracy of Optical Comparators 533
17-7 Machine Vision Systems 535
Summary 539
End-of-Chapter Questions 540

CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER COORDINATEMEASURING
18 COORDINATE MEASURINGMACHINES
MACHINES 544
18-1 Background
18-1 Background 544
18-2 The Role of Coordinate Measuring Machines 545
18-3 Types of Coordinate Measuring Machines 546
18-4 Modes of Operation 548
18-5 Metrological
MetrologicalFeatures
Features 560
FutureExpectations
18-6 Future Expectations 563
Summary 564
End-of-Chapter Questions 564

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Decimal Equivalents 567
Appendix B: Conversion
Conversion Table 569
Inches to Millimeters (mm) 569
Millimeters (mm) to Inches 570
Appendix C: Geometric Optics 571
Geometric Optics 571
Single Lens Magnifiers 578
Summary 580
Appendix D:
Prefixes Used as Multipliers 581
Recommended Pronunciation of Prefixes 581
Appendix E: Trigonometric Functions 582
Appendix F: Metrology Web Sites 588
Appendix G: Bibliography 589

GLOSSARY 590
INDEX 610
 PREFACE

The sixth edition of Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology has been reorganized for better con-
tent flow with added clarification for calibration and traceability. Drawing from feedback from
metrology course instructors, the content moves from an introduction to the language of me-
trology, to the use of simple tools for direct measurement, then to the importance of calibration
and traceability. The content is expanded to the more complex measurement by comparison

1 Measurement and Metrology

2 Language and Systems of Measurement
Introduction to the Language of Metrology
3 Measurement and Tolerances
4 Statistics and Metrology
5 Measurement with Graduated Scales
and Scaled Instruments
6 Vernier Instruments Basic Metrology Instruments
7 Micrometer Instruments
8 Development and Use of Gage Blocks
9 Calibration Traceability
10 Measurement by Comparison
11 Reference Planes
Measurement by Comparison
12 Angle Measurement
13 Surface Measurement
14 High-Amplification Comparators
15 Pneumatic Measurement
16 Optical Flats and Optical Alignment Multiple-Scale Instruments
17 Optical Metrology
18 Coordinate Measuring Machines
 Preface xi

studies, and combines the earlier concepts with a study of multiple scale instruments. The
chapters for each topic are shown in the table on previous page.
While many tools are available with digital readout, and the ability to keep, record, and
transfer data, there is a continued need for students to understand and be able to use basic vernier
instruments, as shown in the earlier chapters. Batteries die, tools get dropped, and digital instru-
ments are more expensive instruments to purchase. Most labs have a supply of basic vernier tools
available.
The earlier content can then be applied to more complex measurement concepts and tools,
where measurement by comparison and multiple scale instruments are introduced. The text con-
tinues to use both metric and English measurements throughout, as students still need to be
proficient in both systems.
A new lab manual with expanded practical exercises is available to assist teachers and
course instructors. The lab manual contains applications to reinforce the learning objectives,
practice good metrology procedures, and promote writing skills that enhance a student's
marketability.
This text can be used as a metrology course textbook or as a reference in the field of dimen-
sional metrology. It is also intended that, as an instructor, you can apply the procedures and
concepts to any educational level, and across disciplines. Machine shop, tool and die, and quality
control courses and programs should find equal application of this text.
Although the principles of metrology have not changed, the impact of applying these tools
correctly is progressively more important. Increasingly, employers are looking for quality con-
trol personnel, inspectors, engineers, and designers with a thorough understanding of metrology
practices.

FEATURES OF THE SIXTH EDITION

■❑ Better organizational content
• Increased traceability and calibration knowledge
•❑ Updated drawings and illustrations
▪ Reduced theoretical material, replaced by more practical applications
▪❑ A new lab manual to accompany this text

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
The Instructor Resources section, found on www.cengagebrain.com, was developed to assist
educators in planning and implementing their instructional programs. It includes an image gal-
lery of the images from the book, an instructor's guide, and a student lab manual.
xii Preface
Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The revision of this text is not the author's alone. Many individuals in the metrology field
were generous with their time and information. I would particularly like to thank Steven M.
Hastings, Sr. Lab Coordinator at Arizona State University Polytechnic, and Sharon Chambliss
at Cengage Learning. Their suggestions and review contributed extensively to the improve-
ment of this edition.
I would also like to thank the following companies for their time, effort, and product
information: AMETEK Taylor Hobson, Apex Tool Group, Apollo Research, ASME, BC Ames,
Chicago Dial Indicator, Hexagon Metrology Inc., the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM), Mahr Federal, Micro-Radian Instruments, Mitutoyo America Corporation,
Optical Gaging Products, Quality Vision International, Renishaw Plc., L. S. Starrett, Universal
Gage, and Carl Zeiss, Inc.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Connie Dotson is a professional trainer and a journeyman tool-and-die maker, with strong
technical and metrology experience.
She holds a Master of Business Administration degree, with emphasis on Adult Learning.
Over the last 20 years, Connie has taught technical, apprentice, software, and metrology courses
in colleges and private industry. The courses include Blueprint Reading, Geometric Dimensioning
and Tolerancing, Drafting, Tool and Die Design, Fixturing, Machinery's Handbook, and Coor-
dinate Measuring Machine Operation. She has also been a speaker at national conferences, in-
cluding the American Society for Training and Development, and has taught Train-the-Trainer
concepts and led interactive teaching skills workshops. Connie has also volunteered with the
junior achievement program, as well as for high school and trade school career workshops.
 CHAPTER ONE

MEASUREMENT AND METROLOGY

All things manufactured need to be measured. With the exception of one-of-a-kind artisan pieces, products need
to conform to standards, federal or state regulations, and engineering drawings. The bumper on a car needs to fit
and meet automotive regulations. A shirt collar needs to be measured for the proper amount of material. The wing
of an airplane needs the correct shape for airlift. Metrology helps us determine whether a part meets its required
form, fit, or function.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Define metrology.
• Explain why measurement is relative.
• Define traceability.
• Explain the importance of traceability.
• Explain why measurement is similar to a language and essential for communication
in industry.
• Describe how measurement is essential at many levels, such as skilled craftsmanship,
production manufacturing, and scientific research.
• Explain why the principles of measurement are stressed in this text rather than the care
of instruments.
• Explain the role of metrology in national and international trade.

OVERVIEW quantity of a product to an amount of currency. All

measurements are relative in that they are compari-
We can
can trace
trace measurement
measurementtotothe
theearly
earlyPhoenicians
Phoenicians sons
sons of
of some
some standard to the item being measured.
when they
they were
weretrading
tradingaround
aroundthe
theMediterranean
Mediterranean Traceability is the comparison of any measuring
Sea. They
They had
had to
to develop
developmethods
methodsofofequating
equatinga a tool
tool or
or system
system toto aa standard
standard of greater accuracy
1
2 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology
(see Figure 1-1). Without traceability, measurements
are meaningless at best, and could be misleading.
We have all heard the old saying "Measure it
twice and cut it once." From an economic standpoint,
this comment makes a great deal of sense. The mea-
surements we make with accuracy and precision
will reduce the waste of materials, and will further
contribute to the production of high-quality items.
Costs affect the way companies compete for sales and
customers. The competition is both global and keen.
Thus, a simple error in measurement when setting up
a machining center could cost a company a contract,
loss of work, and, if sufficient, the loss of jobs and clo-
sure of the company.
Background
In our modern industrial society, we need to be able
to produce manufactured goods made to exacting
standards, repair them using interchangeable parts,
FIGURE 1-1 Whenever you make a measurement, its ac-
curacy, or lack of it, may be traced to the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, France.
Reproduced with permission of the BIPM, which retains
full internationally protected copyright (Photograph
courtesy of the BIPM)
and be consistent in their production so costs can be
reduced.
1-1 MEASUREMENT AS THE
LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE
Metrology is the science of measurement, and mea-
surement is the language of science. It is the language
we use to communicate size, quantity, position, condi-
tion, and time (see Figure 1-2).
A language consists of grammar and compo-
sition. Grammar is a science; composition, an art.
This book unfolds the grammar of measurement,
but only experience will develop the art. The lan-
guage of measurement is much easier than French or
Russian, because we already have considerable skill
in it. Properly applied, this skill can decrease the ef-
fort given to, and improve the results of, work, hob-
bies, and continued studies. The accompanying lab
manual exercises for this chapter provide you with
some practice in technical writing and the language
of measurement.
There are three reasons we all need measure-
ments. First, we need measurements to make things,
whether the things we make are of our own designs
or somebody else's. This applies to all skilled work-
ers and artisans. Second, we need measurements
to control the way other people make things. This
applies to ordering an engagement ring, fencing a
yard, or producing a million spark plugs. Third,
we need measurements for scientific description.
It would be impossible to give definite informa-
tion to someone else about aircraft design, electron
mobility, or the plans for a birthday party without
measurements.
A course in strength of materials will not make a
person a bridge designer, but a full grasp of the course
could make a bridge designer exceptional. So it is
in measurement. The principles in this text are useful
only when related to specific measurement situations.
These are as diversified as the needs of mankind.
 Chapter 11 Measurement
Chapter Measurement and
and Metrology
Metrology 3

Mass Length Time

Egyptian
Egyptian Jeweler's
Jeweler's Balance Egyptian Royal Cubit Greek Sun
Sun Dial
Dial
( about 2000
2000 BC
BC ) ( about 3000
3000 BC
BC ) ( about 200
200 BC
BC )

1—z Early
FIGURE 1—, Early examples of metrology.
examples of

1-2 THE
1-2 THE USES
USES OF
OF MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENT Without numerical values, things that must fit
together can be made only by trial and error. Even
Measurement to
to Make Things today, some fitting is expected on one-of-a-kind jobs
such as making a complex die, outfitting an ocean
In the late 1700s, Scotsman James Watt (1736-1819)
liner, or rebuilding an automobile engine. Measure-
was jubilant that Englishman John Wilkinson
ment skill reduces hand fitting. The better the ability
(1728-1808) had perfected the horizontal boring ma-
to measure, the faster skilled jobs are completed. Of
chine with such great precision that it could bore the
course, the measurements required in one field may
cylinders for Watt's steam engine to a tolerance of
be very different from those required in another.
"one thin shilling." Wilkinson's machine could bore
However, for craftspeople there is no greater skill
a 144.78 cm diameter (57 in.) cylinder to an accuracy
of about 1.59 mm (1/16 in.). This unheard-of accuracy than the ability to measure.
made Watt's dream of the steam engine a reality. This The International System of Units has seven base
units and two supplementary units. From these base
same accuracy in today's automobile cylinders would
units, several derived units with special names are ex-
make it an intolerable oil burner, if it would run at all.
tracted. The base units are listed in Table 1-1.
Apart from the need for measurement in mass
Plane angle and solid angle are additional units.
production, measurement is necessary whenever we
The meter was defined in 1983 by the International
make anything. In making a flint arrow, a Native
Committee on Weights and Measures as the "dis-
American had an approximate idea of the size needed
tance light travels in a vacuum during a period of
dependent on his target. This is true in all the crafts
and skilled trades. 1/299,792,458 m/s." This is the same as saying light
travels at 299,792,458 meters per second.
4 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

TABLE 1-1 Base Units is the role of manufacturing, including inspectors and
quality control personnel.
QUANTITY SYMBOL NAME
There always has been an inspection department
Length Meter (m) in industry, although it was the machine operator at
Mass m Kilogram (kg) one time. In today's industrial environment, the con-
Time t Second (s) cepts of Total Quality Management (TQM) are resur-
Electric Current Ampere (A) recting the fact that the production worker will also be
Ternpergture T Kelvin (K) the inspector.
Luminous Intensity Candria (cd) ,
Mole (mol)
In order to mass produce, tasks became spe-
Amount of Substance m
Plane Angle Radian (rad)
cialized over the years, requiring skilled people who
Solid Angle Staradian (sr) perform a portion of the job, but who did it well and
fast. This led to the "piece-part" system of manufac-
turing in which the worker's pay was determined by
Strictly speaking, metrology is the measurement the number of parts completed. The worker was paid
of mass, length, and time. From these primary quan- only for the satisfactory parts and it became necessary
tities are derived all of the quantities involved in me- to determine what was satisfactory. This created a
chanics, electronics, chemistry, and hydraulics. This demand for inspectors and gages. Interchangeable
text is restricted to mensuration. Mensuration is the manufacture does not stop at the factory walls. Parts
branch of applied geometry that is concerned with are made in widely scattered plants and even in dif-
finding the length of lines, areas of surfaces, and vol- ferent countries. The result is a refinement of the
umes of solids from certain simple data pertaining to language of measurement. Not only is the ability to
lines and angles. This includes those measurements measure to very small dimensions required, but the
required to use tools and instruments for design- measurements must be based on an accepted stan-
ing, building, operating, and maintaining material dard or the parts will not interchange. Standard of
objects, whether they be refrigerators or cyclotrons. length is as important as the means of measuring.
This is the reason for the term dimensional metrology.
It is difficult for anyone to achieve experience Measurement for Progress
in all of the special roles of measurement. Measure-
ment practices across industries and countries variedMeasurement is truly a universal language. Just as ev-
greatly in the past. Standards in metrology have comeery other communication must be translated, indus-
a long way, but each industry must comply with its tries today recognize the same standards of length,
own regulations. As you might imagine, environment and convert in and out of each other's systems of
and safety regulations for medical manufacturers are measurement.
different than those of aircraft manufacturers. There This has been due largely to industrial prog-
are three general areas to which the basic principlesress, but it is needed as much in pure science as it
may be applied: communications about measure- is in applied science. There is no way one research
ment, acts and applications of measurement, and cod- worker can repeat the work of another without spe-
ification of measurement. cific measurements. This is quite true throughout
all branches of science, from astronomy to biology.
(In fact, the micrometer was invented for use in as-
Measurement to Control Manufacture tronomy, not shop work.) For many years, progress
An extension of an individual making things is the was slowed and goods were made more expen-
control of the manufacturing process by others. This sive by the "zero of ignorance." This refers to the

FIGURE 1-3 The computer has vastly expanded the po-
tential for metrology, but the results are no better than
the data fed into it. Multiple axis machines, such as the
one shown here, benefits in particular using the comput-
er's ability to manipulate metrological data. (Courtesy
(Courtesy of
Mitutoyo American
Mitutoyo American Corporation)
extra decimal place added to the tolerance of a part
because the designer
designer was
was not
not sure
sure hoW
how accurate
the dimension really had to be. While computer-
operated machines can provide faster, more com-
plex data, they are only as reliable as the data that is
input (see Figure 1-3).
As never before, the ability of an engineer,
chemist, biologist, or physicist (and the technicians
who support them) to test ideas, hinges on an under-
standing of measurement.
1-3 COMMUNICATIONS ABOUT
MEASUREMENT
Measurement depends on communication. Further-
more, it is a social activity, because unless there is a
Chapter 1 Measurement
Measurement and
and Metrology
Metrology 5
need to communicate, there is no need for measure-
ment. The only
only legitimacy
legitimacy that
that measurement units
have, whether inches, meters, or archines (a Russian
standard length equal to 28 in. or 71 cm), lies in their
acceptance and usefulness. This acceptance requires
the cooperation of other people; hence, the social
aspect.
Communication requires language. Thus, we
must first determine that all parties understand the
meanings of certain terms. Two terms are central to
understanding metrology: precision and accuracy.
Roughly, precision pertains to the degree of fineness,
whereas accuracy pertains to conformity with an ac-
cepted standard.
It is generally agreed that people are more ef-
ficient when they understand what they are doing. •
Therefore, the basic language of measurement is al-
ways expanding to meet new requirements. In the
twentieth century, an entire vocabulary for express-
ing dimensions and tolerances has come into use. Along
with it have come the symbols that represent the terms
(see Figure 1-4).
Communications are subject to many serious
distortions. Personal as well as cultural biases add
to the propaganda and what is called "disinforma-
tion." In measurement, we know these as errors. For
data to be useful, we must recognize the errors and
quantify them.
A study of such errors is beneficial beyond the
gathering of data for production or research, because
we are bombarded with similar errors in all areas of
our daily lives. As in measurement, some are easily
recognized, but others are more obscure. We know
that visible and invisible dirt or loose clamps will
impair measurements, but it requires conscious ef-
fort to keep in mind the equally damaging effect of
parallax, temperature fluctuations, cosine error, and
hysteresis to name a few. Error always exists. The
only questions are: How much? Where? To what ef-
fect? and, What can be done about it?
The precision of measurements often may be
checked by repeatability. The accuracy can only be
checked by comparison with a higher standard.
 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

SYMBOL FOR: ASME Y14.5M ISO

STRAIGHTNESS — —

FLATNESS Z7
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CIRCULARITY 0 0
CYLINDRICITY 0
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ANGULARITY .Z
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PERPENDICULARITY _L _L
PARALLELISM // //
POSITION •
CONCENTRICITY
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SYMMETRY = =
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CIRCULAR RUNOUT /*
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TOTAL RUNOUT . Z1
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V
AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION 0 0
AT LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION 0
0 0
0
REGARDLESS OF FEATURE SIZE NONE NONE

PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE 0

CD 0
TANGENT PLANE 0 0TO (proposed)
(proposed)

FREE STATE 0 0
DIAMETER 0
0 0
0
BASIC DIMENSION 50 50
(theoretically exact dimension in ISO)
REFERENCE DIMENSION (50) (50)
(auxiliary dimension in ISO)
DATUM FEATURE . 0
El •cor
,;;.,, or • ii
/.7.7 rrn
• MAY BE FILLED OR NOT FILLED

FRAIRF 1---4.Revisions
MUM' Revisions to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standard
(ASME Y14.5M-2009) are intended to improve national and international standardization. Reprinted from ASME
Y14.5-2009, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Because of the importance of the convertibility and 1-4 ACTS AND APPLICATIONS
interchangeability of measured data, the methods
of traceability to the international standard have OF MEASUREMENT
been formalized by governments and by trade The applications
applications of of linear
linear measurement
measurementare areso
sodi--
di-
groups. The major considerations are summarized verse that it is surprising that they utilize so few basic
in Figure 1-5. acts. Those acts, of course, are the basis for this text.
 Chapter 1 Measurement
Chapter1 Measurement and
and Metrology 7

Discipline of Measurement
1. The accuracy of a measurement can never be as great as that of the standard.
2. The accuracy is diminished by errors.
3. Calibration, comparison to a higher standard, is the test for accuracy.
4. Repeatability is the usual test for precision.
5. Every measurement alters the object being measured and the measurement system.
6. The potential errors are reduced by:
Elimination of separate measurement acts.
Elimination of separate parts of the measurement system.
Elimination of separate fluctuating conditions.
Elimination of separate positional variables.
7. The least positional error results when the line of measurement, standard, and axis of the comparison
instrument are all in line.

FIGURE
FIGURE1-5
1-5These
Theseconsiderations
considerationsare
areof
ofextreme
extremeimportance
importance and
and must
must be
be understood
understood and
and practiced.

An overview of the applications begins with plate English system. Conversion tables are readily avail-
work. Although often considered old fashioned, it of- able and agreements have been reached on what the
fers the most immediate application of the basic prin- international conversion standards will be (25.4 mm
ciples and the greatest temptations to compromise. equals 1 in.).
Coordinate measurement is a technique for
speeding up layout, machining, and inspection by
having all part features dimensioned from the three
rectangular coordinates: x, y, and z. A bolt circle, for
example, would have each hole located by two dimen-
sions, one from the vertical axis and the other from the
horizontal axis. No angles and radii would be shown.
It is important to know both when and how to use this
technique.
When many parts must be made to close toler-
ances and be inspected by semiskilled persons, gages
are substituted for direct measurement. Gages inter-
face readily with computers. This facilitates the won-
ders of statistical quality control. It also clouds the line
between the act of measurement and the effective use
of measurement. Thus, such aids as the microprocessor
and computer with their popular electronic digital dis-
plays call for greater caution, not less. See Figure 1-6. FIGURE 1-6 There islittle,
There is little, ifif anything,
anything, in
in today's
today's high-tech
A concern arising in metrology is which measure- society that has not benefited from the progress in metrol-
ment system to apply when making a measurement— ogy. Some
Some fields
fields such
such as
as solid-state
solid-state electronics
electronics would have
the SI (International System of Units [metric]) or the been impossible without it. (Courtesy of CE
impossible without CE Johansson)
Johansson)
8 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology
The only aspects of measurement that come im-
mediately to mind in which the inch system cannot
be converted readily with the SI (metric system) are
screw threads and gears. These involve some of the
most sophisticated problems in measurement, which
are usually solved "by rule and by rote." This is fine
until an error is made. Unlike solving problems by de-
ductive reasoning, the error does not call attention to
itself, and escapes unnoticed. In industry, at least, an
understanding of the fundamentals of thread-and-gear
measurement is invaluable.
The chances are that a technician in any of the
branches of mechanical engineering will encounter
cam measurement. The constantly changing curves
relate to calculus. In actual practice, measurement
shortcuts reliably reduce a cam to a series of measur-
able points.
1-5 CODIFICATION
OF MEASUREMENT
When things derive from natural phenomena, we need
little in the way of laws, statutes, and agreements.
No country has ever passed a law of gravitation. But
when arbitrary inventions of man are involved, we
surround them with bastions that would make the
fortifications of Monsieur Vauban look puny.
Thus, there are international agreements, na-
tional standards, various other government standards,
trade association standards, commercial standards,
plant standards, and department standards.
All too often, statisticians have extracted con-
clusions to the tenth decimal place from data reliable
only to the third. The result can obscure the tremen-
dous benefits that the statistical method can provide
to any program in which sufficient data are available.
In industry such decisions are the result of quality as-
surance, formerly called quality control. Its results can
be no better than the measurements.
The question always exists, "How much mea-
surement is required?" This cannot be answered
without considering costs, production methods, and
results. When the number of parts, the speed of op-
eration, and the value of the results increase, the
importance of inspection as well as its cost increases
logarithmically. It is the function of the reliability
people to balance results against the other factors. The
answer to "How much measurement is necessary?"
becomes a team decision and what is required by the
product to meet the requirements of the customer. We
must understand customer compliance.
1-6 A LOOK AHEAD
As shown, there are three reasons for measurement.
Although each is different, they all use the same sys-
tem of measurement and the same instruments. More-
over, they overlap.
1. The skilled diemaker might use a micrometer to
measure a given part to one-half thousandth of
an inch (0.0005 in. or 0.0127 mm). His experience
and skill may enable him to do so with a high
degree of reliability.
2. If the production of that same part is to be con-
trolled to the same reliability, a much more sen-
sitive instrument must be chosen to replace the
skill of the diemaker.
3. The physicist might be able to use the same
micrometer, but may also have to determine
the atmospheric pressure, temperature, or some
other variable before the measurement will be
suitable for his purpose.
The following chapters will ensure that each
of the preceding three groups means the same thing
when they refer to their measurements. The standard
measuring instruments will be discussed in the order
in which they probably will be encountered, from the
least precise to the most precise. Far more important,
some rules will be developed as a guide for the selec-
tion of the best instrument for any given dimensional
measurement. See Figure 1-7.
Principles are emphasized in this text, rather
than products, for several reasons. Except for the sim-
plest instruments, all' differ somewhat. The separate
manufacturers' models number in the thousands. It
would be impossible to describe them all in detail. For-
tunately, this is not necessary because manufacturers
 Chapter
Chapter 11Measurement
✭❅❁▲◆❒❅❍❅■▼ ❁■❄ ✭❅▼❒❏●❏❇❙
and Metrology 9

■ Skills in linear measurement are readily market-

able. They are far more widely needed as an aid
for performing other work, because almost ev-
ery technical pursuit involves measurement.
■ Metrology requires communications for its
use. It has its own terms and symbolism.
These are analogous to all attempts to com-
municate without error and distortion. Part
of the communication is codification. Codifi-
cation ensures an orderly process that is un-
derstood by those working in a given area of
metrology.
■ Familiarity with the basic metrology principles
provides a discipline for logical thought, a ben-
efit that applies to all activities.
FIGURE 1-7 Optical
FIGURE Optical metrology
metrology isis aa good
good choice where
non-contact inspection is desired. ✈✰❈❏▼❏ ❃❏◆❒▼❅▲❙
(Photo courtesy of ❏❆
✯❐▼❉❃❁● ✧❁❇❉■❇
Optical Gaging ✰❒❏❄◆❃▼▲✉
Products)
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
supply operating manuals for all except the simplest 1. Accuracy can only be checked by comparison
instruments. In all cases, these manuals should be used with:
for specific operating and maintenance instructions. a. another technician or metrologist
Principles, rather than products, are emphasized b. a trade group
for still another reason. Industry and science finally c. a higher standard
are aware of their dependency on precision measure- d. your boss
ment. Improvements in measuring instruments are 2. Measurement is most important to which one of
rapidly being made. Tomorrow's instruments will the following applications?
not look much like today's. However, the principles a. Mass production of automotive parts
a.
will remain as true tomorrow as when they evolved b. Mass production of aircraft parts
long ago. c. One-of-a-kind handicrafts
d.
d. All manufacturing
e. Manufacturing Qfof parts
parts from
from prepared plans
SUMMARY
3. Measurement involves fundamental quali-
■
■ Measurements support a wide range of products ties. Select three qualities from the following
and. processes across
and processes across science,
science, medicine, manu- list.
facturing, health and safety, and government. a. Roundness
■ Communication of measurements within and b. Mass
across industries is essential to both manufactur- c. Flatness
ing and service companies. d.
d. Time
■ The quality of goods and services offered is e. Weight
highly dependent on reliable measurement. f. Modules of elasticity
■ Traceability is the cornerstone of quality control g. Length
g.
programs. Without traceability, measurement is h. Width
meaningless. i. Hardness
10 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

4. Which of the following best defines "dimen- c. Reliability

sional metrology?" d. Repeatability
a. The measurements required to manufacture e. Sensitivity
products 9. In this text, metrological methods or principles
b. Measurements found by the use of scales and are emphasized rather than the measuring in-
other measuring instruments struments themselves. There are several reasons
c. The measurement of lines, areas, volumes, for this. Which of the following is the most im-
and angles
portant reason?
d. The measurement of real things, whether they
a. There is no complete agreement about the
be steel, wood, plastic, or any other material
instruments.
e. The measurement of lines, circles, and angles
b. Instrument manufacturers provide detailed
5. Select one or more of the following that are not information.
considered to be dimensional metrology. c. Principles are more interesting than methods
a. Bolt circle spacing of use.
b. The selection of lubricants for a given bearing d. Principles and methods are easily adaptable
allowance to all instruments.
c. The torque requirement for a bolted assembly
d. The tolerance required for a shaft in a bearing
d.
Discussion Question
e. The size limits of a mass-produced replace-
ment part 10. Small errors can cost a company billions of dol-
lars or have dire consequences. Discuss the po-
6. The role of the inspector in industry emerged tential impact that small errors can have in the
as the result of which one of the following
following industries:
circumstances?
a. Weapons were first mass produced. • Automotive
b. Gunpowder changed the threat from weapons. • Aerospace
• Biotech/Medical
c. Foremen could not keep up with mass pro-
duction rates.
d. The piece-part system was introduced. Additional Research
e. Precision measurement tools such as the mi-
National Institute of Standards and Technology
crometer were introduced to industry. / exhibits /ex1
/ ex1/index.html):
/index.html):
(http: / /museum.nist.gov /exhibits
7. Of the following characteristics, select the ones America Before Standard Weights and
that affect quality control. Measures
a. Employee morale The Founding of the National Bureau of Stan-
b. Pride of product dards in 1901
c. Dimensional measurements A Social History of Weights and Measures
d. Environmental conditions
e. Product specifications
8. For every act of dimensional metrology, one
or more of the following variables may apply.
Identify the single most important variable.
a. Number of decimal places
b. Metric or customary system
 CHAPTER TWO

LANGUMUE ANL)
ANA '01 'S

OF MEASUREMENT
The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce . . . among the several states . . . to fix the Standard of
Weights and Measures . . .
Constitution of the United States, Section 8, Article 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Define a line of measurement.

• Define the terms precision, accuracy, and reliability.
• Describe the two systems in general use—English and metric.
• List the strengths and disadvantages of each measurement system.
• Explain how the choice of system to be utilized is made.
• Identify a standards body.

OVERVIEW As often happens today, language obscures the

meaning of the questions we ask and the responses we
A child reportedly asked President Lincoln how long receive. For example, if an automobile engine is bored
his legs were. The president answered, "Long enough for larger pistons and tested for acceleration time, the
to reach from my body to the ground." A humorous 0 to 96 kph (60 mph) time might be cut by 2 seconds.
response, but the clever use of language does not pro- Then, in production, when someone asks how "ac-
vide an accurate response to the child's question. curately" the new pistons must fit for the same level

11
12 w
Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology
What Is the Size?
20.00
20.00 —►1
"A" is a 20 cm square and "B" is a 20 mm x 30 mm rectangle. What are the sizes of "C" and "D"? Only
by dimensions can size be accurately defined.
of performance, how should we answer? One person
says, "For a good fit." Another says, "The maximum
clearance cannot exceed 0.050 mm (0.002 in.) or be less
than 0.025 mm (0.001 in.)." One of these answers prob-
ably contains the information we need, but the right
answer depends on the meaning of the word accuracy
in the question.
Consider another everydaY word: size. We all know
what "400 mm2 (0.62 in. sq.)" means (see Figure 2-1).
We also understand a rectangle specified at 20 x 30 mm
(0.75 X 1.2 in.). But what is the "size" of C or D in
Figure 2-1? Furthermore, in A and B, are the lengths of
the sides and the general shape enough to specify size,
or do we also need to know how square or how rectan-
gular the shape is?
Different interpretations of common terms like
accuracy and size can cost manufacturers millions of
dollars of waste each year. To reduce waste and im-
prove measurement communication, manufacturers
adhere to quality standards, like those developed by
the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). The ISO is a worldwide federation of national
standards bodies, with representatives from over
100 countries. The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), for example, is a member of ISO.
Founded in 1947, they have published more than
19,000 International Standards. According to the ISO,
the term "ISO" is not an acronym but is derived from
the Greek isos meaning "equal." "iso" is the prefix in
a number of terms meaning equal or alike, such as
"isometric" (equal measure or dimension), "isodiamet-
ric" (having equal diameters or axes), and "isonomy"
(the equality of laws, or of people before the law). Out-
side of the metrology laboratory, manufacturers have
only needed a few, all-inclusive terms. Accurate and
precise were used interchangeably and were often syn-
onymous with reliable and repeatable. Measure, inspect,
and gage meant the same thing. Standardize meant a
private agreement was reached with the boss that cer-
tain consistent levels would be reached in production
from that moment forward.
In the complicated global economy of today, di-
mensional measurement requires the use of electron-
ics, optical instruments, and interferometry, as well as
time-honored mechanical methods of measurement.
Adherence to measurement standards like ANSI's
Y14.5 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing Stan-
dard (GDT) help reduce waste and improve global
communication.
When this text's first edition was published in
1964, the metric versus English measurements de-
bate was at its height. Although English proponents
have never attempted to outlaw metric use, a few
well-intentioned but overly zealous metric propo-
nents would not accommodate both measurement
systems. Their "voluntary" compliance really meant
"compulsory." This unfortunate disagreement took
attention away from the fundamental principles of
metrology and the need for standardized meanings
that encourage international trade.
 Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 13

Anyone engaged in metrology-in fact, any
member of an industrial society-must be familiar
with the current accepted measurement system, be-
cause the ramifications of a standardized system of
measurement extend into every aspect of our lives.
This chapter and the accompanying lab manual exer-
cises are designed to familiarize you with these im-
portant measurement systems.
2-1 :OMMUNICATIONS
2-1 COMMUNICATIONS
CONSIDERATIONS
The usefulness of any measurement depends in part
on your ability to communicate your results to other
people. You must be familiar with the terminology of
all the measurement systems commonly used today 2-2
so you can understand what others are telling you and If you can visualize the sizes involved, as in the com-
so others can understand what you are telling them.
z
Like all language, some of the terms used in
measurement make sense, and others have no logical
explanation. Foot is derived from the body part used
originally to measure it, but inch does not have a simi-
lar correlation.
The prefixes used with the term meter are de-
rived from the languages of ancient Greece and Rome,
as are the terms used in the decimal-inch system (see
Figure 2-2). For example; one-tenth of one thousandth
of an inch is point one mil or one hundred microinches
from the Greek and symbolized by tt (mu). The ter-
minology of the decimal-inch system is shown in
Figure 2-3.
2-2 HOW
HOW BIG?
parisons in Figure 2-4, it is easier to understand the
Thousandths 111

and and
and Metric
Metric Systems Compared
(c)

0
Thousandths

_c -
N ...
(12y) or (z)

N
'
(.000001y)

N
Microinch

S', "0 %-
--..
Measure

Li , C ,-.. '....
(.0001y)

C o CC >N N
8 N
c,
(.001y)

I:,
inear
Linear

VI T-
2 o
V 0 d C o= 0
o _c 8- .• s-, -2 ,-
12 ..., a) a
0
Foot

a) co
CO
u..-.,
Ten

t.f o iNi (13 N ti •••• IN .'

ft.

c >,
C c
>,.0 0 e-• •ij
2 'L.
"E
L

.2 q S. FT 15 q - •.-, - 1.1“..0 ,I- )- te

›- tr >,
e >1 2 :-D,
Nanometer nm 0.0394
(.000000001x) 25.4
Micrometer* p 39.37 0.3937 25.4
(.000001x) 0.0254 2.54
Millimeter mm 393.7 39.37 0.0394 304.8
(.001x) 0.0254 25.4
Centimeter cm 3937. 393.7 0.3937 0.0328 91.44
(.01x) 2.54 30.48
Meter m 39.37 3.2808 1.0936 1609.3
(x) 0.0254 0.3048 0.9144
Kilometer km 3280.8 1093.6 0.6214
(1000x) 1.6093
*Micrometer is
*Micrometer is the
the official
officialname
name but
but micron
micron is widely
widely used.
used.

FIGURE
FIGURE 2-22-2 To
Touse
use the
the English/metric
English/metric conversions
conversions tables: enter
enter aa horizontal
horizontal or
or vertical
vertical column; combine either the
lightface
lightface or
or boldface
boldface units
units or
ornumbers;
numbers; and
and read
read its corresponding value in terms of of one unit
unit of
of the
the opposing
opposing scale.
scale.
For
For example:
example: 1.0936 yards = 1 meter.
14 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Examples of Decimal-Inch Terminology

Write Say
For type-set material On drawings (Preferred
(Preferred form is first)

0.002" .002
,002 two mil
or 2 mil
0.012" .012 twelve mil
or 12 mil
0.02" .02 twenty mil point zero two inch
or 20 mil
0.2" .20 point two inch
2.005" 2.005 two inch five mil two point zero zero five inch
2.00" 2.00 two inch
0.000005" .000005 five micro inch
or 5 x 10-6" or 5
or 5
0.00002" .00002 twenty micro inch
or 20 or 20
0.0002 .' .0002 point two mil point zero
zero zero
zero zero
zero two
two inch two tenths*
inch two tenths*
0.0025" .0025 two point five mil point zero zero two five inch
2.000005" 2.000005 two inches and five micro inch
2.0005" 2.005 two inch point five mil two point zero zero zero five inch
*Colloquialism — not recommended

FIGURE
FIGURE2-3 2-3This
Thisisisterminology
terminologyfrom
fromthe
theAmerican
AmericanNational
NationalStandards
Standards Institute
Institute (ANSI)
(ANSI) and
and is
is used
used wherever
wherever appro-
priate in this text. (From ANSI 887, American Standards Institute, Table 1)

terminology. A graduation on the average machin- 2-3 HOW FAR APART?

ist's rule is approximately 76 gm pm (0.003 in.) wide-
76 micrometers, or 76 microns. Your eye can seesee light
through a crack as small
small as
as 2.5
2.5 p.m
gm (0.0001 in.)—one
tenth of one thousandth of an inch, commonly called
"one tenth." By comparison, 2.5 mm (0.10 in.) would
be enormous.
We can eliminate any confusion by using
decimal-inch terminology, which calls 0.0001 inch
point one mil. In decimal terminology, your eye can see
through an opening 2.5 gm pm (0.0001 in.) wide, or
2.5 millionths of a meter, usually read as 2.5 micro-
meters. Thus, by consistently using decimal terms,
you can eliminate much of the confusion in both the
English and SI systems of measurement.
Dimensional measurements are used daily in design-
ing, building, and operating the objects that surround
us and for communicating about past, present, and
future objects.
The principal dimensional measurement is
length; secondary measurements are angle and curva-
ture. An expression of each value is a dimension. Using
these measurements, we can describe surface, finish,
flatness, and angular relationships among features—
or size. Unless a product is sized by volume or weight,
you can describe its shape without describing its size,
but you cannot describe its size without knowing
its shape.
 Chapter 22 Language and Systems of Measurement 15
15

Length Comparison

\
ID
\ 1.000001
G=.

f
1 millionth of an inch is to 1 inch
as 1 foot is to the distance from
Baltimore to New York.

Begin
Measu
Meas urred
Begin ed
1-
Kilom eter
Kilometer

1 millionth of an inch is to 1 inch

as a new dime is to a stack of dimes
1mm
as high as 4 Empire State Buildings.
1 millionth of a millimeter (1 micron)
is to 1 millimeter as 1 millimeter is
to 1 kilometer.

FIGURE 2-42- One

Onemillionth
millionthisisto
to11inch
inchas
as11inch
inchisisto
to16
16 miles.
miles. Or
Or in
in the
the metric
metric system
system 1
1 micrometer is to 1 meter as
1 meter is to 1,000 kilometers. These examples show what that means in actual practice.

A linear measurement
measurement expresses
expresses the distance a millimeter, may be beyond imagination, but it repre-
separating two points.
separating two points. Remember,
Remember, itit is
is not the dis- sents distance and can be reproduced.
tance; it is just a way to talk or write about the dis- These measurements have two things in com-
tance, and this expression of distance allows us to mon: a unit of length and
and a multiplier.
multiplier.AA measurement
measurement
reconstruct it. A measurement enables a distance to be re- using a specific unit
unit of
of length
length isis easy
easyto
to understand
understand as
produced. A distance measured by "the left feet of the long as everyone agrees on a standard for the unit of
first sixteen men to leave church on a certain Sunday" length. Standards preserve accepted units of length.
sounds absurd, but it is a standard of measurement Multipliers can be cardinal, fractional, decimal, or
that can be reproduced—and was actually used in the exponential numbers (see Figure 2-5). Cardinal numbers
sixteenth century. The micrometer, one thousandth of are whole numbers (1, 2, 3, and so forth) and simply state
16 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Multiplier Unit of length

6 inches
30 seconds
4 miles
The 6, 30, and 4 are cardinal numbers.
Multipliers smaller than one are expressed by fractions or decimal multipliers:

6 inches Y2 foot 0.5 foot

(cardinal) (fractional) (decimal)

Very large or small multipliers are more conveniently expressed as exponents:

0.03 = 3 x 0.1 = 3 x 10-1

300 = 3 x 100 = 3 x 102
3,000,000,000 ---- 3 x 1,000,000,000 = 3 x 109

FIGURE 2-5 Exponential multipliers are not only more compact, they are much
easier to use in calculations. They are widely used in engineering and science.

the number of times that the unit of length is multiplied.
Fractional and decimal multipliers help us understand
parts of a unit of length—the measurements the unit
of length has been divided into. The exponential form
is a convenience when distances are very large or very
small (see Figure 2-6). The exponential form shown in
Figure 2-6 is convenient for scientific and engineering
work and calculations where distances are very large or
very small.
Just as units of measurement must be standard-
ized, we must also "standardize" the number of sig-
nificant figures a measurement will be reported up to.
Significant figures begin with the first digit to the left
of the decimal point that is not zero and end with the
last digit to the right that is correct—not an approxima-
tion. That digit may be zero if it is the correct value.
Therefore, the precision demanded of a mea-
surement increases as zeros are added to the right of
the decimal: 0.25 in. is less precise than 0.250 in. or
0.2500 in. If a measurement of 0.250 in. is reported, it
must be correct. The third number to the right is sig-
nificant, and if it had been 0.251 in., that value would
have been reported. Conversely, a 0.001 in. difference
in a measurement requiring only two numbers past
the decimal, such as 0.25 in., would not be significant.
When in doubt, we often add an extra zero to the
right of the requested significant digit called the zero
of ignorance. Therefore, a measurement such as 6.3500
mm (0.25 in.) should be used only when accuracy is
required to four significant digits past the decimal.
2-4 FROM END TO END
Every measurement begins at a reference point (or ref-
erence end) and ends at a measured point. They create a
line of measurement that has direction and is usually re-
versible. Unless we know the relationship between the
direction of the line of measurement and the feature
being measured, the measurement is of little value.
For a simple part (see Figure 2-7), you do not need
to differentiate between the reference point and the
measured point. They are both references. At the design
stage, these points create a dimension, a feature, that is
the perfect separation between items either on one part
or between parts. Manufacturing a perfect part is not
possible, so the designer includes a range for these mea-
surements to fall within. This range is the allowed "tol-
erance" or "limits." These limits represent acceptable
deviation from the ideal dimensions (see Chapter 3).
The Act of Measurement
Generally, the act of measurement is a compari-
son of the standard of length or the distance to be
 Gage Blocks

Dial Indicators

Micrometers

High Amplification Verniers

Comparators

Scales
Interferometers

I iI Ii II i I
10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 0.001 0.01 0.1
0:1 1 1:0 100
Inch I I I I II II
I I I ?
One Thousandth Inch (Mil) 10-4 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 104 105
10:1 5
1I I1 I I I 1I
I I rI I ?
.
One Millionth Inch 0.1 l
1 10 100 1000 104 105 106
106 107 108
I ., I I I ., I, I

One Hundredth Meter (Centimeter) 10-6

10-8 10 7 10
10-66 10 5 10 4 0.001 0.01 0.1 10
I I, I I,1 I II II ,I II ,
One Thousandth Meter (Millimeter) 10-6
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 0.00
0.001 0.01 0.1 11 10
I Ii I I1 I1 Ii Ii I I iI
One Millionth Meter (Micrometer) 10-5 10-4 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 104
I Ii Ii 1I Ii I1 II I I iI
One Billionth Meter (Millimicron) 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 104 105 106 107
107
,i 1, I1 II II .I . I .I , I 1 I

Coatings, Films Sheets Plates

Plates

FIGURE 2-6 Exponential multipliers simplify the expression of very small and very large measurements.
18 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Dimensions, Features, and Measurements

A. The designer's
concept for a
perfect part 40.00
determined the
DIMENSION.

B. The toolmaker's
machining resulted
in the FEATURE
of the part.
C

C. The inspector's
MEASUREMENT 11111111111111.11F111111111111111111111111111111111111111i111111111110161.111111111t1111111111111
III11II1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111161111111111111111111111111

verified the tool-

maker's work to the
designer's concept.

FIGURE
FIGURE2-72-7Measurement
Measurementverifies
verifiesthe
thedesigner's
designer'sdimension
dimensionto to the
the feature
feature of
of the
the actual
actual part.
part. This
This happens even
when the designer, the machinist, and the inspector are all the same person, as is often the case.

reproduced and an unknown feature. In dimensional
metrology there are two basic types of measure-
ment: linear, measurement of translation (motion in
one direction), and angular, measurement of the mo-
tion of rotation. To create a measurement, you must
compare the feature to the standard of length. In
contrast to the standard for angular measurements—
the circle, which exists in nature—linear standards
grow out of human experience and need. That is why
instruments for making linear measurements differ so
greatly in appearance. No matter the instrument, we
still use two methods to compare unknown lengths
to the standards commonly called the interchange
method and the displacement method (see Figure 2-8).
The interchange method, also called measurement
by comparison, compares both ends of the unknown
feature to both ends of the standard at the same time.
An entire family of instruments, called comparators,
has been created based on the interchange method of
measurement (see Chapters 10 and 14). The displace-
ment method, often called measurement by translation or
transfer, involves the separate examination of each end
of the feature. As we go from one point to the other, we
"displace" something. The relationship of the distance
displaced to the standard constitutes the measurement.
This method sounds simple, but in the real world,
it is not. Some people argue that vernier calipers use
either the interchange or the displacement method.
Some optical instruments use both principles. But, no
matter what the principle used, it is the ability to ac-
curately communicate your results that counts.
2-5 ACCURACY, PRECISION,
AND RELIABILITY
Generally, the terms accuracy, precision, and reliability
are used interchangeably, but in precision measure-
ment for manufacturing, the use of the wrong term
 Language and
Chapter 2 Language and Systems
Systems of Measurement 19

The Part
All Measurement
Requires these three
elements. -4N-i-t+ixH-1-14+1
xi-1+14+1 The Measuring Device

TheStandard
The Standard

The Part
Step 1

A. Interchange
Interchange Method
Both ends observed at the The Measuring Device
same time. (Comparison)
Step
Step22 t i
The Standard

The Measuring Device

The
Part The Standard
Step 1
B.
B. Displacement Method
Ends observed separately.
$
(Direct)
1 Step 2

FIGURE 2-8
FIGURE 2-8All
Allmeasurements
measurements consist
consist of the comparison of the unknown with a known.
of the methods for
known. The methods compari-
for compari-
son
son vary but fall into
into one of two
one of twogroups:
groups: interchange
interchange or
or displacement.
displacement.

affects the choice of measuring instrument and the ef-
forts of the quality control team. The incorrect use of
one of these terms could mean failure to meet quality
control standards, excess production, excess materials
use, and more.
To help clarify the meaning of accuracy, preci-
sion, and reliability, we will compare the scores of
five people in a shooting match. In Figure 2-9, all the
components necessary to place a shot on the target
and measure the shooter's score are listed, including
subdivisions of these variables that affect the shooting
and scoring process. The score of one shot can most
easily be explained by luck, so we will record ten
scores for each shooter. Our target is a simple circle:
shots within the circle count; those outside the circle
do not count. The results are shown in Figure 2-10.
Shooter A has five good and five bad shots. In
comparison, Shooter B's grouping is Close together. B
shoots more precisely (more shots in the same area)
but less accurately (fewer "good" shots) than A.
Shooter C's shots are all good and are in a similar pat-
tern to A's. Although the shooting is not as precise as
B's, C's shots are more accurate than A and B.
In terms of their scores, Shooters C, D, and E all
shoot as well as each other; however, there are signifi-
cant differences among their patterns. C's group is not
as precise as D's tighter grouping, and E's dead-center
shots are the most precise and the most accurate, even
though they score the same as the others.
Obviously, we need another term to describe
E's superior shooting. That term is reliability. E's tight,
precise pattern and dead-center, accurate shooting
SCI Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Target Analogy

file*JYm..

For Shooting Equivalent for Measurement

1. Skill of shooter
2. Variables in ammunition
3. Variables in rifle
4. Variables in environment
(wind, glare, distractions)
5. Target verified results
1.Skill of observer
2. Variables in instrument
3. Variables in setup
4. Variables in environment
(temperature, dust, distractions)
5. Calibration verifies results

FIGURE 2-9 Measurement is influenced by variables similar to those that affect the score when target shooting.
This comparison shows the difference in the meaning of familiar terms.

Target Analogy
Accuracy, Precision, and Reliability Compared

•
• m,
• 4, —
•

•• •• •• •

• •

Shooter: A
Shooter: A B C D E

Score:
Score: 5
5 0 10 10 10

FIGURE 2-10 Which of these targets represents accurate shooting? Precise shooting? Reliable shooting?

have been consistently demonstrated in the ten shots.
We can rely on Shooter E's performance.
Even as conditions change, we can count on
Shooter E's reliability (see Figure 2-11). The addition
of a crosswind causes scores to decrease in all cases
except E's, because the "reliability" of E's shooting
allows a comfortable margin around the grouping.
There is a greater probability that Shooter E will per-
form as planned under less than perfect conditions.
Based on this shooting example, we can see that
accuracy is a comparison: the desired result is com-
pared with the actual measurement. Thus, accuracy
is also frequently called the "quality of conformity."
Precision reports the dispersement of results or the
degree of repeatability within the manufacturing and
measurement systems. Therefore, it is called "the qual-
ity of refinement." Reliability shows the relationship
between the predicted results and the actual results

Target Analogy
Change of One Variable
• •
• •
• • •
0 0
Shooter: A B
Score: 3 0
FIGURE 2-11 A change in one variable, such as wind, alters the results as shown. Does this show which shooting
was most reliable?
and whether or not we actually can predict what will
happen.
These definitions, when applied to a specific mea-
surement such as our shooters' relative skill, provide
a basis for "educated guesses" about future perfor-
mances. These guesses are called "probabilities" before
a shooting competition and "facts" afterward. Prob-
abilities must have a range; facts are specific and can
alter the total picture, either by causing us to upgrade
or downgrade our expectation of future performance.
Accuracy, precision, and reliability exist in dif-
ferent time frames. If a steel cylinder is a precise part or
an accurate part, we know that historically it measures
within a range of permissible sizes. If it is reliable, we
expect it to perform a certain way in the future.
Reliability can refer to the manufacturing or in-
spection process or to the part's expected future per-
formance. As we have seen in other areas, it is vital
that all parties involved understand exactly what was
measured when reporting on reliability. For example,
we might speak of an accurately inspected cylinder, a
reliably designed cylinder, a cylinder with a precision
tolerance, and so forth.
Precision answers the question how much? It pro-
vides fineness for the range of sizes allowable for one
part or many parts, or it defines the fineness to which
an instrument can read. Precision may be vague—high
Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 21
E
8 4 10
precision, or specific—within 0.025µm (1.0 ifin.) Accuracy
answers the question good enough? It indicates whether
the object complies with a standard, is too big or small,
or is in or out of tolerance. Accuracy may be used in
place of precision, but precision never designates ac=
curacy. For example, in Figure 2-12 the target's size
has been cut in half; therefore, you have a smaller area
for "good" shots—the range of accuracy has been nar- ,
rowed. You can shoot precisely without being accurate
like Shooter 13, whose shots all fall outside the accept-
able area. Or you can shoot like E, whose shots are
both accurate and precise. Notice, too, that there is no
safety margin left. Outside variables could even mar our
sharpshooter E's performance. Whenever requirements
are made stricter, problems with reliability increase.
Without precision, we cannot have accuracy or
reliability. Without skilled measurement specialists,
we cannot meet the increasingly higher demand for
accuracy, precision, and reliability in manufacturing.
As the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology (MST) continues to divide our reference stan-
dard into smaller parts, we rise to higher levels of
precision. But these' are just abstractions until the users
of measurement in science and industry make practi-
cal applications. These applications lead to improved
accuracy, higher reliability, and new products. They
may even change our knowledge of the universe itself.
22 " Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Target Analogy
Change of Second Variable

fa •

Shooter: A B C D E
Score: 1 0 3 4 10

Reducing the target size by one-half shows that the accuracy requirement may dictate the
precision requirement.

2-6 ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
Accuracy may mean many different things, but all of
its meanings are related (see Figure 2-13). In industry,
accurate is used commonly to mean precise; if you are
not sure which word to use, we recommend you use
precise, because it means you are looking for the higher
standard. Precision can be used as an adjective—"a
precision instrument"—or a noun—"the precision of
your work."
These terms are your tools, just like your set
of gage blocks or a microscope. We have started
with basic definitions here, and we will refine and
add to the meanings of these words as we work to-
ward greater precision in our communication about
measurement.
2-7 THE EVOLUTION
OF STANDARDS
From our beginnings as creatures, we have strug-
gled to harness our natural resources and know
how much we had. We almost instinctively cre-
ated systems of measurement, using body parts for
length standards,. for example, to answer this vital
question. As we created cities and governments, we
needed better refined standards for manufacturing
and bartering with other cultures. After all, not ev-
eryone's forearm, for example, is the same length.
The ruler of a certain city or state would usually
eliminate conflict by choosing his own body parts
as the standards. In the process, he or she vested
the responsibility for determining measurement
standards in the state. Even today, differences in
measurement standards can create conflict among
nations: for example, during the World Wars, some
parts manufactured for military systems designed
jointly by the United States and England would
not fit because of the different measurement stan-
dards used.
The earliest recorded standard is the Egyptian
cubit (see Figure 2-14). The Egyptians were very se-
rious about ensuring that everyone was using the
same measurement standard. Failure to calibrate the
working cubit to the royal cubit at each full moon
was punishable by death. But wonders of Egyp-
tian architecture like the pyramids could not have
been built without their strictly enforced system of
measurement.
 Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 23

Precision Accuracy Reliability

General Meaning
Measures
Method of Stating
Specific Meaning
Mechanical or scientific
exactness
Fineness of
readings
Within a 3-in circle
Plus or minus one
thousandth inch
The lower the standard
deviation of measurement,
the higher the precision
Correctness Probability of achieving
accuracy
Ratio of correct/incorrect Reliability of correct readings
readings
5 out of 10 90% reliable
50% of full scale
The number of measure- The probability of performing
ments within a specified without failure—a specific
standard as compared with function (measurement)
those outside under given conditions, for
a specified period of time

2-13 These definitions fit most measurements, but many exceptions can be found. A good rule is to use the
most precise term that the listener can understand easily.

So we can see the similarity between the cubit

FIGURE 2-14 The Egyptian cubit shows recognition of
metrology fundamentals that still apply today. The unit
of length was the Pharaoh's forearm. The standard was
the royal cubit, and to this standard the working cubits
were added.
As use of the cubit spread throughout the ancient
world, each culture modified the standard. The histor-
ical use of the cubit and its parallel measurements are
not directly related, however. Whenever humanity has
developed civilization, we have created a measuring system,
and these systems have always been very similar. For ex-
ample, the ancient Roman ounce and modern tnglish
ounce are nearly identical.
of Rameses II (1324-1258 B.c.) and the English yard of
King Henry I (1068-1135). In about 1130 A.D., Henry
established the distance from his nose to the tip of
his thumb when his arm was extended as a standard
unit of length, the iron ulna. Of course, other cultures
had used this body length as a measurement, but
making the English yard a standard was a major ad-
vance in the Dark Ages. Around the same time, the
inch, defined as one thumb-breadth, and the foot,
were commonly in use (see Figure 2-15). It sounds
funny today, but in the sixteenth century, the English
rod was defined as the combined lengths of the left
feet of the first 16 men to leave church on a particular
Sunday.
Each culture creates its own standards for mea-
surement, but these measurements do not necessarily
convert easily—even among measurement systems of
the same culture. These discrepancies allowed "sharp
operators" to take unfair advantage of customers and
allowed rulers to use overgenerous measures when
collecting taxes.
Our inch-pound system is based on traditional
English standards, but this system has had its prob-
lems, too. During the late eighteenth century, the Eng-
lish commonly used at least three different "miles"
24 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Milestones in
Milestones in Measurement
Measurement

Year Place Unit Contribution

before Chaldea circle First recorded standard of measurement.
4000 B.C.E.
about Egypt cubit Length of Pharaoh's forearm.
4000 B.C.E.
4000 to Egypt span, palm Outstretched hand.
2000 B.C.E. digit, Middle of middle finger.
meridian, mile Equal to 400 cubits or 1000 fathoms.
fathom Length of outstretched arms, about 6 feet.
500 B.C.E. Greece stadia 1/10 of meridian mile, borrowed from Egypt.
mile 1000 paces, similar to today's mile.
Rome thumb-breadth Divided foot into 12 parts. First inch.
Ca. 180— Hipparchus of "Father of Trigonometry."
Ca. 125 B.C.E. Nicaea
849-901 England foot King Alfred established foot as the measure of a cubical vessel containing
1000 Roman ounces of water.
1068-1135 England yard King Henry I established yard and made an iron standard.
1084-1153 Scotland inch King David made inch average measure of three men's thumbs.
1284-1327 England inch King Edward II made inch length of three barley-corns.
1776 U.S. Articles of Confederation gave Congress power to establish weights and measures.
1790 France meter Metric system imposed by law of Republican Convention.
1795 Holland and Forced to metric system by defeat.
Belgium
1769-1821 France Napoleon relaxed metric system.
1828 U.S. First effective weights and standards act passed Congress.
1773-1850 France Louis Philippe put metric system back in force.
1859 Italy Forced to metric system by defeat.
1859 Austria Adopted metric system to thank France for aid against Germany.
1866 U.S. Metric system legalized but not compulsory.
1815-1898 Germany Bismarck adopted metric system for Germany.
1878 U.S. Metric Convention ratified.
England Yard defined.
1890 U.S. Metric standards received in United States
1893 U.S. Mendenhall Act links U.S. standards to metric.
1927 France light wave-lengths 7th International Conference stated the meter was to be equal to 1,553,164.13 wavelengths of
‘ cadmium-red light.
1959 English-speaking countries agree on an International inch.
1960 France meter Extensive revision of system. Adoption of name Le Systeme International d'Unites and abbreviation SI.
1960 France Length of meter expressed in reference to wavelength of krypton 86 radiation.
1964 France Conferences for further improvements and clarification of SI.
1965 England Adopted metric system.
1968 U.S. Congress passed the Metric Study Act.
1975 U.S. President Ford signed Metric Conversion Act.
1978 England The compulsory metrication law was appealed.
1983 meter 1/299,792,458 second
1994 U.S. Dimensioning ASME Y14.5M Dimensioning and Tolerancing Standard revised.
Standard

FIGURE
FIGURE2-152-15 As
As this
this table
table shows,
shows, developments
developments continue.
continue. Since
Since 1927, the improvements in interferometry have al-
lowed the meter to be defined with even greater accuracy. In 1960, it was defined in terms of an isotope of krypton
gas. Then, in 1983; what may be the ultimate breakthrough was made. The meter was defined in terms of time. It is
the length of time that light requires to travel one meter in a vacuum: 1/299,792,458 of a second.
 Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 25

and two units for subdivisions. Eventually, the Eng- The one new standard most nearly equal to the Meter
lish adopted the Imperial Standard Yard as the basis of the Archives was selected as the International Pro-
for all linear measurement. Unfortunately, the origi- totype Meter, and it is now located at the International
nal standard was destroyed by the House of Parlia- Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris.
ment fire in 1834. When the new one was constructed, The remaining 29 prototypes were distributed
it was slightly different from the original. and became the national standards of the participat-
The example of the Imperial Standard Yard ing countries. Periodically, they are returned to the
demonstrates the two axioms of metrology. First, in International Bureau for checking. This plan might
order to measure, there must be a standard; second, have created an accepted international standard, but
that standard must be reproducible. each country had its own interpretation of the metric
system. In 1960, the metric system was revised world-
wide, and the system was renamed to distinguish
2-8 THE ORIGIN OF THE it from the other metric systems. Its new name: Le
Systeme International d'Unites, abbreviated SI. As with
METRIC SYSTEM all measurement systems, the people using it are still
Abuses of measurement were among the causes of adapting it, identifying problem areas, and revising
the French Revolution, so the French Republicans ad- the standards. The terms, symbols, and abbreviations
dressed the problem of standardizing measurement used in SI, summarized in Figure 2-16 and Appendix D,
early in setting up the new government. In 1790, they were established by an international committee and
established the meter: the distance between the North adopted by the National Institute of Standards and
Pole and the equator passing through Paris, divided (KIST).
Technology (NIST).
into ten million parts. But the earth is difficult to use As with all forms of language, the terminology
as a standard of length, so a metal standard, the Meter of SI has its own quirks. For example, many of the
of the Archives, was made and adopted as the official units are derived from the names of famous scientists,
standard in 1799. The Republicans also set up new but these units are not capitalized. As you become fa-
units for mass and time. miliar with and use these terms, their conventions will
It was hard for the people to get used to 110-day come easily to you.
weeks and days divided into 10 hours of 100 minutes
each. They were even more reluctant to buy produce
10s and 20s instead of dozens. Despite the behead-
in lOs
SI Prefixes
ing of Antoine L. Lavoisier (1743-1794), the principal
member of the Metric Committee, the new metric Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
system was enforced. By 1799, the metric system was
so unpopular that Napoleon Bonaparte I (1769-1821) 1024 yotta Y 10-1 deci d
won popular support by relaxing metric regulations 1021 zetta z 10-2 centi
and finally permitting old standards to be used again 1018 exa E 10'
10-3 milli rn
in 1812. The metric system, however, remained the 1015
io'5 peta P 10-6 micro
1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
legal standard of France.
109 giga G 10-12 pico . p
In 1870, the first of a series of international con- 106 mega M 10-15 femto
ferences to establish the metric system worldwide 109
103 kilo k 10-18 atto na
held, with
was 1191d, with48
48delegates
delegatesrepresenting
representing 25
25 countries, 102 hecto h 10-21 zepto z
including France. 101 deka da 10-24 yocto
yoctoy y
In 1889, a general conference in Paris approved
the work of the committee. Thirty prototype meters FIGURE 2-16 These are the prefixes used in SI to show
and 40 prototype kilograms were constructed of a magnitude.
magnitude. A A centimeter, for example, is one hundredth
platinum-iridium alloy and calibrated with each other. of aa meter.
of meter.
 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology
2-9 THE LEGALITY OF THE
METRIC SYSTEM
IN THE UNITED STATES
The early measurement standard established for the
United States by Congress was an 82-inch brass bar
that was prepared in London. This standard was
brought to the United States in 1813, and it defined
the "yard" as the distance between its 28th- and 64th-
inch graduations.
In 1866, an act of Congress legalized the use of
the metric system but did not make its use manda-
tory. This act also established the ratios between cor-
responding units of the measurement systems in the
United States and the metric system; for example, the
yard was defined as 3600/3937 meter. When the met-
ric standards were created, the United States received
two, Numbers 27 and 21, which were received in 1890.
Three years later, Congress passed the Mendenhall
Act, which established the metric International Pro-
totype Meter as the legal standard and standardized
its relationship to the yard "However, the Mendenhall
Act did not specifically legalize the inch-pound sys-
tem that was popularly in use. So the United States
has a legal system of measurement not widely used
and a popular system that never has been legalized.
2-10 THE INTERNATIONAL INCH
Popular measurement systems are also revised as
governments change. The Mendenhall Act defined
the U.S. inch as 25.4000508 mm, but the British Im-
perial Standard Inch was 25.399978 mm. In 1922,
the British revised their standard to 29.399956 mm,
increasing the discrepancy between measurements
made in the United States and Great Britain. In 1951,
Canada also revised their inch to exactly 25.4 mm.
So, at one time, there were three "inches" commonly
in use.
The three "inches" were reconciled to each other
in 1959, when all three governments agreed that one
"international" inch would equal 25.4 mm. It was ac-
cepted by general agreement but without specific con-
gressional legislation.
Soon afterwards, light waves, a consistent, nat-
ural phenomenon, replaced metal bars, which were
man-made, in the measurement of international stan-
dards. Scientists had started working on using light
for standards back in 1892, but light waves were not
accepted as the basis for standards until 1960. Light
waves allow greater precision in measurement and
work well for any measurement system.
2-11 FUNDAMENTAL CRITERIA
In order to evaluate possible measurement systems,
we must understand as much as possible about each
system and be as unbiased as possible.
Naturalness of the Systems
By now, you should be able to recognize that any
measurement system is an arbitrary human in-
vention: nature has no need for quantitative mea-
surement. Even if a system is based on a natural
phenomenon, such as the length of a forearm or the
distance from pole to equator, practical application
will compromise the pure, theoretical accuracy of the
measurement system.
In addition, the subdivision of measurement
standards is arbitrary. We may have 10 digits on
both hands, but dividing a measurement into 10 sec-
tions is not necessarily a "natural" thing. By now,
most of us think that it is natural to have a day of
24 hours, an hour of 60 minutes, a minute of 60 seconds,
and so forth. But remember the French Republicans
and their 10-hour day. The dozen and gross are used
extensively in trade, but they are measurement stan-
dards that can be subdivided easily into a variety
of smaller packages to meet the needs of a world of
customers.
Econornk Considerations
In the past, manufacturers have argued that it was too
expensive to completely overhaul their facilities for
a new measurement standard. Machines, tools, and
manuals were replaced only when the old equipment
was obsolete.

Today, however, manufacturers are competing
in a global economy. For example, parts manufac-
tured in the Far East must be able to fit precisely with
parts made in Europe, and these parts must be able to
be replaced by parts made in the United States. Manu-
facturers must recognize international demands and
adapt manufacturing processes to the accepted stan-
dards of the global economy.
Either/or Reasoning
Throughout this text, you will notice that we notate
measurements in both SI and inch terminology. Some
people would demand that we use just one system
of measurement in the text, in manufacturing, and
throughout the world—either English or SI.
In addition, some people demand that we com-
pletely convert all of our notation of fractions to
decimal. But people are accustomed to speaking in
fractions—a Frenchman will order a half-liter of wine,
not 500 cc—and the use of fractions does not hinder
our understanding of the measurement. In comput-
ing, decimals provide the highest precision; in com-
munication, inch-based fractions create the clearest
picture of the measurement for most people.
It is the conversion of measurements between
systems that can cause confusion: Thomas A. Edison
(1847-1931) created a 1 3/8 in. (34.925 mm) standard for
film—a standard that was misnamed 35 mm. As long
as metrologists have a thorough understanding of con-
version methods and their implications to precision and
quality assurance, there is no reason why we cannot ac-
commodate the use of both systems of measurement.
2-12 THE BEST SYSTEM
At this point, we can safely say that the "best" system
of measurement depends on what is being measured,
what use the measurement has, whether scientific,
commercial, or cultural, and the audience who must
understand the results of the measurement process.
We must use the measurement system that helps
other people understand the goals we are trying to
accomplish—the goals that created the need to mea-
sure in the first place.
Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 27
2-13 PRACTICAL CRITERIA
Every step in the measurement process is potentially
a source of error. To achieve the most precise and reli-
able measurement possible, you must choose the mea-
surement system that requires the fewest steps, from
instrument selection to the final computations made
with your results. To determine the best system of
measurement, we use three factors:
1. Metrological factor—which act of measurement
will yield usable results
2. Computational factor—which system yields fig-
ures that we can use mathematically
3. Communicative factor—which system makes
it easiest for us to share the measurement with
other people
In turn, each of these factors must be evaluated
by four subcriteria (see Figure 2-17), whether the sys-
tems provide:
1. Maximum measurement potential
2. Minimum time required
3. Minimum error potential
4. Minimum cost incurred
Metrologically, both the metric and inch sys-
tems can handle extremely large measurements
and very fine measurements. We use similar instru-
ments in both systems; they require about the same
time to operate; and they are subject to the same er-
rors. However, as a cost consideration, the inch sys-
tem requires two sets of scaled instruments: one for
fractional measurements and one for decimal-inch
measurements.
In computational, the metric system's increments
are uniform, whereas the inch system must be con-
verted among different terms (inch, foot, yard, rod,
and mile) that are not systematically related. Clearly,
converting among distances in the same measurement
system is easier in metric terminology.
In terms of communication, the inch system is
easier for most Americans to immediately compre-
hend than the metric system. Years of experience with
inches, feet, yards, and so forth, give us the mental ref-
erences we need to easily understand a measurement.
28 Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Metric and Inch-Pound Systems Compared

Separate factors to be compared: Basis for comparing each factor:

1. Metrological 1. Maximum measurement potential
2. Computational 2. Minimum time required
3. Communicative 3. Minimum error potential
4. Minimum cost incurred

Factors Metric Inch-Pound

Metrological
Science Excellent Poor
Industry Fair Good
Domestic Poor Fair
Computational
Science Excellent Poor
Industry Good Poor
Domestic Good Poor
Communicative
Science Good Poor
Industry Good Poor

FIGURE 2-17 When the two systems are critically analyzed, neither is all good nor all bad.

We can learn the same mental. references for metric, decimal foot was used in surveying in the United States
but only through the consistent, practical application before 1856. In fact, until the Civil War, 1/64 in. was the
of this measurement system in daily life. smallest standard measurement used in practical work;
Again, your choice of measurement system thousandths of an inch were nothing more than theories.
comes down to what you are measuring, what you The decimal-inch system made its first major
are going to do with the measurements, and who you breakthrough into popular use when, in 1930, the
are measuring for. It is easier for scientists to express Ford Motor Company adopted it, followed quickly
the vast distances between stars or the minute space by the aircraft industry. The Society of Automotive
between atoms in metric terms. But scientists also still Engineers (SAE) published a complete decimal-inch
use the term horsepower, which is based on the English dimensioning manual in 1946. Thirteen years later,
inch system. Similarly, most screw threads are still the American Standards Association (ASA) and the
stated in inch or "soft metric" terms, even if they are Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) chose to
sold as "metric" screws; and, in 1961, Japanese offi- jointly urge greater use of the decimal-inch, propos-
cials had to pass a law forbidding the calibration of ing an American standard for its definition and use.
speedometers in miles per hour, even though the met-
ric system had been enforced for 30 years.
2-15 METROLOGICAL
CONSIDERATIONS
2-14 THE DECIMAL-INCH SYSTEM As we said earlier in this chapter, your eye can see
In order to try to eliminate some of the computational light through a crack as small as 2.54 µm (0.0001 in.)
problems with the inch system, the decimal-inch sys- However, when light goes through a crack, it cre-
tem was created. It is not such a new idea because the ates a contrast between the dark sides and the light
 Chapter 2 Language and Systems of Measurement 29

Eighths Quarters
Quarters/ Halves
Halves
Inches

yiiiiipitiwiiiiiiiiititilli 1111111111111111111111111I11111
14111111111111111111111111111I1 iiiiwiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiwilliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
IIIIII1111111111111111111111111111
Sixteenths 42 02 91 El
82 t+2-02 21 8 8 t.
t 92 102
BZ oz 91 21
t.2 OZ El 8 t I BZ
9 t. 82 42
42 OZ
02 91
91ETZ198IPt 1
84
64 1
I No.88CN-6
No.58CN-8 SCHERROTUMICO
SCHERROTUmICO 2 3
8 16 24,32
24,32 40
40 4848 65
66 1 1624
1 6 16 24 312 40 48 sp
312 sp 1I q$115 24 32
16 24 32 40
40 48 l
I''
jylliiiillillighlilliktliliillililitlili
iiiiltalibililthlililik111111111111111111h11111111111111111111111ililiiilialiiililikliiiiiiiI111111 III111111d11101111111101
iiiiiiiiiiiiiIiiiiiiiiiltlilililditiliiiiillilliiiIIIIIIIIIII11111111111111111111111I1111111111 i11111
Thirty-seconds .-
Fractional Inch
Inch 2 63/64 in.
Sixty-fourths
1Z,Iimeters /
/ Centimeters
Centimeters

1111 11 111

G.
1,
rr

1111111111111111111 11111111111111111[i 1111111111111111111111ilifillillilifil g11111111111J

Metric
Half mm 77.5 mm
100 mils N Inches
N61/4.1/4 .
41.111,.1114441111,111141i1Will
ii41411411 1 / 1 11,11141illlill
SCHERR 0 TUMICO 3
50
SO 11 No. 47CN- 6
No. 47CN— 2 scHERRoTum.c.3
41( a8q T Tep til
fp
iifitillitilintilimiiiiihniltatliat ilitilliiitillitijIlltIlllillt1111i1111111111TtULI
Decimal-Inch
20 mils
mils 2.98
2.98 in. in. -0-1

FIGURE
FIGURE2-18 The decimal-inch readings provide nearly the precision
2-18 The precision of the fractional-inch scale and the simplicity
of the metric scale. Steel
Steel rules
rules with both scales
scales are
are available.

coming through. YourYour eye eye would be less accurate

accurate if 2-16 COMPUTATIONAL
2-16 COMPUTATIONAL
you were trying to readread thethe same
same division—a
division—a small
black mark—on a metalmetal ruler.
ruler. CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 2-18,
In Figure 2-18, you can see see the
the relationship
relationship One advantage of the metric and and decimal-inch
decimal-inch system
among inch, metric, and decimal-inch rulers. You can is obvious: there are no fractions
fractions to to combine
combine when you
also see
see how
how difficult
difficult itit might
might bebe to
to accurately
accurately readread making calculations. The measurements
are making measurements in in this
this sys-
measurement, especially
a measurement, especially if thethe distance
distance fellfell some- tem add, subtract,
subtract, multiply,
multiply, and
and divide
divide easily. During
where between marks. So, if you you are
are trying to measure computation, you can add
add decimal places as needed to
with a ruler, the traditional inch ruler is hard to read report the measurement
report the measurement to to its
its last
last significant figure.
because of
of the
the variety
variety of
of fractional
fractional marks;
marks; the metric But any skilled metrologist will also be familiar
ruler's divisions are either
ruler's divisions either tootoo large
large to be useful or with the use of fractions. You might spend up up to
to five
too small to be read easily by the unaidedunaided eye. Users times as long
long calculating
calculating measurements
measurements in fractions
have a tendency to round
round to a mark too often with the
mark too because many times you first have to compute a com-
decimal-inch ruler. Obviously, to make precise, fine
ruler. Obviously, mon denominator
denominator (see Figure 2-19),
2-19), then
then reduce the
measurements, you need aa different
different kind ofof instrument.
instrument. result back down.
30, Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology

Computation Comparison

System Addition Subtraction

Fractional 1-1/64 1-1/64 1-5/8 1-40/64 104/64
System 9/32 18/64 —9/32 —18/64
1-31/32 1-62/64 —27/64 —27/64 —45/64
2-3/4 2-48/64 59/64
4-129/64
6— 1/64
Exact Decimal 1.015625 1.625 1.625000
Equivalents .28125 —. 28125
1.96875 — .421875 —.703125
2.75 .921875
6.015625
Two-Place 1.02 1.62 1.62
Decimal System 0.28 —.28
1.97 —.42 —.70
2.75 .92
6.02

FIGURE 2-19 The computational advantage of the decimal-inch system is evi-

dent from this comparison of an addition problem and a subtraction problem,
both solved by the three methods.

Successive Halving into 64ths, you end up with six decimal places (see
Figure 2-20); the extra figures may or may not be
1. significant, but they can add up to create errors of
1/2 0.5 1 place
1/64 very quickly. Also, at times, you will need to
1/4 0.25 2 places
1/8 0.125 3 places
convert the decimal result back to a fraction after all
1/16 0.0625 4 places your calculations.
1/32 0.03125 5 places
1/64 0.015625 6 places
2-17 ROUNDINu OFF
NUMER VALUES
FIGURE 2—Z0 Successive halving of one (1) in order to
form the common fractions results in the 64ths having When we round off, we eliminate unnecessary figures
six decimal places. in any computation. However, you must know both
the correct method of rounding off and the number
of significant figures needed in order to round off
Of course, using decimals can create problems, properly.
too. If a measurement is originally made using the For example, we need to know the volume of a
inch system, you will have to convert all fractions block measuring 15.2 x 11.1 x 8.3 in.: 1,400.376 cubic
to decimal first. Conversion can lead to problems in. Our original measurements were reported only to
with rounding off. When the number "1" is divided one decimal place—the tenths—but our calculations
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