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Calculus
Concepts and Co ntex t s
Fifth Edition
James Stewart
McMaster University
and
University of Toronto
Stephen Kokoska
Bloomsburg University
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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James Stewart, Stephen Kokoska
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Contents
Preface ix
To the Student xx
Diagnostic Tests xxii
A Preview of Calculus 1
1 Functions and Models 9

1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function 10
1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions 25
1.3 New Functions from Old Functions 40
1.4 Exponential Functions 51
1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms 60
1.6 Parametric Curves 71
Laboratory Project • Motion of a Point on a Circle 80
Review 81
Principles of Problem Solving 85
2 Limits 91
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems 92
2.2 The Limit of a Function 99
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws 110
2.4 Continuity 122
2.5 Limits Involving Infinity 136
2.6 Derivatives and Rates of Change 152
Writing Project • Early Methods for Finding Tangents 164
2.7 The Derivative as a Function 164
Review 180
Focus on Problem Solving 185
iii
iv Contents
3 Differentiation Rules 189

3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions 190
Applied Project • Building a Better Roller Coaster 203
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules 204
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 213
3.4 The Chain Rule 222
Laboratory Project • Bézier Curves 236
Applied Project • Where Should a Pilot Start Descent? 237
3.5 Implicit Differentiation 237
3.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Derivatives 246
3.7 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 251
Discovery Project • Hyperbolic Functions 259
3.8 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences 260
3.9 Linear Approximations and Differentials 274
Laboratory Project • Taylor Polynomials 281
Review 283
4 Applications of Differentiation 293

4.1 Related Rates 294
4.2 Maximum and Minimum Values 302
Applied Project • The Calculus of Rainbows 313
4.3 Derivatives and the Shapes of Curves 315
4.4 Graphing with Calculus and Technology 335
4.5 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule 343
Writing Project • The Origins of L’Hospital’s Rule 356
4.6 Optimization Problems 356
Applied Project • Tin Can Shape 372
4.7 Newton’s Method 373
4.8 Antiderivatives 379
Review 389
5 Integrals 399
5.1 Areas and Distances 400
5.2 The Definite Integral 413
Contents v
5.3 Evaluating Definite Integrals 429

Discovery Project • Area Functions 442
5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 443
Writing Project • Newton, Leibniz, and the Invention of Calculus 453
5.5 The Substitution Rule
454
5.6 Integration by Parts 466
5.7 Additional Techniques of Integration 474
5.8 Integration Using Tables and Computer Algebra Systems 481
Discovery Project • Patterns in Integrals 487
5.9 Approximate Integration 488
5.10 Improper Integrals 502
Review 516
6 Applications of Integration 525

6.1 More About Areas 526
6.2 Volumes 536
Discovery Project • Rotating on a Slant 551
6.3 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells 552
6.4 Arc Length 561
Discovery Project • Arc Length Contest 568
6.5 Average Value of a Function 568
Applied Project • The Best Seat at the Movies 574
6.6 Applications to Physics and Engineering 575
Discovery Project • Complementary Coffee Cups 588
6.7 Applications to Economics and Biology 589
6.8 Probability 594
Review 605
7 Differential Equations 613

7.1 Modeling with Differential Equations 614
7.2 Slope Fields and Euler’s Method 620
7.3 Separable Equations 631
Applied Project • How Fast Does a Tank Drain? 641
Applied Project • Which Is Faster, Going Up or Coming Down? 643
7.4 Exponential Growth and Decay 644
Applied Project • Calculus and Baseball 653
vi Contents
7.5 The Logistic Equation 654

7.6 Predator-Prey Systems 664
Review 671
8 Infinite Sequences and Series 677

8.1 Sequences 678
Laboratory Project • Logistic Sequences 690
8.2 Series 691
8.3 The Integral and Comparison Tests; Estimating Sums 704
8.4 Other Convergence Tests 716
8.5 Power Series 726
8.6 Representations of Functions as Power Series 733
8.7 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 741
Laboratory Project • An Elusive Limit 758
Writing Project • How Newton Discovered the Binomial Series 759
8.8 Applications of Taylor Polynomials 759
Applied Project • Radiation from the Stars 769
Review 771
9 Vectors and the Geometry of Space 779

9.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems 780
9.2 Vectors 787
9.3 The Dot Product 798
9.4 The Cross Product 805
Discovery Project • The Geometry of a Tetrahedron 814
9.5 Equations of Lines and Planes 814
Discovery Project • Putting 3D in Perspective 825
9.6 Functions and Surfaces 826
9.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 836
Laboratory Project • Families of Surfaces 842
Review 843
Contents vii
10 Vector Functions 849

10.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves 850
10.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions 858
10.3 Arc Length and Curvature 866
10.4 Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration 876
Applied Project • Kepler’s Laws 886
10.5 Parametric Surfaces 887
Review 894
11 Partial Derivatives 899

11.1 Functions of Several Variables 900
11.2 Limits and Continuity 913
11.3 Partial Derivatives 921
11.4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations 936
11.5 The Chain Rule 948
11.6 Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector 958
11.7 Maximum and Minimum Values 973
Applied Project • Designing a Dumpster 984
Laboratory Project • Quadratic Approximations and Critical Points 984
11.8 Lagrange Multipliers 985
Applied Project • Rocket Science 993
Applied Project • Hydro-Turbine Optimization 994
Review 996
12 Multiple Integrals 1003

12.1 Double Integrals over Rectangles 1004
12.2 Iterated Integrals 1013
12.3 Double Integrals over General Regions 1019
12.4 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 1030
12.5 Applications of Double Integrals 1037
12.6 Surface Area 1047
12.7 Triple Integrals 1052
Discovery Project • Volumes of Hyperspheres 1063
viii Contents
12.8 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 1064

Applied Project • Roller Derby 1070
Discovery Project • The Intersection of Three Cylinders 1071
12.9 Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals 1072
Review 1081
13 Vector Calculus 1087

13.1 Vector Fields 1088
13.2 Line Integrals 1096
13.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals 1108
13.4 Green’s Theorem 1119
13.5 Curl and Divergence 1128
13.6 Surface Integrals 1136
13.7 Stokes’ Theorem 1148
13.8 The Divergence Theorem 1154
13.9 Summary 1162
Review 1163
Appendixes A1
A Intervals, Inequalities, and Absolute Values A2
B Coordinate Geometry A7
C Trigonometry A17
D Precise Definitions of Limits A26
E A Few Proofs A36
F Sigma Notation A41
G Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions A47
H Polar Coordinates A55
Discovery Project • Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates A70
I Complex Numbers A71
J Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A80
Index A193
Preface
When the first edition of this book appeared over 20 years ago, there was a lot of
discussion centered on calculus reform. Many mathematics departments were divided
on issues including the use of technology, conceptual understanding versus procedural
practice, and the role of discovery learning. Since then, the Advanced Placement ®
Calculus program has embraced calculus reform, and reformers and traditionalists have
realized that they have a common goal: to enable students to understand and appreciate
calculus.
The first four editions were intended to be a synthesis of reform and traditional
approaches to calculus instruction. In the fifth edition, we continue this approach by
emphasizing conceptual understanding through graphical, verbal, numerical, and alge-
braic approaches. We would like students to learn important problem-solving skills, and
to see both the practical power of calculus and the intrinsic beauty of the subject.
The principal way in which this book differs from the more traditional calculus
textbooks is that it is more streamlined. For example, there is no complete chapter on
techniques of integration; we do not prove as many theorems; and the material on tran-
scendental functions and on parametric equations is interwoven throughout the book
instead of being treated in separate chapters. Instructors who prefer a more complete
coverage of traditional calculus topics should consider Calculus, Ninth Edition, and
Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Ninth Edition.
What’s New in the Fifth Edition?
The changes in the fifth edition include a more conversational tone with an uncluttered
presentation, all focused on conceptual understanding through the development
of problem-solving skills. Here are some of the specific improvements that we have
incorporated into this edition:
• A Closer Look feature provides straightforward itemized explanations of important
concepts. Students will find these easy to read and to connect with the relevant
theory.
• Marginal notes titled Common Error remind students of common errors and rein-
force the proper solution technique.
• More detailed, guided solutions to examples include explanations for most steps
(easy to read, in a different color, right justified with the appropriate step). This
makes it easier for the student to follow the logical steps to a solution and to apply
problem-solving skills to exercises.
• Wherever possible, sections are divided into appropriate subsections, smaller pieces,
to accommodate the way students read and learn today.
• All graphs have been redrawn to include more detail and every figure has an appro-
priate caption to easily link with the appropriate idea.
ix
x Preface
• Each chapter begins with a real-world situation that introduces the material.
• The data in examples and exercises have been updated to be more timely.
• Section 1.4, “Graphing Calculators and Computers,” has been eliminated.
• Former Section 2.8, “What Does f 9 Say About f, ” has been incorporated into
Section 4.3, “Derivatives and the Shapes of Curves.”
• New WebAssign problem types and learning resources build student problem-
solving skills and conceptual understanding. These include automatically graded
proof problems, Expanded Problems, Explore It interactive learning modules, and
an eTextbook with Media Index and Student Solutions Manual.
Features
■ Conceptual Exercises
The exercises include various types of problems to foster conceptual understanding.
Some exercises sets begin with questions that ask for an explanation of some of the basic
concepts presented in the section. See, for example, the first few exercises in Sections 2.2,
2.4, 2.5, 5.3, 8.2, 11.2, and 11.3. These problems might be used as a basis for classroom
discussions. Similarly, review sections begin with a Concepts and Vocabulary section
and a True-False Quiz. Other Exercises test conceptual understanding through graphs
and tables. See, for example, Exercises 1.7.22–25, 2.6.19, 2.7.39–42; 45–48, 3.8.5–6,
5.2.65–67, 7.1.12–14, 8.7.2, 10.2.1, 10.3.37–41, 11.1.1–2, 11.1.12–22, 11.3.3–10,
11.6.1–3, 11.7.3–4, 12.1.7–12, 13.1.13–22, 13.2.18–19, and 13.3.1, 2, 13.
Another type of exercise uses verbal description to test conceptual understanding.
See, for example, Exercises 2.4.11, 2.7.75, 4.3.80, 4.3.84–85, and 5.10.69. Other
exercises combine and compare graphical, numerical, and algebraic approaches; see
Exercises 2.5.54–55, 2.5.63, 3.8.27, and 7.5.4.
■ Graded Exercise Sets

Each exercise set is carefully graded, progressing from basic conceptual exercises and
skill-development problems to more challenging problems involving applications and
proofs.
■ Real-World Data
Everyone involved with this writing project has spent a great deal of time looking in
libraries, contacting companies and government agencies, and searching the Internet for
interesting real-world data to introduce, motivate, and illustrate the concepts of calculus.
As a result, many of the examples and exercises are associated with functions defined
by numerical data given in a table or graphically. See, for example, Figure 1.1 in Section
1.1 (the rate of water usage in New York City during the 2018 Super Bowl), Exercise
5.1.16 (the velocity of a car racing at the Daytona International Speedway), Exercise
5.1.18 (the velocity of a pod in the SpaceX Hyperloop), Figure 5.40 (San Francisco
power consumption), Example 5.9.5 (data traffic on Internet links), and Example 9.6.3
(wave heights).
Functions of two variables are illustrated by a table of values of the wind-chill
index as a function of the wind speed and the air temperature (Example 11.1.1). Partial
Preface xi
derivatives are introduced in Section 11.3 by examining a column in a table of values of

the heat index (perceived air temperature) as a function of the actual temperature and the
relative humidity. This example is considered again in connection with linear approx-
imations (Example 11.4.3). Directional derivatives are introduced in Section 11.6 by
using a temperature contour map to estimate the rate of change of temperature at Boston
in a northwest direction. Double integrals are used to estimate the average snowfall in
Colorado during the 2020–2021 winter (Example 12.1.4). Vector fields are introduced
in Section 13.1 by depictions of actual velocity vector fields showing wind patterns and
ocean currents.
■ Projects
One way to involve students and to help make them active learners is to have them work
(perhaps in groups) on extended projects that lead to a feeling of substantial accomplish-
ment when completed. Applied Projects involve applications that are designed to appeal
to the imagination of students. The project after Section 3.1 asks students to design the
first ascent and drop for a roller coaster. The project after Section 11.8 uses Lagrange
multipliers to determine the masses of the three stages of a rocket so as to minimize the
total mass while enabling the rocket to reach a desired velocity. Laboratory Projects
involve technology; the project following Section 3.4 shows how to use Bezier curves
to design shapes that represent letters for a laser printer. Writing Projects ask students to
compare present-day methods with those of the founders of calculus—Fermat’s method
for finding tangents, for instance. Suggested references are supplied. Discovery Projects
anticipate results to be discussed later or cover optional topics (hyperbolic functions)
or encourage discovery through pattern recognition (see the project following Section
5.8). Others explore aspects of geometry: tetrahedra (after Section 9.4), hyperspheres
(after Section 12.7), and intersections of three cylinders (after Section 12.8). Additional
projects can be found in the Instructor’s Guide (see, for instance, Group Exercise 5.1:
Position from Samples) and also in the CalcLabs supplements.
■ Rigor
There are fewer proofs included in this text as compared with more traditional calculus
books. However, it is still worthwhile to expose students to the idea of proof and to
make a clear distinction between a proof and a plausibility argument using, for example,
technology (a graph or a table of values). The important thing is to show how to reach
a conclusion that seems less obvious from something that seems more obvious. A good
example is the use of the Mean Value Theorem to prove the Evaluation Theorem (Part 2
of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Note that we have chosen not to prove the
convergence tests but rather present intuitive arguments that they are true.
■ Problem Solving
Problem solving is perhaps the most difficult concept to teach and learn. Students fre-
quently have difficulty solving problems in which there is no single well-defined pro-
cedure or technique for obtaining the final answer. It seems that no one has improved
very much on George Polya’s four-stage problem-solving strategy and, accordingly, a
version of his problem-solving principles is included at the end of Chapter 1. These
principles are applied, both explicitly and implicitly, throughout the book. At the end
of other chapters, there are sections called Focus on Problem Solving, which feature
examples of how to approach challenging calculus problems. The varied problems in
xii Preface
these sections are selected using the following advice from David Hilbert: “A math-
ematical problem should be difficult in order to entice us, yet not inaccessible lest it
mock our efforts.” These challenging problems might be used on assignments and tests,
but consider grading them in a different way. One might reward a student significantly
for presenting ideas toward a solution and for recognizing which problem-solving prin-
ciples are relevant.
■ Technology
Graphing calculators and computers are powerful tools that allow us to explore prob-
lems, discover concepts, and confirm solutions. However, it is even more important to
understand clearly the concepts that underlie the results and images on the screen. We
assume that the student has access to either a graphing calculator or a computer algebra
system. But technology doesn’t make pencil and paper obsolete. Hand calculations and
sketches are often preferable to technology for illustrating and reinforcing some con-
cepts. Both instructors and students need to develop the ability to decide where the use
of technology is appropriate.
■ WebAssign: webassign.com
This Fifth Edition is available with WebAssign, a fully customizable online solution for
STEM disciplines from Cengage. WebAssign includes homework, an interactive mobile
eBook, videos, tutorials, and Explore It interactive learning modules. Instructors can
decide what type of help students can access, and when, while working on assignments.
The patented grading engine provides unparalleled answer evaluation, giving students
instant feedback, and insightful analytics highlight exactly where students are strug-
gling. For more information, visit webassign.com.
■ Stewart Website
Visit StewartCalculus.com for these additional materials:
• Homework Hints
• Algebra and Analytic Geometry Review
• Lies My Calculator and Computer Told Me
• History of Mathematics, with links to recommended historical websites
• Additional Topics (complete with exercise sets): Fourier Series, Rotation of Axes,
Formulas for the Remainder Theorem in Taylor Series, Second-Order Differential
Equations
• Challenge Problems (some from the Problems Plus sections from prior editions)
• Links, for particular topics, to outside Web resources
Content
■ Diagnostic Tests
The book begins with four diagnostic tests, in Basic Algebra, Analytic Geometry, Func-
tions, and Trigonometry.
Preface xiii
■ A Preview of Calculus
This is an overview of the subject and includes a list of questions to motivate the study
of calculus.
■ 1 • Functions and Models

Multiple representations of functions are emphasized throughout the text: verbal,
numerical, graphical, and algebraic. A discussion of mathematical models leads to a
review of the standard functions, including exponential and logarithmic functions, from
these four points of view. Parametric curves are introduced in the first chapter, partly, so
that curves can be drawn easily, with technology, whenever needed throughout the text.
This early placement also enables tangents to parametric curves to be treated in Section
3.4 and graphing such curves to be covered in Section 4.4.
■ 2 • Limits
The material on limits is motivated by a discussion of the tangent line and instantaneous
velocity problems. Limits are treated from descriptive, graphical, numerical, and alge-
braic points of view. Note that the precise definition of a limit is provided in Appendix D
for those who wish to cover this concept. It is important to carefully consider Sections
2.6 and 2.7, which deal with derivatives and rates of change, before the differentiation
rules are covered in Chapter 3. The examples and exercises in these sections explore the
meanings of derivatives in various contexts.
■ 3 • Differentiation Rules
All of the rules for differentiating basic functions are presented in this chapter. There
are many applied examples and exercises in which students are asked to explain the
meaning of the derivative in the context of the problem. Optional topics (hyperbolic
functions, an early introduction to Taylor polynomials) are explored in Discovery and
Laboratory Projects. A full treatment of hyperbolic functions is available to instructors
on the website.
■ 4 • Applications of Differentiation
This chapter begins with a section on related rates. Then, the basic facts concerning
extreme values and shapes of curves are derived using the Mean Value Theorem as the
starting point. The interaction between technology and calculus is discussed and illus-
trated, and there are a wide variety of optimization problems presented. Indeterminate
forms are addressed, Newton’s method is presented, and a discussion of antiderivatives
prepares students for Chapter 5.
■ 5 • Integrals
The area problem and the distance problem serve to motivate the definite integral. Sub-
intervals of equal width are used in order to make the definition of a definite integral
easier to understand. Emphasis is placed on explaining the meanings of integrals in vari-
ous contexts and on estimating their values from graphs and tables. There is no separate
chapter on techniques of integration, but substitution and integration by parts are cov-
ered here and other methods are treated briefly. Partial fractions are given full treatment
in Appendix G. The use of computer algebra systems is discussed in Section 5.8.
xiv Preface
■ 6 • Applications of Integration
General methods, not formulas, are emphasized. The goal is for students to be able to
divide a quantity into small pieces, estimate with Riemann sums, and recognize the
limit as an integral. There are lots of applications in this chapter, probably too many to
cover in any one course. We hope you will select applications that you and your students
enjoy. Some instructors like to cover polar coordinates, in Appendix H, here. Others pre-
fer to defer this topic until it is needed in a third semester calculus course, with Section
9.7 or just before Section 12.4.
■ 7 • Differential Equations
Modeling is the theme that unifies this introductory treatment of differential equations.
Slope fields and Euler’s method are presented before separable equations are solved
explicitly, so that qualitative, numerical, and analytic approaches are given equal con-
sideration. These methods are applied to the exponential, logistic, and other models for
population growth. Predator-prey models are used to illustrate systems of differential
equations.
■ 8 • Infinite Sequences and Series

Tests for the convergence of series are considered briefly, with intuitive rather than for-
mal justifications. Numerical estimates of sums of series are based on the test used to
prove convergence. The emphasis is on Taylor series and polynomials, their applications
to physics, and error estimates.
■ 9 • Vectors and the Geometry of Space

The dot product and cross product of vectors are given geometric definitions, motivated
by work and torque, before the algebraic expressions are derived. To facilitate the dis-
cussion of surfaces, functions of two variables and their graphs are introduced here.
■ 10 • Vector Functions
The calculus of vector functions is used to prove Kepler’s First Law of planetary motion,
with the proofs of the other laws left as a project. Since parametric curves were intro-
duced in Chapter 1, parametric surfaces are introduced as soon as possible, namely, in
this chapter. We think an early familiarity with such surfaces is desirable, especially
with the capability of computers to produce their graphs. Then tangent planes and areas
of parametric surfaces can be discussed in Sections 11.4 and 12.6.
■ 11 • Partial Derivatives
Functions of two or more variables are studied from verbal, numerical, visual, and
algebraic points of view. In particular, partial derivatives are introduced by looking at
a specific column in a table of values of the heat index (perceived air temperature) as a
function of the actual temperature and the relative humidity. Directional derivatives are
estimated from contour maps of temperature, pressure, and elevation.
■ 12 • Multiple Integrals
Contour maps and the Midpoint Rule are used to estimate the average snowfall and
average temperature in given regions. Double and triple integrals are used to compute
Preface xv
probabilities, areas of parametric surfaces, volumes of hyperspheres, and the volume of

intersection of three cylinders.
■ 13 • Vector Fields
Vector fields are introduced through pictures of velocity fields showing wind patterns
and ocean currents. The similarities among the Fundamental Theorem for line integrals,
Green’s Theorem, Stokes’ Theorem, and the Divergence Theorem are emphasized.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the following reviews for sharing their knowledge, teaching experi-
ence, and constructive comments. We have learned something from each of them.
■ Fifth Edition Reviewers

Robert Andersen, Stony Brook Mako Haruta, University of Hartford
Adam Boocher, University of San Diego David Kahn, Stony Brook
Austina Fong, PCC Rock Creek Leanne Merrill, Western Oregon University
Marcus McDuff, Austin Community College
■ Previous Edition Reviewers

Irfan Altas, Charles Sturt University Susan Dean, DeAnza College
William Ardis, Collin County Community College Richard DiDio, LaSalle University
Jennifer Bailey, Colorado School of Mines Robert Dieffenbach, Miami University—Middletown
Barbara Bath, Colorado School of Mines Fred Dodd, University of South Alabama
Neil Berger, University of Illinois at Chicago Helmut Doll, Bloomsburg University
Jean H. Bevis, Georgia State University William Dunham, Muhlenberg College
Lewis Blake, Duke University David A. Edwards, The University of Georgia
Martina Bode, Northwestern University John Ellison, Grove City College
Jay Bourland, Colorado State University Joseph R. Fiedler, California State University—Bakersfield
Paul Wayne Britt, Louisiana State University Barbara R. Fink, DeAnza College
Judith Broadwin, Jericho High School (retired) James P. Fink, Gettysburg College
Charles Bu, Wellesley University Joe W. Fisher, University of Cincinnati
Meghan Anne Burke, Kennesaw State University Robert Fontenot, Whitman College
Robert Burton, Oregon State University Richard L. Ford, California State University Chico
Roxanne M. Byrne, University of ado at Denver Laurette Foster, Prairie View A&M University
Maria E. Calzada, Loyola University—New Orleans Ronald C. Freiwald, Washington University in St. Louis
Larry Cannon, Utah State University Frederick Gass, Miami University
Deborah Troutman Cantrell, Chattanooga State Technical Gregory Goodhart, Columbus State Community College
Community College John Gosselin, University of Georgia
Bem Cayco, San Jose State University Daniel Grayson, University of Illinois at Urbana—Champaign
John Chadam, University of Pittsburgh Raymond Greenwell, Hofstra University
Robert A. Chaffer, Central Michigan University Gerrald Gustave Greivel, Colorado School of Mines
Dan Clegg, Palomar College John R. Griggs, North Carolina State University
Camille P. Cochrane, Shelton State Community College Barbara Bell Grover, Salt Lake Community College
James Cook, North Carolina State University Murli Gupta, The George Washington University
James Daly, University of Colorado John William Hagood, Northern Arizona University
Richard Davis, Edmonds Community College Kathy Hann, California State University at Hayward
xvi Preface
Richard Hitt, University of South Alabama Drew Pasteur, North Carolina State University
Judy Holdener, United States Air Force Academy David Patocka, Tulsa Community College—Southeast Campus
Randall R. Holmes, Auburn University Paul Patten, North Georgia College
Barry D. Hughes, University of Melbourne Leslie Peek, Mercer University
Mike Hurley, Case Western Reserve University Mike Pepe, Seattle Central Community College
Costel Ionita, Dixie State College Jeffrey Powell, Samford University
Gary Steven Itzkowitz, Rowan University Dan Pritikin, Miami University
Helmer Junghans, Montgomery College Fred Prydz, Shoreline Community College
Victor Kaftal, University of Cincinnati Denise Taunton Reid, Valdosta State University
Steve Kahn, Anne Arundel Community College James Reynolds, Clarion University
Mohammad A. Kazemi, University of North Carolina, Charlotte Hernan Rivera, Texas Lutheran University
Harvey Keynes, University of Minnesota Richard Rochberg, Washington University
Kandace Alyson Kling, Portland Community College Gil Rodriguez, Los Medanos College
Ronald Knill, Tulane University David C. Royster, University of North Carolina—Charlotte
Stephen Kokoska, Bloomsburg University Daniel Russow, Arizona Western College
Kevin Kreider, University of Akron Dusty Edward Sabo, Southern Oregon University
Doug Kuhlmann, Phillips Academy Daniel S. Sage, Louisiana State University
David E. Kullman, Miami University N. Paul Schembari, East Stroudsburg University
Carrie L. Kyser, Clackamas Community College Dr. John Schmeelk, Virginia Commonwealth University
Prem K. Kythe, University of New Orleans Bettina Schmidt, Auburn University at Montgomery
James Lang, Valencia Community College—East Campus Bernd S. W. Schroeder, Louisiana Tech University
Carl Leinbach, Gettysburg College Jeffrey Scott Scroggs, North Carolina State University
William L. Lepowsky, Laney College James F. Selgrade, North Carolina State University
Kathryn Lesh, University of Toledo Brad Shelton, University of Oregon
Lawrence Levine, Stevens Institute of Technology Don Small, United States Military Academy—West Point
Estela Llinas, University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg Linda E. Sundbye, The Metropolitan State College of Denver
Beth Turner Long, Pellissippi State Technical Community College Richard B. Thompson, The University of Arizona
Miroslav Lovric, McMaster University William K. Tomhave, Concordia College
Lou Ann Mahaney, Tarrant County Junior College—Northeast Barbara Tozzi, Brookdale Community College
John R. Martin, Tarrant County Junior College Lorenzo Traldi, Lafayette College
Andre Mathurin, Bellarmine College Prep Alan Tucker, State University of New York at Stony Brook
R. J. McKellar, University of New Brunswick Tom Tucker, Colgate University
Jim McKinney, California State Polytechnic University—Pomona Kathryn Turner, Utah State University
Richard Eugene Mercer, Wright State University George Van Zwalenberg, Calvin College
David Minda, University of Cincinnati Dennis Watson, Clark College
Rennie Mirollo, Boston College Paul R. Wenston, The University of Georgia
Laura J. Moore-Mueller, Green River Community College Ruth Williams, University of California—San Diego
Scott L. Mortensen, Dixie State College Clifton Wingard, Delta State University
Brian Mortimer, Carleton University Jianzhong Wang, Sam Houston State University
Bill Moss, Clemson University JingLing Wang, Lansing Community College
Tejinder Singh Neelon, California State University San Marcos Michael B. Ward, Western Oregon University
Phil Novinger, Florida State University Stanley Wayment, Southwest Texas State University
Richard Nowakowski, Dalhousie University Barak Weiss, Ben-Gurion University—Be’er Sheva, Israel
Stephen Ott, Lexington Community College Teri E. Woodington, Colorado School of Mines
Grace Orzech, Queen’s University James Wright, Keuka College
Jeanette R. Palmiter, Portland State University Cathy Zucco-Tevelof, Arcadia University
Bill Paschke, University of Kansas
Preface xvii
In addition, we would like to thank Ari Brodsky, David Cusick, Alfonso Gracia-Saz,
Emile LeBlanc, Tanya Leise, Joe May, Romaric Pujol, Norton Starr, Lou Talman, and
Gail Wolkowicz for their advice and suggestions; Al Shenk and Dennis Zill for permis-
sion to use exercises from their calculus texts; COMAP for permission to use project
material; Alfonso Gracia-Saz, B. Hovinen, Y. Kim, Anthony Lam, Romaric Pujol, Felix
Recio, and Paul Sally for ideas for exercises; Dan Drucker for the roller derby project;
and Tom Farmer, Fred Gass, John Ramsay, Larry Riddle, V. K. Srinivasan, and Philip
Straffin for ideas for projects.
As well, we thank those who have contributed to past editions: Ed Barbeau, George
Bergman, David Bleecker, Fred Brauer, Andy Bulman-Fleming, Tom DiCiccio, Martin
Erickson, Garret Etgen, Chris Fisher, Stuart Goldenberg, Arnold Good, John Hagood,
Gene Hecht, Victor Kaftal, Harvey Keynes, E. L. Koh, Zdislav Kovarik, Kevin Kreider,
Jamie Lawson, David Leep, Gerald Leibowitz, Larry Peterson, Lothar Redlin, Peter
Rosenthal, Carl Riehm, Ira Rosenholtz, Doug Shaw, Dan Silver, Lowell Smylie, Larry
Wallen, Saleem Watson, and Alan Weinstein.
We also thank Flora Emanuel and Lumina Datamatics Ltd. for their production ser-
vices; Thomas Dick and Ben Klein for their careful proofing of the pages; Gaby Vinales
for the cover image, and the following Cengage staff: Laura Gallus, learning designer;
Megan Gore, WebAssign program manager; Nikkita Kendrick, digital delivery quality
partner; Ashley Maynard and Nick Barrows, permissions specialists; Lynh Pham, con-
tent manager; Tim Rogers, product assistant; and Tom Ziolkowski, executive marketing
manager. They have all done a terrific job.
A special thanks to Gary Whalen for his patience, trust, and confidence. Steve is
especially grateful and honored to be part of the Stewart text legacy. And the fifth edi-
tion could not have been completed without Leslie Lahr. She has superb editing skills,
an experienced eye for style, and understands the publishing big picture. Steve has been
extremely fortunate to work with some of the most dedicated mathematics educators in
the country over the last three decades. Much of what he has learned from them is pres-
ent throughout this text.
James Stewart
Stephen Kokoska
xviii Preface
Instructor Resources Student Resources
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Provides answers and solutions to all exercises in the text,
including exercises in the end-of-chapter Review and Focus on
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To the Student
Reading a calculus book is different from reading a newspaper or a novel, or even a

physics book. Don’t be discouraged if you have to read a passage more than once to
understand it. It’s a good idea to keep a pencil, paper, and graphing calculator handy to
check, or try, a calculation or sketch a diagram or graph.
Some students don’t read the text at first; they start by trying the homework problems
and read the text only when they get stuck on an exercise. We think a better plan is to
read and understand a section of the text before attempting the exercises. In particular,
you should carefully study the definitions and understand the exact meanings of terms.
And before you read an example, we suggest that you cover up the solution and try solv-
ing the problem yourself. You will learn a lot more from looking at the solution this way.
This text is designed to teach conceptual understanding through problem-solving
skills and pattern recognition, and to train you to think logically. Learn to write solu-
tions to the exercises in a connected, step-by-step fashion, using good communication
and proper notation.
The answers to the odd-numbered exercises appear at the back of the book, in
Appendix J. Some exercises ask for a verbal explanation or interpretation or description.
In such cases there is no single correct way of expressing the answer, so don’t worry
that you haven’t found the definitive answer. In addition, there are often several forms
in which to express a numerical or algebraic answer, so if your answer differs from the
the answer given in the back of the book is !2 2 1 and your answer is 1/(1 1 !2),
one in the back of the book, don’t immediately assume you are wrong. For example, if
then you are right, and rationalizing the denominator will show that the answers are
equivalent.
The Stewart website is a companion to this text and provides various resources to
help you succeed. For example, Homework Hints for representative exercises ask ques-
tions that allow you to make progress toward a solution without actually giving you the
answer. You will need to pursue each hint in an active manner with pencil and paper to
work out the details. If a particular hint doesn’t enable you to solve the problem, you
can reveal the next hint. There is also an algebra review, some drill exercises to reinforce
techniques, and several challenge problems.
We hope that you will keep this book for reference after you finish the course.
Because you may forget some of the specific details of calculus, this book will serve as
a useful reminder when you need to use calculus in subsequent courses. And, because
this book contains more material than can be covered in any one course, it can also
serve as a valuable resource for a working scientist or engineer. Calculus is an exciting
subject, justly considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect.
We hope that you will discover that calculus is not only useful but also intrinsically
beautiful.
James Stewart
Stephen Kokoska
xix
About the Author
Steve received his undergraduate degree from Boston College and his M.S. and Ph.D.
from the University of New Hampshire. His initial research interests included the sta-
tistical analysis of cancer chemoprevention experiments. He has published a number
of research papers in mathematics journals, including Biometrics, Anticancer Research,
and Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine; presented results at national con-
ferences; and written several books. He has been awarded grants from the National Sci-
ence Foundation, the Center for Rural Pennsylvania, and the Ben Franklin Program.
Steve is a longtime consultant for the College Board and has conducted workshops in
Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Singapore, and China. He was the AP Calculus Chief
Reader for four years, has been involved with calculus reform and the use of technology
in the classroom, and recently published an AP Calculus text with James Stewart. He
taught at Bloomsburg University for 30 years and has served as Director of the Honors
Program.
Steve believes in teaching conceptual understanding through the development of
problem-solving skills and pattern recognition. He is still involved with the AP Cal-
culus program and co-hosts the webinar Monday Night Calculus sponsored by Texas
Instruments.
Steve’s uncle, Fr. Stanley Bezuszka, a Jesuit and professor at Boston College, was
one of the original architects of the so-called new math in the 1950s and 1960s. He had
a huge influence on Steve’s career. Steve helped Fr. B. with text accuracy checks, as
a teaching assistant, and even writing projects through high school and college. Steve
learned about the precision, order, and elegance of mathematics and developed an
unbounded enthusiasm to teach.
xx
Diagnostic Tests
Success in calculus depends to a large extent on knowledge of the mathematics that precedes calculus: algebra, analytic geom-
etry, functions, and trigonometry. The following diagnostic tests will help you assess your proficiency in these subjects. After
taking each test, you can check your answers against the given answers and, if necessary, refresh your skills by referring to the
review materials that are provided.
A Diagnostic Test: Algebra

1. Evaluate each expression without using a calculator.
(a) (23)4 (b) 234 (c) 3 24
(e) a b
23 22
5 2
(d) 21 (f) 16 23/4
5 3
2. Simplify each expression. Write your answer without negative exponents.
(a) !200 2 !32 (b) (3a3b3)(4ab2)2 (c) a 2 21/2 b

3x 3/2 y 3 22
x y
3. Expand and simplify.
(a) 3(x 1 6) 1 4(2x 2 5) (b) (x 1 3)(4x 2 5)
(c) 1 !a 1 !b2 1 !a 2 !b2 (d) (2x 1 3)2
3
(e) (x 1 2)
4. Factor each expression.
(a) 4x2 2 25 (b) 2x2 1 5x 2 12
3 2
(c) x 2 3x 2 4x 1 12 (d) x4 1 27x
(e) 3x3/2 2 9x1/2 1 6x 21/2 (f) x3y 2 4xy
5. Simplify the rational expression.
x2 1 3x 1 2 2x2 2 x 2 1 # x13
(a) (b)
x2 2 x 2 2 x2 2 9 2x 1 1
y x
2
x2 x11 x y
(c) 2
2 (d)
x 24 x12 1 1
2
y x
6. Rationalize the expression and simplify.
!10 !4 1 h 2 2
!5 2 2
(a) (b)
h
7. Rewrite by completing the square.
(a) x2 1 x 1 1 (b) 2x2 2 12x 1 11
8. Solve the equation. (Find only the real solutions.)
1 2x 2x 2 1
(a) x 1 5 5 14 2 x (b) 5
2 x11 x
(c) x2 2 x 2 12 5 0 (d) 2x2 1 4x 1 1 5 0
(e) x4 2 3x2 1 2 5 0 (f) 3u x 2 4 u 5 10
21/2
(g) 2x(4 2 x) 2 3!4 2 x 5 0
xxi
xxii Diagnostic Tests
9. Solve each inequality. Write your answer using interval notation.

(a) 24 6 5 2 3x # 17 (b) x2 6 2x 1 8
(c) x(x 2 1)(x 1 2) . 0 (d) u x 2 4 u 6 3
2x 2 3
(e) #1
x11
(b) !ab 5 !a!b

10. State whether each equation is true or false.
(a) (p 1 q)2 5 p2 1 q2
!a2 1 b2 5 a 1 b
1 1 TC
(c) (d) 511T
C
a>x 2 b>x a 2 b
1 1 1 1>x 1
(e) 5 2 (f ) 5
x2y x y
Answers to Diagnostic Test A: Algebra
!4 1 h 1 2
1 1
1. (a) 81 (b) 281 (c) 6. (a) 5!2 1 2!10 (b)
81
7. (a) a x 1 b 1
9 1 1 2 3
(d) 25 (e) (f) (b) 2(x 2 3)2 2 7
4 8 2 4
x 8. (a) 6 (b) 1 (c) 23, 4
(d) 21 { 21 !2 (e) {1, { !2

2. (a) 6!2 (b) 48a5b7 (c) 7
9y 2 22
3. (a) 11x 2 2 (b) 4x2 1 7x 2 15 (f) ,
3 3
(c) a 2 b (d) 4x2 1 12x 1 9 12
3 2
(g)
9. (a) 324, 3)
(e) x 1 6x 1 12x 1 8 5
(c) (22, 0) h (1, ` )

4. (a) (2x 2 5)(2x 1 5) (b) (2x 2 3)(x 1 4) (b) (22, 4)
(c) (x 2 3)(x 2 2)(x 1 2) (d) x (x 1 3)(x2 2 3x 1 9) (d) (1, 7)
21/2 (e) (21, 4)
(e) 3x (x 2 1)(x 2 2) (f) xy (x 2 2)(x 1 2)
x12 x21 10. (a) False (b) True (c) False
5. (a) (b) (d) False (e) False (f) True
x22 x23
1
(c) (d) 2(x 1 y)
x22
If you have had difficulty with these problems, you may wish to consult the
Review of Algebra on the website www.stewartcalculus.com.
Diagnostic Tests xxiii
B Diagnostic Test: Analytic Geometry

1. Find an equation for the line that passes through the point (2, 25) and
(a) has slope 23
(b) is parallel to the x-axis
(c) is parallel to the y-axis
(d) is parallel to the line 2x 2 4y 5 3
2. Find an equation for the circle that has center (21, 4) and passes through the point (3, 22).
3. Find the center and radius of the circle with equation x2 1 y2 2 6x 1 10y 1 9 5 0 .
4. Let A(27, 4) and B(5, 212) be points in the plane.
(a) Find the slope of the line that contains A and B.
(b) Find an equation of the line that passes through A and B. What are the intercepts?
(c) Find the midpoint of the segment AB.
(d) Find the length of the segment AB.
(e) Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB.
(f) Find an equation of the circle for which AB is a diameter.
5. Sketch the region in the xy-plane defined by the equation or inequalities.
1
(a) 21 # y # 3 (b) u x u 6 4 and u y u 6 2 (c) y 6 1 2 x
2
(d) y $ x2 2 1 (e) x2 1 y2 6 4 (f) 9x2 1 16y2 5 144
Answers to Diagnostic Test B: Analytical Geometry
1. (a) y 5 23x 1 1 5. (a) y (b) y (c) y
(b) y 5 25 3 1
y = 1− x
(c) x 5 2 2
1 2
1 x x x
(d) y 5 x 2 6 −1
−4 4 2
2 −2
2. (x 1 1)2 1 (y 1 4)2 5 52
(d) y (e) y (f) y
3. Center (3, 25), radius 5
4 x2 + y 2 = 4 3
2
4. (a) 2
3
16 x x x
(b) 4x 1 3y 1 16 5 0; x-intercept 24, y-intercept 2 −1
1 2 4
3 2
y=x –1
(c) (21, 24)
(d) 20
(e) 3x 2 4y 5 13
(f) (x 1 1)2 1 (y 1 4)2 5 100
If you have had difficulty with these problems, you may wish to consult
the review of analytic geometry in Appendix B.
xxiv Diagnostic Tests
C Diagnostic Test: Functions

y 1. The graph of a function f is given at the left.
(a) State the value of f (21).
(b) Estimate the value of f (2).
(c) For what values of x is f (x) 5 2?
1
(d) Estimate the values of x such that f (x) 5 0.
x (e) State the domain and range of f.
1
f (2 1 h) 2 f (2)
2. If f (x) 5 x3, evaluate the difference quotient and simplify your answer.
h
!x
!x2 2 1
Figure for Problem 1 3. Find the domain of the function.
(c) h(x) 5 !4 2 x 1
3
2x 1 1
(a) f (x) 5 2 (b) g (x) 5 2
x 1x22 x 11
4. How are graphs of the functions obtained from the graph of f ?

(a) y 5 2f (x) (b) y 5 2 f (x) 2 1 (c) y 5 f (x 2 3) 1 2
5. Without using a calculator, make a rough sketch of the graph.
(e) y 5 !x
(a) y 5 x3 (b) y 5 (x 1 1)3 (c) y 5 (x 2 2)3 1 3
(d) y 5 4 2 x2 (f) y 5 2!x
(g) y 5 22x (h) y 5 1 1 x 21
6. Let f (x) 5 e
1 2 x2 if x # 0
2x 1 1 if x . 0
(a) Evaluate f (22) and f (1). (b) Sketch the graph of f.
2
7. If f (x) 5 x 1 2x 2 1 and g (x) 5 2x 2 3, find each of the following functions.
(a) f + g (b) g + f (c) g + g + g
Answers to Diagnostic Test C: Functions
1. (a) 22 (b) 2.8 5. (a) y (b) y (c) y
(e) 323, 34, 322, 34

(c) 23, 1 (d) 22.5, 0.3
(2, 3)
1 1
2. 12 1 6h 1 h 2 1
x
−1
x
x
3. (a) (2 q , 22) x (22, 1) x (1, q )
(c) (2 q , 214 x 31, 44

(b) (2 q , q )
(d) y (e) y (f ) y
4. (a) Reflect about the x-axis. 4

(b) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2, then shift 1 unit
downward. x x x
2 1 1
(c) Shift 3 units to the right and 2 units upward.
(g) y (h) y
1
x x
1 1
−1
Diagnostic Tests xxv
6. (a) 23, 3 (b) y 7. (a) ( f + g)(x) 5 4x2 2 8x 1 2

(b) (g + f )(x) 5 2 x 2 1 4x 2 5
1
(c) (g + g + g)(x) 5 8x 2 21
x
−1
If you have had difficulty with these problems, you should look at Sections 1.1–1.3 of this book.
D Diagnostic Test: Trigonometry

1. Convert from degrees to radians.
(a) 3008 (b) 2188
2. Convert from radians to degrees.
5p
(a) (b) 2
6
3. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius 12 cm if the arc subtends a central angle
of 308.
4. Find the exact values.
(a) tan a b (b) sin a b (c) sec a b
p 7p 5p
3 6 3
5. Express the lengths a and b in the figure in terms of u.
24 1 5 p
a 6. If sin x 5 and sec y 5 , where x and y lie between 0 and , evaluate sin (x 1 y).
3 4 2
7. Prove the identities.
(a) tan u sin u 1 cos u 5 sec u
b
2 tan x
Figure for Problem 5 (b) 5 sin 2 x
1 1 tan2x
8. Find all values of x such that sin 2x 5 sin x and 0 # x # 2p.
9. Sketch the graph of the function y 5 1 1 sin 2x without using a calculator.
Answers to Diagnostic Test D: Trigonometry
(4 1 6 !2)
5p 2p 1
1. (a) (b) 6.
3 10 15
3608 p 5p
2. (a) 1508 (b) ^ 114.68 8. 0, , p, , 2p
p 3 3
!3
3. 2p cm
9. y
1
4. (a) (b) 2 (c) 2 2
2
5. (a) 24 sin u (b) 24 cos u
x
–
If you have had difficulty with these problems, you should look at Appendix C of this book.
www.shutterstock.com • 101667718
A Preview of Calculus
Mark Twain wrote, “If you don’t like the weather in New England now, just wait a few
minutes.” Indeed, the weather in New England changes quickly, and calculus is about
the study of change, instantaneous change. Complex mathematical models can be used
to predict changes in weather, and calculus plays an important role in these analyses.
Calculus is fundamentally different from the mathematics that you have studied previ-
ously: calculus is less static and more dynamic. It is concerned with change and motion;
it deals with the long-run, or limiting, behavior of certain expressions. For that reason
it may be useful to have an overview of the subject before beginning its intensive study.
This preview provides a glimpse of some of the main ideas of calculus by showing how
the concept of a limit arises when we attempt to solve a variety of problems.
2 A Preview of Calculus
A1 ■ The Area Problem

A5
The origins of calculus go back at least 2500 years to the ancient Greeks, who found
A2 areas using the “method of exhaustion.” They knew how to find the area A of any poly-
A3 A4 gon by dividing it into triangles as in Figure 1 and adding the areas of these triangles.
It is a much more difficult problem to find the area of a curved figure. The Greek method
A = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 of exhaustion was to inscribe polygons in the figure and circumscribe polygons about
Figure 1
the figure and then let the number of sides of the polygons increase. Figure 2 illustrates
The area of the polygon is the sum of this process for the special case of a circle with inscribed regular polygons.
the areas of the triangles.
A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 ... A 12 ...
Figure 2
Regular inscribed polygons used to
find the area of a circle.
Let An be the area of the inscribed polygon with n sides. As n increases, it appears that
An becomes closer and closer to the area of the circle. We say that the area of the circle
is the limit of the areas of the inscribed polygons, and we write
A 5 lim An
nS `
The Greeks themselves did not use limits explicitly. However, by indirect reasoning,
Eudoxus (5th century BC) used exhaustion to prove the familiar formula for the area of
a circle: A 5 pr2.
We will use a similar idea in Chapter 5 to find areas of regions of the type shown in
Figure 3. We will approximate the desired area A by areas of rectangles (as in Figure 4),
let the width of the rectangles decrease, and then calculate A as the limit of these sums
of areas of rectangles.
y
y y y
(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1)
y= x2
A
x x x x
0 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1
4 2 4 n
Figure 3 Figure 4
Let A be the area of the shaded region. Approximate the area A by areas of rectangles.
The area problem is the central problem in the branch of calculus called integral calcu-
lus. The techniques that we will develop in Chapter 5 for finding areas will also enable
us to compute the volume of a solid, the length of a curve, the force of water against a
dam, the mass and center of gravity of a rod, and the work done in pumping water out
of a tank.
y ■ The Tangent Line Problem

t Consider the problem of trying to find an equation of the tangent line t to a curve with
equation y 5 f (x) at a given point P. (We will give a precise definition of a tangent line
y = ƒ(x)
in Chapter 2. For now you can think of it as a line that just touches the curve at P as
P in Figure 5.) Since we know that the point P lies on the tangent line, we can find the
equation of t if we know its slope m. The problem is that we need two points to compute
the slope and we know only one point, P, on t. To solve this problem, we first find an
approximation to m by taking a nearby point Q on the curve and computing the slope
x mPQ of the secant line PQ. From Figure 6 we see that
Figure 5 f (x) 2 f (a)

mPQ 5 (1)
The tangent line to the graph of x2a
y 5 f (x) at the point P.
Now imagine that Q moves along the curve toward P as in Figure 7. You can see that the
y secant line rotates and approaches the tangent line as its limiting position. This means
that the slope mPQ of the secant line becomes closer and closer to the slope m of the
t tangent line. We write
Q(x, f(x)) m 5 lim mPQ
QSP
P(a, f(a)) f(x) – f(a)
and we say that m is the limit of mPQ as Q approaches P along the curve. Since x
x –a
approaches a as Q approaches P, we could also use Equation 1 to write
f (x) 2 f (a)
x m 5 lim (2)
a x xSa x2a
Figure 6 Specific examples of this procedure will be given in Chapter 2.

The secant line PQ. The tangent line problem has given rise to the branch of calculus called differential
calculus, which was not invented until more than 2000 years after integral calculus.
y The main ideas behind differential calculus are due to the French mathematician Pierre
t Fermat (1601–1665) and were developed by the English mathematicians John Wallis
(1616–1703), Isaac Barrow (1630–1677), and Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and the
German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716).
Q
The two branches of calculus and their chief problems, the area problem and the tangent
P
line problem, appear to be very different, but it turns out that there is a very close
connection between them. The tangent line problem and the area problem are inverse
problems in a sense that will be described in Chapter 5.
x
When we look at the speedometer of a car and read that the car is traveling at 48 mi > h,
■ Velocity
Figure 7
Secant lines approaching the tangent
line. what does that information really mean? We know that if the velocity remains constant,
does it mean to say that the velocity at a given instant is 48 mi > h?

then after an hour we will have traveled 48 mi. But if the velocity of the car varies, what
In order to analyze this question, let’s examine the motion of a car that travels along a
straight road and assume that we can measure the distance traveled by the car (in feet) at
1-second intervals as in the following table:
t 5 Time elapsed (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
d 5 Distance (ft) 0 2 9 24 42 71
As a first step toward finding the velocity after 2 seconds have elapsed, we find the aver-
age velocity during the time interval 2 # t # 4:
change in position
average velocity 5
time elapsed
42 2 9
5
422
5 16.5 ft>s
Similarly, the average velocity in the time interval 2 # t # 3 is
5 15 ft >s
24 2 9
average velocity 5
322
It seems reasonable that the velocity at the instant t 5 2 can’t be much different from the
average velocity during a short time interval starting at t 5 2. So let’s imagine that the dis-
tance traveled has been measured at 0.1-second time intervals as in the following table:
t 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
d 9.00 10.02 11.16 12.45 13.96 15.80
Then we can compute, for instance, the average velocity over the time interval [2, 2.5]:
5 13.6 ft >s
15.80 2 9.00
average velocity 5
2.5 2 2
The results of such calculations are shown in the following table:
Time interval [2, 3] [2, 2.5] [2, 2.4] [2, 2.3] [2, 2.2] [2, 2.1]
Average velocity (ft > s) 15.0 13.6 12.4 11.5 10.8 10.2
a number near 10, and so we expect that the velocity at exactly t 5 2 is about 10 ft > s. In
The average velocities over successively smaller intervals appear to be getting closer to
d
Chapter 2 we will define the instantaneous velocity of a moving object as the limiting
value of the average velocities over smaller and smaller time intervals.
Figure 8 shows a graphical representation of the motion of the car by plotting the dis-
Q(t, f(t))
tance traveled as a function of time. If we write d 5 f (t), then f (t) is the number of feet
traveled after t seconds. The average velocity in the time interval [2, t] is
change in position f (t) 2 f (2)

average velocity 5 5
time elapsed t22
20
which is the same expression as the slope of the secant line PQ in Figure 8. The velocity
10 P(2, f(2))
v when t 5 2 is the limiting value of this average velocity as t approaches 2; that is,
t
1 2 3 4 5 f (t) 2 f (2)
v 5 lim
tS2 t22
Figure 8
A graphical illustration of the motion and we recognize from Equation 2 that this is the same as the slope of the tangent line
of the car. to the curve at P.
Thus, when we solve the tangent line problem in differential calculus, we are also solv-
ing problems concerning velocities. The same techniques also enable us to solve prob-
lems involving rates of change in all of the natural and social sciences.
■ The Limit of a Sequence

In the 5th century BC, the Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea posed four problems,
now known as Zeno’s paradoxes, that were intended to challenge some of the ideas
concerning space and time that were held in his day. Zeno’s second paradox concerns
a race between the Greek hero Achilles and a tortoise that has been given a head
start. Zeno argued, as follows, that Achilles could never pass the tortoise: suppose
that Achilles starts at position a1 and the tortoise starts at position t1. (See Figure 9.)
When Achilles reaches the point a2 5 t1, the tortoise is farther ahead at position t2.
When Achilles reaches a3 5 t2, the tortoise is at t3. This process continues indefinitely
and so it appears that the tortoise will always be ahead! But this defies common sense.
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 ...
Achilles
tortoise
t1 t2 t3 t4 ...
Figure 9
A graphical illustration of the race between Achilles and a tortoise.
One way of explaining this paradox is with the idea of a sequence. The succes-
sive positions of Achilles (a1, a2, a3, c) or the successive positions of the tortoise
(t1, t2, t3, c) form what is known as a sequence.
In general, a sequence, denoted {an}, is a set of numbers written in a definite order. For
instance, the sequence
e 1, , , , , cf
1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5
can be described by using the following formula for the nth term:
1
an 5
n
a4 a3 a2 a1 We can visualize this sequence by plotting its terms on a number line as in
0 1 Figure 10(a) or by drawing its graph as in Figure 10(b). Observe from either picture that
(a) the terms of the sequence an 5 1>n are becoming closer and closer to 0 as n increases.
In fact, we can find terms as small as we please by making n large enough. We say that
the limit of the sequence is 0, and we indicate this behavior by writing
1
1
lim 50
nS ` n
n In general, the notation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(b) lim an 5 L
nS `
Figure 10
Two ways to visualize a sequence. is used if the terms an approach the number L as n becomes large. This means that the
numbers an can be made as close as we like to the number L by taking n sufficiently
large.
The concept of the limit of a sequence occurs whenever we use the decimal representa-
tion of a real number. For instance, if
a1 5 3.1
a2 5 3.14
a3 5 3.141
a4 5 3.1415
a5 5 3.14159
a6 5 3.141592
a7 5 3.1415926
f
then
lim an 5 p
nS `
The terms in this sequence are rational approximations to p.
sequences 5an 6 and 5tn 6 , where an 6 tn for all n. It can be shown that both sequences
Let’s return to Zeno’s paradox. The successive positions of Achilles and the tortoise form
have the same limit:

lim an 5 p 5 lim tn
nS ` nS `
It is precisely at this point p that Achilles overtakes the tortoise.
■ The Sum of a Series

Another of Zeno’s paradoxes involves a person in a room attempting to walk to a wall.
As Aristotle indicated, in order to do so, they would first have to go half the distance,
then half the remaining distance, and then again half of what still remains. This process
can always be continued and can never be ended. (See Figure 11.)
Figure 11 1 1 1 1
A visualization of a walk to the wall. 2 4 8 16
Of course, we know that the person can actually reach the wall, so this suggests that
perhaps the total distance can be expressed as the sum of infinitely many smaller
distances as follows:
1 1 1 1 1
15 1 1 1 1 g1 n 1 g (3)
2 4 8 16 2
Zeno was arguing that it doesn’t make sense to add infinitely many numbers together.
But there are other situations in which we implicitly use infinite sums. For instance, in
decimal notation, the symbol 0.3 5 0.3333 c means
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 g
10 100 1000 10,000
and so, in some sense, it must be true that
3 3 3 3 1
1 1 1 1 g 5
10 100 1000 10,000 3
More generally, if dn denotes the nth digit in the decimal representation of a number,
then
d1 d2 d3 dn
0.d1d2d3d4 c 5 1 1 1 g 1 n1 g
10 102 103 10
Therefore, some infinite sums, or infinite series as they are called, have a meaning. But
we must carefully define the sum of a series.
Returning to the series in Equation 3, the sum of the first n terms of the series is called
the partial sum and is denoted by sn. Thus
1
s1 5 5 0.5
2
1 1
s2 5 1 5 0.75
2 4
1 1 1
s3 5 1 1 5 0.875
2 4 8
1 1 1 1
s4 5 1 1 1 5 0.9375
2 4 8 16
1 1 1 1 1
s5 5 1 1 1 1 5 0.96875
2 4 8 16 32
1 1 1 1 1 1
s6 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 0.984375
2 4 8 16 32 64
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s7 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 0.9921875
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
f
1 1 1
s10 5 1 1 g1 ^ 0.99902344
2 4 1024
f
1 1 1
s16 5 1 1 g 1 16 ^ 0.99998474
2 4 2
Observe that as we add more and more terms, the partial sums become closer and closer
to 1. In fact, it can be shown that by taking n large enough (that is, by adding sufficiently
many terms of the series), we can make the partial sum sn as close as we please to the
number 1. It therefore seems reasonable to say that the sum of the infinite series is 1 and
to write
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 g1 n 1 g5 1
2 4 8 2
In other words, the reason the sum of the series is 1 is that

lim sn 5 1
nS `
In Chapter 8 we will discuss these ideas further. We will then use Newton’s idea of com-
bining infinite series with differential and integral calculus.
■ Summary
We have seen that the concept of a limit arises in trying to find the area of a region, the
slope of a tangent line to a curve, the velocity of a car, or the sum of an infinite series. In
each case the common theme is the calculation of a quantity as the limit of other, easily
calculated quantities. It is this basic idea of a limit that sets calculus apart from other
areas of mathematics. In fact, we could define calculus as the part of mathematics that
deals with limits.
After Sir Isaac Newton invented his version of calculus, he used it to explain the motion
of the planets around the sun. Today calculus is used in calculating the orbits of satel-
lites and spacecraft, in predicting population sizes, in estimating how fast oil prices rise
or fall, in forecasting weather, in measuring the cardiac output of the heart, in calculat-
ing life insurance premiums, and in a wide variety of other areas. We will explore some
of these uses of calculus in this book.
In order to convey a sense of the power of the subject, we end this preview with a list of
some of the questions that you will be able to answer using calculus:
rays from sun 1. How can we explain the fact, illustrated in Figure 12, that the angle of elevation
from an observer up to the highest point in a rainbow is 42°? (See page 313.)
2. How can we explain the shapes of cans on supermarket shelves? (See page 372.)
138° 3. Where is the best place to sit in a movie theater? (See page 574.)
4. How far away from an airport should a pilot start descent? (See page 237.)
rays from sun 42°
5. How can we fit curves together to design shapes to represent letters on a laser
printer? (See page 236.)
observer 6. Where should an infielder position themself to catch a baseball thrown by an
Figure 12 outfielder and relay it to home plate? (See page 653.)
The elevation up to the highest point in 7. Does a ball thrown upward take longer to reach its maximum height or to fall back
a rainbow. to its original height? (See page 643.)
8. How can we explain the fact that planets and satellites move in elliptical orbits?
(See page 886.)
9. How can we distribute water flow among turbines at a hydroelectric station so as to
maximize the total energy production? (See page 994.)
10. If a marble, a squash ball, a steel bar, and a lead pipe roll down a slope, which of
them reaches the bottom first? (See page 1070.)
Extent (mil km2)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
Date
Jan 1 Feb 1Mar 1Apr 1May 1Jun 1 Jul 1 Aug 1Sep 1 Oct 1 Nov 1Dec 1
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ 1979−1990 Average 1991−2000 Average
2001−2010 Average 2011−2020 Average
Sea ice is simply frozen water, but the extent, or total area, of sea ice is related to the climate in the polar regions and the entire world. Sea ice
reflects sunlight. Therefore, a large sea ice extent tends to keep a region cool. A small sea ice extent exposes dark water, which absorbs sun-
light. The ocean tends to heat up, which warms the surrounding area. Scientists have studied the change in sea ice extent over the past four
decades. Often a graph is the best way to represent this information because it conveys many significant features at a glance. For example,
a graph of the average sea ice extent over four different decades is shown in the accompanying figure (National Snow and Ice Data Center).
Using this information and some calculus, we will soon be able to estimate the rate of change of sea ice extent at any time of even the time of
year at which the sea ice is a maximum or a minimum.
Contents
1 Functions and Models
The fundamental objects that we develop and utilize in calculus are functions. This
1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function chapter prepares the way for calculus by presenting and reviewing the basic concepts
1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of concerning functions, their graphs, and methods of transforming and combining them.
Essential Functions Throughout this text, we stress that a function can be represented in a variety of ways:
1.3 New Functions from Old Functions by an equation, in a table, by a graph, or in words (the Rule of Four). We look at main
1.4 Exponential Functions types of functions that occur in calculus and describe the process of using these func-
1.5 Inverse Functions and Logarithms tions as mathematical models of real-world phenomena. We will also see that paramet-
1.6 Parametric Curves
ric equations provide the best method for graphing certain types of curves.
10 Chapter 1 Functions and Models
1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function

The idea of a function is the most important concept in all of mathematics. Understand-
ing function notation is essential, and you must be able to work with and evaluate a
function that is defined algebraically, by a table, in a graph, or even in words. Func-
tions arise in mathematics, especially in calculus, and in real-life whenever one quantity
Population
Year depends on another. Here are a few examples.
(in millions)
1900 1650 A. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the circle. The rule that connects r
1910 1750 and A is given by the equation A 5 pr 2. With each positive number r, there is asso-
ciated one value of A, and we say that A is a function of r.
1920 1860
B. The human population of the world P depends on the time t. The table gives esti-
1930 2070
mates of the world population P(t) at time t, for certain years. For example,
1940 2300
1950 2560 P(1950) ^ 2,560,000,000
1960 3040 Note that for each value of the time t, there is only one corresponding value of P,
1970 3710 and we say that P is a function of t.
1980 4450 C. The cost C of riding an Uber from the Fort Myers airport to a location in the area
1990 5280 depends on the total distance traveled d. Although there is no simple rule for con-
necting d and C, Uber does have a formula for determining C when d is known.
2000 6080
D. The rate of water usage r in New York City is a function of elapsed time t. Figure
2010 6870
1.1 is a graph of water usage during the 2018 Super Bowl. For a given value of t, the
2020 7755 graph provides a corresponding value of r.
r (MGD)
360
340
320
Start of halftime End of halftime

300
End of the Super Bowl
Figure 1.1
Rate of water usage in
New York City during the 280 t
2018 Super Bowl. 8:00 pm 9:00 pm 10:00 pm 11:00 pm 12:00 pm
Each of these examples describes a rule such that given a number (r, t, d, or t), another
number (A, P, C, or r) is assigned. In each case we say that the second number is a func-
tion of the first number.
A function is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one element,
called f (x), in a set E.
Section 1.1 Four Ways to Represent a Function 11
We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real numbers.
The set D is called the domain of the function. The number f (x) is the value of f at x
and is read “f of x.” The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies
throughout the domain. A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a
function f is called an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number in the
range of f is called a dependent variable. In Example A, for instance, r is the indepen-
dent variable and A is the dependent variable.
It may be helpful to think of a function as a special kind of mathematical machine
x f ƒ(x)
(see Figure 1.2). If x is in the domain of the function f, then when x is placed into the
(input) (output)
machine, it is accepted as an input and the machine works with x and produces an output
Figure 1.2 f (x) according to the rule of the function. Thus, we can think of the domain as the set of
Machine diagram for a function f. all possible inputs and the range as the set of all possible outputs.
The acronym CAS stands for

The preprogrammed functions in a calculator are good examples of a function as a
preprogrammed, function. In general, you press the key labeled ! (or !x) and enter the
Computer Algebra System. For machine. For example, the square root key on your calculator represents a built-in, or
example, the TI-NspireTM CX CAS
calculator is a handheld computer input x. If x 6 0, then x is not in the domain of this function; that is, x is not an acceptable
!x will appear in the display, or most CAS machines will produce an exact, symbolic
algebra system and Mathematica is input, and the calculator will indicate an error. If x $ 0, then a decimal approximation to
simplified answer. Thus, the !x key on your calculator is an example of a function, but it
a mathematical computer algebra
is not quite the same as the exact mathematical function f defined by f (x) 5 !x.
software program.
Another way to visualize a function is by an arrow diagram as in Figure 1.3. Each

x ƒ(x) arrow connects, or indicates an assignment of, an element in the set D to an element in
the set E. One arrow indicates that x is assigned to, or mapped to f (x), another that a is
a f(a)
assigned to f (a), and so on.
The most common method for visualizing a function is its graph. If f is a function with
domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pairs
f
D E
{(x, f (x)) u x [ D}
Figure 1.3
Arrow diagram illustrating a Notice that these are input-output pairs. In other words, the graph of f consists of all
function f. points (x, y) in the coordinate plane such that y 5 f (x) and x is in the domain of f.
The graph of a function f provides a helpful visualization of the behavior or “life his-
tory” of a function. Since the y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y 5 f (x),
we can read the value of f (x) from the graph as simply the height of the graph above the
value x (see Figure 1.4). The graph of f also allows us to visualize the domain of f on the
x-axis and its range on the y-axis, as shown in Figure 1.5.
y y
(x, ƒ(x))
range y = ƒ(x)
ƒ(x)
f (2)
f (1)
x x
1 2 x
domain
Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5
The value f (x) is the height of the graph A visualization of the domain and range
above x. of a function f.
y Example 1 Information from the Graph of f

4 The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 1.6.
3 (a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).
2
(b) What are the domain and range of f ?
1
x
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Solution
−1
−2 (a) We can see from Figure 1.6 that the point (1, 3) lies on the graph of f ; the point on
the graph that lies above x 5 1 is 3 units above the x-axis. Therefore, the value of
Figure 1.6 f at 1 is f (1) 5 3. The function f maps the value 1 to 3.
The graph of y 5 f (x).
When x 5 5, the graph lies 1 unit below the x-axis. Therefore, f (5) 5 21.
y (b) The graph also shows that f is defined when 0 # x # 7, so the domain is the closed
{y u 22 # y # 4} 5 322, 44.
interval [0, 7]. Notice that f takes on all values from 22 to 4, so the range of f is
4
y = 2x – 1 ■
3
2
1 Example 2 Domain, Range, and a Sketch
x
–2 –1 1 2 Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each function.
–1
–2 (a) f (x) 5 2 x 2 1 (b) g(x) 5 x 2
–3
Solution
Figure 1.7
Graph of y 5 2x 2 1. (a) The equation of the graph is y 5 2 x 2 1, and we recognize this as being the equa-
tion of a line with slope 2 and y-intercept 21. (Recall the slope-intercept form of
y the equation of a line: y 5 m x 1 b. See Appendix B.) This enables us to sketch a
portion of the graph of f in Figure 1.7. The expression 2x 2 1 is defined for all real
4 (2, 4)
numbers, so the domain of f is the set of all real numbers, which we denote by R.
3 The graph shows that the range is also R.
y = x2
2 (b) We can use the rule for g to determine a few points on the graph and then join
them to produce a rough sketch of the graph. For example, g(2) 5 22 5 4 and
(–1, 1) 1
g(21) 5 (21)2 5 1. So, the points (2, 4) and (21, 1) are on the graph of g. Figure
x 1.8 shows these two points and others and a sketch of the graph of g.
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 The graph of the equation y 5 x 2 is a parabola (see Appendix B). The domain is R.
The range consists of all values of g(x), that is, all numbers of the form x 2. Since
{y u y $ 0} 5 30, `). The domain and range of g are confirmed by using the graph
Figure 1.8 x 2 $ 0 for all values x and any positive number y is a square, the range of g is
Graph of y 5 x 2.
(Figure 1.8). ■
Example 3 Difference Quotient

The expression
f (a 1 h) 2 f (a)
f (a 1 h) 2 f (a) If f (x) 5 2 x 2 2 5x 1 1 and h ? 0, evaluate .
h
h
in Example 3 is called a Solution
difference quotient and occurs Evaluate f (a 1 h) by replacing x by a 1 h in the expression for f (x):
frequently in calculus. We will see
in Chapter 2 that this expression f (a 1 h) 5 2(a 1 h)2 2 5(a 1 h) 1 1 Evaluate f at a 1 h.
represents the average rate of 5 2(a2 1 2ah 1 h2) 2 5(a 1 h) 1 1 Expand (a 1 h)2.
change of f (x) between x 5 a
and x 5 a 1 h. 5 2a2 1 4ah 1 2h2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1 Distribute.
Substitute into the given expression and simplify.

f (a 1 h) 2 f (a) (2a 2 1 4ah 1 2h2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1) 2 (2a 2 2 5a 1 1)
5
h h
Use expressions for f (a 1 h) and f (a).
2a2 1 4ah 1 2h2 2 5a 2 5h 1 1 2 2a2 1 5a 2 1
5 Distribute 21.
h
4ah 1 2h2 2 5h
5 5 4a 1 2h 2 5 Simplify.
h
■
■ Representations of Functions
There are four possible ways to represent a function (the Rule of Four):
• verbally (by a description in words)
• numerically (by a table of values)
• visually (by a graph)
• algebraically (by an explicit formula)
If a single function can be represented in all four ways, it’s often useful to consider the
multiple representations to gain additional insight into the characteristics of the func-
tion. In Example 2, for instance, we started with algebraic formulas and then obtained
the graphs. But certain functions are described more naturally by one method than by
another. With this in mind, let’s reexamine the four situations that we considered at the
beginning of this section.
Population
A. The most useful representation of the area of a circle as a function of its radius is
Year
(in millions) probably the algebraic formula A(r) 5 pr 2, though it is possible to compile a table
of values or to sketch a graph (half a parabola). Because a circle has to have a posi-
1900 1650
tive radius, the domain is {r u r 7 0} 5 (0, ` ), and the range is also (0, `).
1910 1750
1920 1860
B. We are given a description of the function in words: P(t) is the human population
of the world (in millions) at time t. Let’s measure t so that t 5 0 corresponds to the
1930 2070
year 1900. The table of values of world population provides a convenient represen-
1940 2300
tation of this function. If we plot these values, we obtain a scatter plot in Figure 1.9.
1950 2560 It too is a useful representation; the graph allows us to visualize all the data at once.
1960 3040 What about a formula? Of course, it’s impossible to devise an explicit formula that
1970 3710 gives the exact human population P(t) at any time t. But it is possible to find an
1980 4450 expression for a function that approximates P(t). In fact, using methods explained
in Section 1.2, we obtain the approximation
P 1t2 ^ f 1t2 5 1358.03 11.014782 t
1990 5280
2000 6080 #
2010 6870
2020 7755 Figure 1.10 shows that it is a reasonably good fit. The function f is called a math-
ematical model for population growth. In other words, it is a function with an
explicit formula that approximates the behavior of our given function. We will see,
however, that the ideas of calculus can be applied to a table of values; an explicit
formula is not necessary.
P (in millions) P (in millions)

8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
t t
20 40 60 80 100 120 20 40 60 80 100 120
Years since 1900 Years since 1900
Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10
A scatter plot of the population data. Graph of f added to the scatter plot.
The function P is typical of the functions that arise whenever we attempt to apply
calculus to the real world. We start with a verbal description of a function. Then we
may be able to construct a table of values of the function, perhaps from instrument
The function C may be given by, or readings in a scientific experiment. Even though we don’t have complete knowl-
represented by, a table of values. edge of the values of the function, we will see throughout the book that it is still
possible to perform the operations of calculus on such a function.
d (miles) C(d ) (dollars)
C. The function representing the cost of a ride is described in words. Let C(d ) be the
0,d#1 5:00 cost of riding an Uber from the Fort Myers airport to a location d miles away. The
1,d#2 7:50 table of values in the margin represents possible values of this function at a specific
2,d#3 10:00 time of day and is a convenient way to represent this function. It is also possible to
3,d#4 12:50 sketch a graph of this function. See Example 10.
4,d#5 15:00 D. The graph shown in Figure 1.1 is a very natural representation of the rate of water
( ( usage r (t). We could certainly compile a table of values, and it is even possible to
construct an approximate formula for r (t). But everything the water department needs
to know, amplitudes and patterns, can be seen easily from the graph. The same is
true for the patterns observed in electrocardiograms of heart patients, polygraphs for
lie-detection, and even the vertical acceleration of the ground during an earthquake.
In the next example, we will use a verbal description to sketch the graph of a function.
Example 4 Function Defined Verbally

When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T of the water depends on how
T
long the water has been running. Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t
that has elapsed since the faucet was turned on.
Solution
The initial temperature of the running water is close to room temperature because
t the water has been sitting in the pipes. When the water from the hot-water tank starts
flowing from the faucet, T increases quickly. As hot water flows from the tank, T is
Figure 1.11 constant at the temperature of the heated water in the tank. When the tank is drained,
Graph of the temperature of the water T decreases to the temperature of the water supply. This enables us to make the rough
versus time. sketch of T as a function of t in Figure 1.11. ■
In Example 5 we start with a verbal description of a function in a physical situation and

obtain an explicit algebraic formula. This skill, translating a verbal description into an
explicit formula, is extremely useful in solving calculus problems that ask for the maxi-
mum or minimum values of quantities.
Example 5 Cost of Materials

A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10 m3. The length of
its base is twice its width. Material for the base costs $10 per square meter; material for
the sides costs $6 per square meter. Express the cost of materials as a function of the
width of the base.
Solution
We begin with the diagram of a rectangular storage container in Figure 1.12 and intro-
duce notation by letting w and 2w be the width and length of the base, respectively, and
h be the height.
h The area of the base is (2w)w 5 2w 2, so the cost, in dollars, of the material for the base
w
is 10(2w 2). Two of the sides have area wh and the other two have area 2wh, so the cost
of the material for the sides is 632(wh) 1 2(2wh)4 . The total cost is therefore
2w
C 5 10(2w 2) 1 632(wh) 1 2(2wh)4 5 20w 2 1 36wh.
Figure 1.12
Rectangular storage container. To express C as a function of w alone, we need to eliminate h. We do so by using the
fact that the volume is 10 m3. Thus
w(2w)h 5 10.
Solving for h, we have
10 5
h5 2
5 2.
2w w
In constructing applied functions as in Substituting this into the expression for C, we have
C 5 20w 2 1 36w a b 5 20w 2 1

Example 5, it may be useful to review
the principles of problem solving as 5 180
2
.
discussed on page 85, particularly w w
Step 1: Understand the Problem. Therefore, the equation
180
C(w) 5 20w 2 1 w70
w
is an expression for C as a function of w. ■
The next example involves the domain of a function.
Example 6 Domain of a Function

Find the domain of each function.
!x 1 2
1
(a) f (x) 5 (b) g(x) 5 2
Domain Convention x 2x
If a function is given by a formula and
Solution
the domain is not explicitly stated, the
convention is that the domain is the (a) The square root of a negative number is not defined (as a real number). Therefore,
x $ 22. The domain is the interval 322, `).

set of all (real) numbers for which the the domain of f consists of all values of x such that x 1 2 $ 0. This is equivalent to
function is defined.
(b) Factor the denominator in g.

1 1
2
5
x 2 x x( x 2 1)
Since we cannot divide by 0, g(x) is not defined when x 5 0 or x 5 1.
Therefore, the domain of g is {x u x ? 0, x ? 1}.
The domain can also be written using interval notation:
(2 `, 0) < (0, 1) < (1, `) ■
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But suppose instead we start with
a curve. How do we know if the curve is the graph of a function? We can answer this
question by using the Vertical Line Test.
The Vertical Line Test

A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line
intersects the curve more than once.
The Vertical Line Test is illustrated in Figure 1.13. If every vertical line x 5 a intersects
Note: There is no violation of the a curve at most once, at (a, b), then exactly one function value is defined by f (a) 5 b.
Vertical Line Test if a line x 5 a does But if a line x 5 a intersects the curve twice, at (a, b) and (a, c), then the curve cannot
not intersect the curve. The curve represent a function because a function cannot assign two different values to a.
could still be the graph of a function
such that x 5 a is not in the domain. y y
x=a x=a
(a, c)
(a, b)
(a, b)
x x
Figure 1.13 a a
An illustration of the Vertical
Line Test. (a) This curve represents a function. (b) This curve does not represent a function.
For example, the parabola x 5 y 2 2 2 shown in Figure 1.14(a) is not the graph of a
function of x because there are vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice.
y y y
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
(–2, 0)
x x x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3
(b) y 5 !x 1 2 (c) y 5 2 !x 1 2
–3 –3
2
(a) x 5 y 2 2
Figure 1.14
A curve may contain the graph of one or more functions.
equation x 5 y 2 2 2 implies y 2 5 x 1 2, so y 5 { !x 1 2.
The parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two functions of x. Notice that the
f (x) 5 !x 1 2 [from Example 6(a); see Figure 1.14(b)] and g(x) 5 2 !x 1 2 . See
Therefore, the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the graphs of the functions
Figure 1.14(c).
If we reverse the roles of x and y, then the equation x 5 h(y) 5 y 2 2 2 does define x as
a function of y (with y as the independent variable and x the dependent variable) and the
parabola in Figure 1.14(a) is the graph of the function h.
■ Piecewise Defined Functions

The functions in the following four examples are defined by different formulas in dif-
ferent parts of their domains. These functions are called piecewise defined functions.
Example 7 Evaluate and Graph a Piecewise Defined Function

The function f is defined by
12x if x # 2 1
f (x) 5 b
x2 if x 7 2 1
Evaluate f (22), f (21), and f (0), and sketch the graph of f.
y
Solution
3
Remember that a function is a rule. For this particular function, the rule is the
2 following:
1 Consider the value of the input x.
x
If x # 21, then the value of f (x) is 1 2 x.
–2 –1 1 2
However, if x 7 21, then the value of f (x) is x 2.
Figure 1.15
Graph of f. Since 22 # 21, then f (22) 5 1 2 (22) 5 3.
Since 21 # 21, then f (21) 5 1 2 (21) 5 2.
Since 0 7 21, then f (0) 5 02 5 0.
To sketch the graph of f, notice that if x # 21, then f (x) 5 1 2 x. Therefore, the part
of the graph of f that lies to the left of the vertical line x 5 21 must coincide with the
line y 5 1 2 x. This line has slope 21 and y-intercept 1.
If x 7 21, then f (x) 5 x 2. So, the part of the graph of f that lies to the right of the line
x 5 21 must coincide with the graph of y 5 x 2, which is a parabola.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 1.15. The solid dot indicates that the point (21, 2) is
included on the graph. The open dot indicates that the point (21, 1) is excluded from
the graph. ■
For a more extensive review of the The next example of a piecewise defined function is the absolute value function. Recall
absolute value function, see Appendix A. that the absolute value of a number a, denoted by u a u , is the distance from a to 0 on the
real number line. Distances are always positive or 0, so we have
u a u $ 0 for every number a
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1 Functions and Models 9

3 Differentiation Rules 189

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A Diagnostic Test: Algebra

(a) !200 2 !32 (b) (3a3b3)(4ab2)2 (c) a 2 21/2 b

9. Solve each inequality. Write your answer using interval notation.

(b) !ab 5 !a!b

Answers to Diagnostic Test A: Algebra

(d) 21 { 21 !2 (e) {1, { !2

(c) (22, 0) h (1, ` )

B Diagnostic Test: Analytic Geometry

Answers to Diagnostic Test B: Analytical Geometry

1. (a) y 5 23x 1 1 5. (a) y (b) y (c) y

C Diagnostic Test: Functions

4. How are graphs of the functions obtained from the graph of f ?

Answers to Diagnostic Test C: Functions

1. (a) 22 (b) 2.8 5. (a) y (b) y (c) y

(e) 323, 34, 322, 34

(c) (2 q , 214 x 31, 44

4. (a) Reflect about the x-axis. 4

6. (a) 23, 3 (b) y 7. (a) ( f + g)(x) 5 4x2 2 8x 1 2

D Diagnostic Test: Trigonometry

Answers to Diagnostic Test D: Trigonometry

A1 ■ The Area Problem

(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1)

y ■ The Tangent Line Problem

Figure 5 f (x) 2 f (a)

Figure 6 Specific examples of this procedure will be given in Chapter 2.

does it mean to say that the velocity at a given instant is 48 mi > h?