3.

1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

1. Fundamental principles of structural statics
Statics in general is the theory of the equilibrium of forces. In connection with structural works like e. g.
welded steel and aluminium constructions we speak about "building statics", The building statics are
used for the economic dimensioning of supporting structures or for the determination of deformations.
Building statics and design must be closely related.

Supporting structures are divided into girder structures and plate structures. Thus, there are two groups
in building statics:

Girder structure statics and plate structure statics

Girder structure: Dimensions large in one direction and proportionally small in the two other
directions.

Plate structure: Dimensions large in two directions and proportionally small in the third direction

P'+F
+F
~w~".momMt

only tensile forces tensile forces compressive forces forces ;;tcting in any direction

F F

tensile forces and/or compressive forces

t:J
Figure 1: Supporting structure elements

When solving statical problems we differentiate between:

a) graphical statics
b) arithmetical statics
c) the combined use of graphical and arithmetical statics
d) experimental statics

2. Principles of forces
According to Newton a force is responsible for the acceleration of a mass.

Force = Mass· Acceleration

F [NJ = m [kgJ·a [m/s2]

Construction and Design , Palle 1

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems
A force is definitely determined by its point of application. its quantity and its direction.

- quantity amount
- direction =a.
- action line

Figure 2: Representation of a force

Thus, a force is a directed quantity and can be mathematically represented and handled as a vector.

Composition of forces
If several forces act upon one point or if their action lines intersect in one point, these forces can be re­
placed by one resulting force as far as their statical action is concerned. These resulting forces can be
determined graphically or arithmetically.

From 2 forces a force parallelogram results:

Figure 3: Force parallelogram

Resolution of forces:
On a plane a force can only be uniquely resolved in two directions.

Figure 4: Resolution of a force

Note: The resolved forces must act upon the point of application.

The representation below allows a widening for an unlimited number of forces. The graphical solution is
carried out through the "position of forces" and the "polygon of forces"

Construction and Desim . Pae;e 2

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems
F2
F1 ..
I Fd • ,\3
I I F4
It
Starting FR Final
'"~ F2 point point
F4 F3
Figure 5: Position of forces and polygon offorces

The calculated determination of the resulting force can easily be done via the components in a rectan­
gular system of co-ordinates.

Example: Graphic determination of the bottom chord and diagonal force of a trussed girder

Figure 6: Graphic deterrniantion of member forces

Equilibrium of forces
Next to the problem of determining the resulting forces the problem of the equilibrium of forces is equally
important
If two forces are acting, an equilibrium does only exist if the two forces are opposite, of the same amount
and situated on a common action line.

Construction and Desbm .

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

Figure 7: Equilibrium of forces

An equilibrium of three and more forces with a common intersection point exists if a closed polygon of
'forces can be drawn.

Torque
Two forces that are opposite, of the same amount and that have no common action line form a force
=
couple. The resulting force is FR O. Each force couple generates a torque.

M=F·I [Nm]

F, F,

Fa Ii
F, = Fz

,
-0 IF
• 1
,f­
l
f
~l:
a \

1 \

Figure 8: Representation of a torque

Construction and Design Paee4

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

3. Equilibrium conditions
A plate of two dimensions is in a state of equilibrium if the sums of the acting forces relating to two differ­
ent axis are zero and if the sum of torques related to any centre of rotation is also zero.

From this three equations can be derived for a plate of two dimensions:

1:. X = 0 1:.Z=O 1:. 0 = 0

4. Representation of bearings and connecting elements

There are three types of technical bearings in the field of building statics:

Table 1: Types of bearings

Types of bearings Movable bearing Fixed bearing Restraint

;;s;­
Symbols
~~ ~
t­ ~
Possibilities of motion ~
(Degree of freedom) ,-.a. 0 no

.-.. , ..
. 'ir-!••••••. AH ;-._ ....... AH
.......•. ,~

?Yf";
Transmissible reactions
(Fixings) ~t. -;f;r/· Av
Av Av
M~
Value 1 2 3

The following connecting elements can be used:

Table 2: Types of connecting elements

Types of connecting Longitudinal force
Torque hinge Shear hinge Rigid C.OnnectiOIl
elements hinge

. Symbols·
~ ---II-­ - .-- ­ ..

I
·PossibiliUes of motion
.(Oegree of freedom». A
I \
'--1 I==-: ---­- - keine

Transmissible reactions
(Fixings)
~ 41 f, II ~i
.'
.. ~ +
.f ;r.
Value 2 2 2 3

Construction and Design Page 5

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

5. Elementary forms ofsupporting structures

If the support reactions of a two-dimensional structure can be completely determined by the three condi­
tions of equilibrium mentioned before, the structure is designated as "statically determined". If that is not
the case, the structureisdes!gnated as "statica~J.y tndetermined".

Figure 9: Single-span girder with concentrated load

In order to simplify the calculation, components are divided into separate, ideal supporting structures,
bearings and connecting elements and are represented through symbols.

-! -.--.-;.. --.-.:.1 =>..L.S:

Figure 10: Symbolic notation of static systems

The supporting structures. repres9pte.d..by. ,symbols.. are.,c.aUed "staticaLsystems':,.A statica.l.systemcan .

consist of one or several individual components of supporting structures that are connected among
themselves.
If the supporting structure is two-dimensional and if the external forces are also two-dimensional, we
speak of a "two-dimensional system".

6. Degree of static determination

In order to determine the stress of a static system. first it is necessary to know the degree of static de­
termination of the system. Generally supporting structures can be statically determined, statically inde­
termined, or movable.

The degree of static determination can be determined 'w·,ith the help of the "counting criterion" ~

=
a number of support reactions
n=a+z-3·s z = number of intermediate reactions
=
s number of slabs

The following applies:

n >0 n-times statically indetermined systems
n =0 statically determined systems
n <0 moveable systems

Construction and Desi£D Page 6

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems
Statically determined systems
are systems, for which the supporting reactions can be determined with the help of the equilibrium con­
ditions. .

The following applies for both systems:

~. a =3
z=o
}
n=3+0-3'1=O
s=1
I

C I~-
t
Figure 11: Statically detennined systems

Statically indetermined systems

are systems, for which the supporting reactions cannot be determined only with the help of the equilib­
rium conditions.

A
t
1i. ~
"'"""
a=4
z=o
s=1
} n=4+0-3'1=1

j
t
i
ti

(
a=5
z=o
s=1
} n=5+0-3'1=2

J
1 ~
/.--~

t
k
f
Figure 12: Statically indetennined systems

7. Actions and action parameters

Actions are forces acting on a structure or the cause of imposed or constrained deformations in that
structure (e. g, gravity, wind, imposed loads etc.).
Action parameters are quantities used to describe these actions.
(DIN 18800-1 111/90. element 301 ).
Actions ,F, shall be classified according to their degree of permanence, int~:
- permanent actions, G,
- variable actions, Q, and
- accidental actions FA.

Construction and Desbm Pae;e 7

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

Action parameters must be divided into characteristic values of actions Fk and the design values of ac­
tions Fd-

The characteristic values relative to loading shall either be taken from the relevant standards and regula­
tions or c.an be laid down by planning instructions.

Relevant standards are e. g.:

DIN 1055-1 Design loads for buildings; Dead loads of building materials
Design loads for buildings; Live loads etc.
DIN 1072 Desig n loads for road bridges
05804 Design loads for railway bridges

Design values of actions are the characteristic values of actions, FK, multiplied by a partial safety factor,
"IF, and, when necessary, by a combination factor, 'If, as follows:
Fd = "iF . '" .Il<

Stresses, Sd. are the parameters describing the state of structure as a result of design actions, Fd'

Construction and Desil!n Pal!e 8

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

1. Calculation of stresses resulting from actions

1.1 Internal forces and moments

Internal forces and moments are state variables in a supporting structure that are caused by the design
values of actions. They are divided as follows:

Axial force N

Figure 1: Internal force axial force

The axial force N is determined as the sum of the components of all actions acting parallel to the mem­
ber axis on the left or right side of the considered section .

.~ Shear force V

Fz t+·---n··---l····! 1-.· V V
n

{------_ .. U---·-j-1 Fz
f

Figure 2: Internal force shear force

The shear forc.e V is determined as tf'1e sum of the components of a!! actions acting vertically to the
member axis on the left or right side of the considered section.

Bending moment M

D ([h------m----J----) (---luhnmm---hu]') D
M M
Figure 3: Internal moment bending moment

The bending moment f\.~ is determined as the sum of all moments resulting from all actions on the left or
right side of the considered section related to the centroid of the section.

The signs of the intemal forces can be derived from the specifications in DIN 18800 Part 1 and
DIN 1080.

Construction and Design Page 9

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

negative
/ section bank

Mx Figure 4: Sign rules according to DIN 1080

Coordinates, displacement parameters
and internal forces and moments

Internal forces are positive if they point towards the positive axis direction at the positive section bank,
and they are negative if they point towards the negative axis direction at the negative section bank.

1.2 Determination of support reactions and internal forces with selected examples
For the determination of internal forces in a component we apply the section principle. The section prin­
ciple is based on t"e assumption that an element is in a state of equilibrium if each part of the element
which can be formed by imaginary sections is also in a state of equilibrium. That means that the forces
and moments acting on each part must also be in a state of equilibrium.

Figure 5: Representation of the section principle

Construction and Desie:n Page 10

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

Examples:

a) Single-span girder with inclined concentrated load

FV Ii F = 50 kN
I

~- -----_ .... ia =60°

CfFH
AV 4,0 3,0 BV

1= 7,0 m

Figure 6: Single span girder with inclined concentrated load

Support reactions

Resulting from the resolution of the inclined concentrated load: FH,d =25,0 kN ; FV,d =43,30 kN

Check: 'L V ;;;: 0:

'LH=O:

Construction and Design Paf;!e 11

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

FV -r-)1- F = 50 kN
!
!lila .............. .

1= 7,Om

Axial force N

Shear force V

Bending moment M

Construction and Design Page 12

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

b) Single-span girder Wllh vertical concentrated load in central position

F.
I
+

c) Single-span giidei with 2 symmetrically arranged concentrated vertical loads of the same size

F, IF
AH I I
t
':Li.......
:t
Z
Av t a ~(
b 4( a f Bv

Construction and Design Pasze 13

 3.1 Basic Theory of Structural Systems

d) Single-span girder wIth uniformly distributed vertIcal load

F = q-I
AH rJ 1 I J I I'J J J,! l ~!, J
LSoo OL..
Avt -r:v

e) Cantilever girder with inclined concentrated loas

l
,
>

i!
,,
,1
f
,i,
;
!
I
1
!
i
!
I
,
!
!
!
!
l
i,
~

Construction and Design Page 14