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CIRCUIT THEORY
About the Author
A. Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with an efficient technical expertise and management
skills. He obtained his BE in EEE from Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai, and
MS (Electronics and Control) through Distance Learning Program of BITS, Pilani.
He started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986-1989) and then moved to teaching in
1989. He has worked as a lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College (1989-1990) and as an Assistant
Professor in Satyabhama Engineering College (1990-1997). The author started his own coaching
centre for BE students, named as Institute of Electrical Engineering and was renamed as RBA
Tutorials in 2005. He started his own companies in 1997 and his currently running companies
are RBA Engineering (manufacturing of lab equipment and microprocessor trainer kits), RBA
Innovations (involved in developing projects for engineering students and industries), RBA Tutorials
(conducting coaching classes for engineering and GATE students) and RBA Publications (publishing
of engineering books). His optimistic and innovative ideas brought up RBA Group successfully.
He is an eminent writer and till now he has authored thirteen engineering books which are very
popular among engineering students. He is known by name through his books in all engineering
colleges in South India and some colleges in North India.
CIRCUIT THEORY
A. Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Circuit Theory
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Dedicated to
Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc, M.L.)

Elder Son, N. Bharath Raj
Younger Son, N. Vikram Raj
vi
vii
CONTENT
PREFACE.............................................................................................. xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................ xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS.................................................. 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks........................................................................ 1. 1

1.1.1 Basic Phenomena ............................................................................................ 1. 1
1.1.2 Ideal Elements ................................................................................................. 1. 1
1.1.3 Electric Circuits ............................................................................................... 1. 1
1.1.4 Units ................................................................................................................. 1. 4
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms.......................................................................... 1. 5
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values............................... 1. 7
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis.............................................. 1. 8
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory....................................................................... 1. 8
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks ................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits............................................................................. 1. 9
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path ................................................................. 1. 10
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections................................................. 1. 12
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit....................................................................... 1. 15
1.2.5 Sign Conventions ............................................................................................ 1. 16
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 17
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources............................................................................. 1. 17
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation............................................................................. 1. 18
1.2.9 Power and Energy............................................................................................ 1. 19
1.3 Network Terminology................................................................................................... 1. 20
1.3.1 Graph of a Network ......................................................................................... 1. 20
1.3.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree ......................................................................... 1. 21
1.3.3 Network Variables ........................................................................................... 1. 23
1.3.4 Solution of Network Variables ...................................................................... 1. 23
viii
1.4 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws ........................................................................................ 1. 24

1.4.1 Ohm’s Law........................................................................................................ 1. 24
1.4.2 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)....................................................................... 1. 25
1.4.3 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)....................................................................... 1. 25
1.5 Resistive Elements....................................................................................................... 1. 26
1.5.1 Resistance ....................................................................................................... 1. 26
1.5.2 Resistance Connected to DC Source ............................................................. 1. 26
1.5.3 Resistance in Series........................................................................................ 1. 27
1.5.4 Resistance in Parallel...................................................................................... 1. 28
1.5.5 Analysis of Resistors in Series-Parallel Circuits .......................................... 1. 28
1.5.6 Single Loop Circuit.......................................................................................... 1. 31
1.5.7 Single Node Pair Circuit ................................................................................. 1. 31
1.6 Mesh Current Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits ...................................... 1. 41
1.6.1 Mesh Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources....................... 1. 41
1.6.2 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both Voltage
and Current Sources ....................................................................................... 1. 67
1.6.3 Supermesh Analysis....................................................................................... 1. 67
1.6.4 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Mesh Analysis of Reactive Circuits)............................................................. 1. 73
1.6.5 Mesh Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 80
1.7 Node Voltage Method of Analysis for DC and AC Circuits....................................... 1. 91
1.7.1 Node Analysis of Resistive Circuits Excited by DC Sources........................ 1. 92
1.7.2 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Both
Voltage and Current Sources.......................................................................... 1. 109
1.7.3 Supernode Analysis........................................................................................ 1. 110
1.7.4 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by AC Sources
(Node Analysis of Reactive Circuits).............................................................. 1. 124
1.7.5 Node Analysis of Circuits Excited by Independent
and Dependent Sources.................................................................................. 1. 128
1.8 Summary of Important Concepts................................................................................ 1. 135
1.9 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 1. 140
1.10 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 1. 150
ix
CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK REDUCTION AND THEOREMS FOR

AC AND DC CIRCUITS....................................................... 2. 1
2.1 Network Reduction....................................................................................................... 2. 1
2.1.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel.................................................................. 2. 1
2.1.2 Voltage Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 3
2.1.3 Current Sources in Series and Parallel .......................................................... 2. 6
2.1.4 Inductances in Series and Parallel................................................................. 2. 8
2.1.5 Capacitances in Series and Parallel............................................................... 2. 11
2.1.6 Impedances in Series and Parallel ................................................................. 2. 14
2.1.7 Reactances in Series and Parallel .................................................................. 2. 16
2.1.8 Conductances in Series and Parallel ............................................................. 2. 17
2.1.9 Admittances in Series and Parallel ................................................................ 2. 19
2.1.10 Susceptances in Series and Parallel .............................................................. 2. 22
2.1.11 Generalised Concept of Reducing Series/Parallel-connected Parameters.... 2. 22
2.2 Voltage and Current Division ...................................................................................... 2. 25
2.2.1 Voltage Division in Series-connected Resistances ....................................... 2. 25
2.2.2 Voltage Division in Series-connected Impedances ....................................... 2. 26
2.2.3 Current Division in Parallel-connected Resistances ..................................... 2. 26
2.2.4 Current Division in Parallel-connected Impedances..................................... 2. 27
2.3 Source Transformation ................................................................................................ 2. 28
2.4 Star-Delta Conversion.................................................................................................. 2. 29
2.4.1 Resistances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 29
2.4.2 Impedances in Star and Delta ........................................................................ 2. 31
2.5 Solved Problems in Network Reduction .................................................................... 2. 32
2.6 Network Theorems....................................................................................................... 2. 49
2.6.1 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems................................................................ 2. 49
2.6.2 Superposition Theorem .................................................................................. 2. 76
2.6.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .............................................................. 2. 99
2.6.4 Reciprocity Theorem ....................................................................................... 2. 126
2.6.5 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Mesh Basis Circuit.................................... 2. 126
2.6.6 Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Node Basis Circuit .................................... 2. 127
2.6.7 Millman’s Theorem.......................................................................................... 2. 137
2.8 Short-answer Questions .............................................................................................. 2. 144
2.9 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 2. 159
x
CHAPTER 3 - TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS...................................... 3.1

3.1 L and C Elements and Transient Response............................................................... 3. 1
3.1.1 Natural and Forced Response ........................................................................ 3. 1
3.1.2 First and Second Order Circuits .................................................................... 3. 2
3.2 Transient Analysis Using Laplace Transform........................................................... 3. 3
3.2.1 Some Standard Voltage Functions ................................................................ 3. 3
3.2.2 s-Domain Representation of R, L, C Parameters .......................................... 3. 5
3.2.3 Solving Initial and Final Conditions Using Laplace Transform.................. 3. 9
3.3 Transient Response of RL Circuit.............................................................................. 3. 10
3.3.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RL Circuit............................................ 3. 10
3.3.2 Step Response of RL Circuit
(Response of RL Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................... 3. 11
3.3.3 RL Transient With Initial Current I0 .............................................................. 3. 16
3.4 Transient Response of RC Circuit ............................................................................. 3. 19
3.4.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RC Circuit ........................................... 3. 19
3.4.2 Step Response of RC Circuit
(Response of RC Circuit Excited by DC Supply) .......................................... 3. 21
3.4.3 RC Transient With Initial Voltage V0 ............................................................ 3. 25
3.5 Transient Response of RLC Circuit........................................................................... 3. 29
3.5.1 Natural or Source-Free Response of RLC Circuit......................................... 3. 29
3.5.2 Step Response of RLC Circuit
(Response of RLC Circuit Excited by DC Supply)........................................ 3. 29
3.5.3 s-Domain Current and Voltage Equation of RLC Circuit ............................. 3. 36
3.5.4 Initial Conditions in RLC Circuit ................................................................... 3. 37
3.5.5 Final Conditions in RLC Circuit..................................................................... 3. 39
3.6 Transient Response of Circuits Excited by Sinusoidal Source................................ 3. 41
3.6.1 RL Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source ...................................................... 3. 41
3.6.2 RC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source ...................................................... 3. 43
3.6.3 RLC Circuit Excited by Sinusoidal Source.................................................... 3. 45
3.7 Solved Problems in RL Transient ............................................................................... 3. 47
3.8 Solved Problems in RC Transient............................................................................... 3. 63
3.9 Solved Problems in RLC Transient ............................................................................ 3. 84
3.10 Summary of Important Concepts ............................................................................... 3. 94
3.11 Short-answer Questions.............................................................................................. 3. 97
3.12 Exercises ...................................................................................................................... 3. 100
xi
CHAPTER 4 - AC SINGLE AND THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS............................. 4.1

4.1 AC Circuits..................................................................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.1 AC Voltage and Current Source..................................................................... 4. 1
4.1.2 AC Source Transformation ............................................................................. 4. 3
4.2 Sinusoidal Voltage........................................................................................................ 4. 3
4.2.1 Average Value .................................................................................................. 4. 6
4.2.2 RMS Value ....................................................................................................... 4. 6
4.2.3 Form Factor and Peak Factor .......................................................................... 4. 7
4.3 Sinusoidal Current........................................................................................................ 4. 7
4.4 Inductance .................................................................................................................... 4. 8
4.4.1 Voltage-Current Relation in an Inductance.................................................... 4. 9
4.4.2 Energy Stored in an Inductance ..................................................................... 4. 10
4.5 Capacitance .................................................................................................................. 4. 10
4.5.1 Voltage-Current Relation in a Capacitance.................................................... 4. 11
4.5.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitance...................................................................... 4. 11
4.6 Voltage-Current Relation of R, L and C in Various Domains..................................... 4. 12
4.6.1 Voltage-Current Relation of Resistance ......................................................... 4. 12
4.6.2 Voltage-Current Relation of Inductance......................................................... 4. 13
4.6.3 Voltage-Current Relation of Capacitance....................................................... 4. 14
4.7 Sinusoidal Voltage and Current in Frequency Domain ............................................. 4. 15
4.8 Phasor Diagram............................................................................................................ 4. 15
4.8.1 Phase and Phase Difference............................................................................ 4. 15
4.8.2 Phasor Representation of Sinusoidal Quantities .......................................... 4. 17
4.8.3 Phasor Diagram of a Circuit............................................................................ 4. 18
4.9 Power, Energy and Power Factor................................................................................. 4. 19
4.10 Resistance Connected to Sinusoidal Source.............................................................. 4. 22
4.11 Inductance Connected to Sinusoidal Source.............................................................. 4. 24
4.12 Capacitance Connected to Sinusoidal Source............................................................ 4. 26
4.13 Impedance..................................................................................................................... 4. 29
4.13.1 Impedance Connected to Sinusoidal Source................................................. 4. 30
4.14 Conductance, Susceptance and Admittance.............................................................. 4. 32
4.14.1 Conductance .................................................................................................... 4. 32
4.14.2 Admittance ....................................................................................................... 4. 32
4.14.3 Admittance Connected to Sinusoidal Source................................................. 4. 33
xii
4.15 KVL, KCL and Ohm’s Law Applied to AC Circuits ...................................................... 4. 35
4.16 Current and Voltage Division Rules for Impedances .................................................. 4. 35
4.16.1 Current Division in Parallel Connected Impedances...................................... 4. 35
4.16.2 Voltage Division in Series Connected Impedances ........................................ 4. 35
4.17 Solved Problems in Single Phase Circuits................................................................... 4. 36
4.18 Three-Phase Circuits..................................................................................................... 4. 59
4.19 Three-Phase Sources..................................................................................................... 4. 60
4.20 Representation of Three-Phase EMFs ......................................................................... 4. 61
4.21 Analysis of Three-Phase Star and Delta-connected Source ....................................... 4. 63
4.21.1 Star-connected Source Three-Wire System..................................................... 4. 63
4.21.2 Star-connected Source Four-Wire System....................................................... 4. 66
4.21.3 Delta-connected Source ................................................................................... 4. 67
4.22 Three-Phase Loads........................................................................................................ 4. 72
4.22.1 Choice of Reference Phasor in Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits ................ 4. 73
4.23 Analysis of Balanced Loads ......................................................................................... 4. 74
4.23.1 Four-Wire Star-connected Balanced Load ...................................................... 4. 74
4.23.2 Three-Wire Star-connected Balanced Load .................................................... 4. 76
4.23.3 Delta-connected Balanced Load ...................................................................... 4. 76
4.23.4 Power Consumed by Three Equal Impedances in Star and Delta................. 4. 78
4.24 Analysis of Unbalanced Loads ..................................................................................... 4. 79
4.24.1 Four-Wire Star-connected Unbalanced Load .................................................. 4. 79
4.24.2 Three-Wire Star-connected Unbalanced Load ................................................ 4. 81
4.24.3 Neutral Shift in Star-connected Load .............................................................. 4. 83
4.24.4 Delta-connected Unbalanced Load ................................................................. 4. 83
4.25 Power Measurement in Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................. 4. 85
4.25.1 Power Measurement in Balanced Load .......................................................... 4. 86
4.25.2 Relation Between Power Factor and Wattmeter Readings ............................ 4. 88
4.26 Solved Problems in Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................... 4. 90
4.27 Summary of Important Concepts ................................................................................. 4. 133
4.28 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 4. 139

4.29 Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 4. 148
xiii
CHAPTER 5 - RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS................................. 5.1

5.1 Resonance..................................................................................................................... 5. 1
5.2 Series Resonance......................................................................................................... 5. 1
5.2.1 Resonance Frequency of Series RLC Circuit ................................................ 5. 1
5.2.2 Frequency Response of Series RLC Circuit .................................................. 5. 2
5.2.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Series Circuit ........................................... 5. 3
5.2.4 Bandwidth of Series RLC Circuit................................................................... 5. 6
5.2.5 Selectivity of Series RLC Circuit.................................................................... 5. 10
5.2.6 Solved Problems in Series Resonance........................................................... 5. 11
5.3 Parallel Resonance ....................................................................................................... 5. 16
5.3.1 Resonant Frequency of Parallel RLC Circuits ............................................... 5. 17
5.3.2 Frequency Response of Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 5. 25
5.3.3 Q-Factor (Quality Factor) of RLC Parallel Circuit.......................................... 5. 26
5.3.4 Bandwidth of RLC Parallel Circuit ................................................................. 5. 29
5.3.5 Solved Problems in Parallel Resonance......................................................... 5. 35
5.4 Coupled Circuits........................................................................................................... 5. 43
5.5 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance..................................................................... 5. 44
5.5.1 Self-Inductance................................................................................................ 5. 44
5.5.2 Mutual Inductance .......................................................................................... 5. 44
5.5.3 Coefficient of Coupling ................................................................................... 5. 46
5.6 Analysis of Coupled Coils ........................................................................................... 5. 47
5.6.1 Dot Convention for Coupled Coils ................................................................. 5. 48
5.6.2 Expression for Self-and Mutual Induced EMF in Various Domain ............. 5. 51
5.6.3 Writing Mesh Equations for Coupled Coils................................................... 5. 52
5.6.4 Electrical Equivalent of Magnetic Coupling
(Electrical Equivalent of a Transformer or Linear Transformer).................. 5. 53
5.6.5 Writing Mesh Equations in Circuits with Electrical Connection
and Magnetic Coupling .................................................................................. 5. 56
5.7 Series and Parallel Connections of Coupled Coils .................................................... 5. 57
5.7.1 Series Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils.................................................. 5. 57
5.7.2 Series Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils............................................. 5. 58
5.7.3 Parallel Aiding Connection of Coupled Coils ................................................ 5. 59
5.7.4 Parallel Opposing Connection of Coupled Coils........................................... 5. 61
5.8 Tuned Coupled Circuits............................................................................................... 5. 63
5.8.1 Single Tuned Coupled Circuits ...................................................................... 5. 63
5.8.2 Double Tuned Coupled Circuits..................................................................... 5. 68
xiv
5.9 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits ......................................................................... 5. 72

5.11 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................. 5. 102
5.12 Exercises....................................................................................................................... 5. 110
APPENDIX 1 - USING CALCULATOR IN COMPLEX MODE .................................. A. 1
APPENDIX 2 - IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE ................................. A. 3
APPENDIX 3 - LAPLACE TRANSFORM ............................................................ A. 5
APPENDIX 4 - CRAMER’S RULE ..................................................................... A. 8
APPENDIX 5 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES/PARALLEL CONNECTED
PARAMETERS ......................................................................... A. 10
APPENDIX 6 - STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION .............................................. A. 12
APPENDIX 7 - SUMMARY OF THEOREMS ........................................................ A. 13
APPENDIX 8 - INITIAL AND FINAL CONDITIONS IN RLC CIRCUITS EXCITED
BY DC SUPPLY......................................................................... A. 14
APPENDIX 9 - R,L,C PARAMETERS AND V-I RELATIONS IN
VARIOUS DOMAINS.................................................................. A. 15
APPENDIX 10 - CHOICE OF REFERENCE PHASOR ............................................... A. 16
APPENDIX 11 - V-I EQUATION OF THREE-PHASE LOAD ...................................... A. 17
APPENDIX 12 - TWO WATTMETER METHOD OF POWER MEASUREMENT............. A. 22
APPENDIX 13 - IMPORTANT EQUATIONS OF SERIES RESONANCE....................... A. 23
APPENDIX 14 - PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS ............................................... A. 24
APPENDIX 15 - ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF COUPLED COILS ........................... A. 25
APPENDIX 16 - EQUIVALENT OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED
COUPLED COILS....................................................................... A. 26
ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS............................................................... Q. 1
INDEX.............................................................................................................. I. 1
xv
Preface
The main objective of this book is to explore the basic concepts of Circuit Theory in a simple and
easy-to-understand manner.
This text on Circuit Theory has been crafted and designed to meet students’ requirements.
Considering the highly mathematical nature of this subject, more emphasis has been given on
the problem-solving methodology. Considerable effort has been made to elucidate mathematical
derivations in a step-by-step manner. Exercise problems with varied difficulty levels are given in
the text to help students get an intuitive grasp on the subject.
This book, with its lucid writing style and germane pedagogical features, will prove to be a master
text for engineering students and practitioners.
Salient Features
The salient features of this book are:
- Proof of important concepts and theorems are clearly highlighted by shaded boxes
- Wherever required, problems are solved in multiple methods
- Additional explanations for solutions and proofs are provided in separate boxes
- Different types of fonts are used for text, proof and solved problems for better clarity
- Keywords are highlighted by bold and italic fonts
- Easy, concise and accurate study material
- Extremely precise edition where concepts are reinforced by pedagogy
- Demonstration of multiple techniques in problem solving-additional explanations and
proofs highlighted
- Ample figures and examples to enhance students’ understanding
- Practice through MCQ’s
- Rich Pedagogy:
. Solved Numerical Examples: 249
. Short-answer Questions: 219
. Figures: 1549
. Practice Problems: 135
. Review Questions (T/F): 109
. MCQs: 145
. Fill in the blanks: 109
xvi
Organization
This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Theory for engineering students.
The book is organized into five chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and
transient state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the
book, carefully chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding
of the concepts discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit theory,
standard symbols and units used in circuit theory. The basic concepts of circuits are also
presented in this chapter. The mesh and node analysis of circuits are discussed with special
attention to dependent sources.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2. The analysis of circuits using theorems are also presented in this Chapter.
The transient analysis of circuits are explained in Chapter 3 through Laplace transform.
The analysis of single and three-phase circuits and measurement of power in three-phase
circuits are presented in Chapter 4.
The concepts of resonance are discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The analysis of coupled
circuits are also discussed.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of Electric Circuits. Hence,
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book. All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers
to practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Since circuit theory is introduced as a course in the first year of engineering curriculum in
most of the universities, this subject is considered tough by students entering into engineering
courses. Hence, the author has taken special care in presenting the concepts in simple manner
supported by carefully chosen solved problems.
Online Learning Center

The OLC of the book can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/nagoorkani/ct/au
The author hopes that that the teaching and student community will welcome the book. The readers
can feel free to convey their criticism and suggestions to kani@vsnl.com for further improvement
of the book.
A. Nagoor Kani
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
xvii
acknowledgement
I express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Ms. C. Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani,
and my sons, N. Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N. Vikram Raj, for their
support, encouragement and cooperation extended to me throughout my career. I thank
Ms. T. A. Benazir for the affection and care extended during my day-to-day activities.
I am grateful to Ms. C. Mohana Priya for her passion in book work, typesetting
of the manuscript and preparing the layout of the book. It is my pleasure to acknowledge
the contributions of our technical editors, Ms. E. R. Suhasini and Ms. R. Jenniefer Sherine,
for editing and proofreading of the book. I thank all my office-staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
My sincere thanks to all the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments
which helped me to explore the subject to a greater depth.
I am also grateful to Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Mr. Hemant K Jha, Ms. Vaishali Thapliyal,
Mr. Asarab, Mr. Ganesh, Mr. Satinder Singh and Ms. Taranpreet Kaur, of McGraw Hill
Education (India) for their concern and care in publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends,
students and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement
to my writing.
A. Nagoor Kani
xviii
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
+
i(0 ) - Current at t = 0+
i(0−) - Current at t = 0–
i(∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
i(t) - Current in time domain
xix
ζ - Damping ratio
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
i, i(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
iC - Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
iL - Instantaneous value of current through inductor
iR - Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
xx
vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

vL - Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
vR - Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
v, v(t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
M - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
OC - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
xxi
pf - Power factor
φ - Power factor angle
P - Power or Active power
PC - Pressure Coil
Q - Quality factor
Qr - Quality factor at resonance
rad/s - Radians/second
X - Reactance
Q - Reactive Power
R - Resistance
ρ - Resistivity
fr - Resonance frequency
s - Second
SC - Short circuit
S - Siemen
SDPT - Single Pole Double Throw
RS - Source Resistance
B - Susceptance
T - Tesla
t - Time
τ - Time constant
V - Volt
VAR - Volt-Ampere-Reactive
V - Voltage
v(0 +) - Voltage at t = 0+
v(0−) - Voltage at t = 0−
v(∞) - Voltage at t = ∞
V^ jωh, V - Voltage in frequency domain
V(s) - Voltage in Laplace domain
W - Watt
W-h - Watt-hour
W-s - Watt-second
Wb - Weber/Weber-turn
xxii
Chapter 1
BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks
1.1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are resistor, inductor and capacitor.
1.1.2 Ideal Elements

The ideal resistor offers opposition only to the flow of current. The property of opposition
to the flow of current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
The ideal inductor offers opposition only to change in current (or flux). The property of
opposition to change in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
The ideal capacitor offers opposition only to change in voltage (or charge). The property
of opposition to change in voltage is called capacitance and it is denoted by C.
1.1.3 Electric Circuits

The behaviour of a device to electric current can be best understood if it is modelled using
the fundamental elements R, L and C. For example, an incandescent lamp and a water heater can
be modelled as ideal resistance. Transformers and motors can be modelled using resistance and
inductance.
Practically, an electric circuit is a model of a device operated by electrical energy. The
various concepts and methods used for analysing a circuit is called circuit theory. A typical circuit
consists of sources of electrical energy and ideal elements R, L and C. The practical energy sources
are batteries, generators (or alternators), rectifiers, transistors, op-amps, etc. The various elements
of electric circuits are shown in Figs 1.1 and 1.2.
1. 2 Circuit Theory
Elements of Electric Circuits
Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

DC (Direct Current) Sources
DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-
Dependent DC Voltage Source

mVx
Voltage Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,
Dependent DC Current Source

GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled DC Current Source,
AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,
AC (Alternating Current) Sources
AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,
Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Chapter 1 - Basic Circuit Analysis 1. 3
Elements of Electric Circuits
Parameters or Loads Energy Sources
Fundamental Parameters
R
Resistance,
Inductance
L
Self-Inductance,
Mutual Inductance, M
C
Capacitance,
Derived Parameters
± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC
Z = R ± jX
Impedance,
Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,
1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL
+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,
Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX
Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

1. 4 Circuit Theory
Elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore, energy
sources are active elements. Elements which dissipate or store energy are called passive elements.
Resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy in a magnetic field, and
capacitance stores energy in an electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance and capacitance
are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is called a passive
circuit or network.
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. Transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy used to supply electrical energy to various devices
like lamps, fans, motors, etc., are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied is
called power. Power in turn is the product of voltage and current.
Circuit analysis relies on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to other. Therefore,
the total energy/power in a circuit is zero.
1.1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering applications, large values are
expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The commonly
used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 : Units and Symbols
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Table 1.1: Continued...
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent

for quantity symbol unit unit symbol
Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -
Magnetic flux - Tesla T Weber/ meter Wb/m2

square
density
o
Temperature - Kelvin K - -
Table 1.2 : Multiple and Submultiple used for Units
Multiplying Prefix Symbol Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor factor
1012 tera T 10 −1 deci d

9 −2
10 giga G 10 centi c
6 −3
10 mega M 10 milli m
103 kilo k 10 − 6 micro µ
2 −9
10 hecto h 10 nano n
101 deca da 10 −12 pico p
−15
10 femto f
10 −18 atto a
1.1.5 Definitions of Various Terms

The definitions of various terms that are associated with electrical energy like energy, power,
current, voltage, etc., are presented in this section.
Energy : Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It can also be defined as stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms, such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, light,
chemical, etc. It is measured in joules, which is denoted by J (or the unit of energy
is joules).
In electrical engineering, one joule is defined as the energy required to transfer a power of
one watt in one second to a load (or Energy = Power ´ Time). Therefore, 1 J = 1 W-s.
In mechanical engineering, one joule is the energy required to move a mass of 1 kg
through a distance of 1 m with a uniform acceleration of 1 m/s2.
1. 6 Circuit Theory
Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
Power : Power is the rate at which work is done (or it is the rate of energy transfer). The unit of
power is watt and denoted by W. If energy is transferred at the rate of one joule per
second then one watt of power is generated.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
dw dw dq
Also, p = = # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
Charge : Charge is the characteristic property of elementary particles of matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it has equal number of electrons and protons.
The particle is called charged, if some electrons are either added or removed from it.
If electrons are added then the particle is called negatively charged. If electrons are
removed then the particle is called positively charged.The unit used for measurement
of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which when placed
in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre repels it
with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence,
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
Current : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. One
ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
where, Q = Charge flowing at a constant rate

t = Time
dq = Change in charge in a time of dt
dt = Time required to produce a change in charge dq.
Voltage : Every charge will have potential energy. The difference in potential energy
between the charges is called potential difference. In electrical terminology, the
potential difference is called voltage. Potential difference indicates the amount of
work done to move a charge from one place to another. Voltage is expressed in volt.
One volt is the potential difference between two points, when one joule of energy
is utilised in transfering one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
A steady voltage can be expressed as,
Energy
Voltage, V = = W .....(1.6)
Charge Q
A time varying voltage can be expressed as,
Instantaneous voltage, v = dw .....(1.7)
dq
Also, 1 V = 1 J = 1 J/s = 1 W .....(1.8)

1C 1 C/s 1A
` Voltage, V = Power = P .....(1.9)
Current I
One volt is also defined as the difference in electric potential between two points
along a conductor carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power
dissipated between the two points is one watt.
1.1.6 Symbols used for Average, RMS and Maximum Values
The quantities like voltage, current, power and energy may be constant or varying with
respect to time. For a time varying quantity we can define the value of the quantity as instantaneous,
average, rms and maximum value. The symbols used for these values are listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 : Symbols of DC and AC Variables
AC or Time varying
Quantity DC Instantaneous Average Maximum RMS Phasors

value value value value or
Vectors
Current I i Iave Im or Ip I I
Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V
Power P p P Pm - S
Energy W w W Wm - -
1. 8 Circuit Theory
1.1.7 Steady State Analysis and Transient Analysis

Circuit analysis can be classified into steady state analysis and transient analysis. The analysis
of circuits during switching conditions is called transient analysis. During switching conditions,
the current and voltage change from one value to the other. In purely resistive circuits this may not
be a problem because the resistance will allow sudden change in voltage and current.
But in inductive circuits the current cannot change instantaneously and in capacitive circuits
the voltage cannot change instantaneously. Hence, when the circuit is switched from one state
to the other, the voltage and current cannot attain a steady value instantaneously in inductive or
capacitive circuits. Therefore, during switching conditions there will be a small period during which
the current and voltage will change from an initial value to a final steady value. The time from the
instant of switching to the attainment of steady value is called transient period. Physically, the
transient can be realised in switching of tubelights, fans, motors, etc.
In certain circuits the transient period is negligible and we may be interested only in steady
value of the response. Therefore, steady state analysis is sufficient. The analysis of circuits under
steady state (i.e., by neglecting the transient period) is called steady state analysis. Steady state
analysis of circuits is discussed in this book in all chapters except Chapter 3.
In certain circuits the transient period is critical and we may require the response of the circuit
during the transient period. Some practical examples where transient analysis is vital are starters,
circuit breakers, relays, etc. Transient analysis of circuits is discussed in Chapter 3.
1.1.8 Assumptions in Circuit Theory

In circuit analysis the elements of the circuit are assumed to be linear, bilateral and lumped
elements.
In linear elements the voltage-current characteristics are linear and the circuit consisting of
linear elements is called linear circuit or network. The resistor, inductor and capacitor are linear
elements. Some elements exhibit non-linear characteristics. For example, diodes and transistors
have non-linear voltage-current characteristics, capacitance of a varactor diode is non-linear
and inductance of an inductor with hystereris is non-linear. For analysis purpose, the non-linear
characteristics can be linearised over a certain range of operation.
In a bilateral element, the relationship between voltage and current will be the same for
two possible directions of current through the element. On the other hand, a unilateral element
will have different voltage-current characteristics for the two possible directions of current through
the element. The diode is an example of a unilateral element.
In practical devices like transmission lines, windings of motors, coils, etc., the parameters
(R, L and C) are distributed in nature. But for analysis purpose we assume that the parameters
are lumped (i.e., concentrated at one place). This approximation is valid only for low frequency
operations and it is not valid in the microwave frequency range. All analysis in this book is based
on the assumption that the elements are linear, bilateral and lumped elements.
1.2 Basic Concepts of Circuits and Networks

1.2.1 Basic Elements of Circuits
Circuits and Networks
An electric circuit consists of Resistors (R), Inductors (L), Capacitors (C), voltage sources
and/or current sources connected in a particular combination. When the sources are removed from
a circuit, it is called a network.
R1 R1
+
L R2 C L R2 C
E ~
E
Fig. a : Circuit. Fig. b : Network.

Fig. 1.3 : Example of circuit and network.
DC Circuits
The networks excited by dc sources are called dc circuits. In a dc source, the voltage and
current do not change with time. Hence, the property of capacitance and inductance will not arise
in steady state analysis of dc circuits.This chapter deals with steady state analysis of dc circuits.
Therefore, in this chapter only resistive circuits are discussed.
Active and Passive Elements
The elements of a circuit can be classified into active elements and passive elements. The
elements which can deliver energy are called active elements. The elements which consume energy
either by absorbing or storing are called passive elements.
The active elements are voltage and current sources. The sources can be of different nature.
The sources in which the current/voltage does not change with time are called direct current
sources or in short dc sources. (But in dc sources, the current/voltage changes with load). The
sources in which the current/voltage sinusoidally varies with time are called sinusoidal sources
or alternating current sources or in short ac sources.
The passive elements of a circuit are resistors, inductors and capacitors, which exhibit the
property of resistance, inductance and capacitance, respectively under ideal conditions. Resistance,
inductance and capacitance are called fundamental parameters of a circuit. Practically, these
parameters will be distributed in nature. For example, the resistance of a transmission line will exist
throughout its length. But for circuit analysis, the parameters are considered as lumped.
The resistor absorbs energy (and the absorbed energy is converted into heat). The inductor
and the capacitor store energy. When the power supply in the circuit is switched ON, the inductor
and the capacitor store energy, and when the supply is switched OFF, the stored energy leaks away
in the leakage path. (Hence, inductors and capacitors cannot be used as storage devices).
1. 10 Circuit Theory
+ +
+ Is
E - E E = EÐq ~ Is = Is Ðq ~
- -
Fig. a : DC voltage Fig. b : DC current Fig. c : AC voltage Fig. d : AC current

source. source. source. source.
Vs + Is L
-
R C
Vs = RI or A vV Is = GV or A II
Fig. e : Dependent Fig. f : Dependent Fig. g : Fig. h : Fig. i :
voltage source. current source. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance.
Fig. 1.4 : Symbols of active and passive elements of circuits.
Independent and Dependent Sources
Sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. The electrical energy
supplied by an independent source does not depend on another electrical source. Independent
sources convert energy in some form into electrical energy. For example, a generator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy,
a solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy, a thermocouple converts heat energy into
electrical energy, etc.
The electrical energy supplied by a dependent source depends on another source of electrical
energy. For example, the output signal (energy) of a transistor or op-amp depends on the input
signal (energy), where the input signal is another source of electrical energy.
In the circuit sense, the voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/
current in any part of the circuit. But the voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the
voltage/current in some part of the same circuit.
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path
A typical circuit consists of lumped parameters, such as resistance, inductance, capacitance and
sources of electrical energy like voltage and current sources connected through resistance-less wires.
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then it is called the principal node.
The path between any two nodes is called a branch. A branch may have one or more elements
connected in series.
A closed path is a path which starts at a node and travels through some part of the circuit
and arrives at the same node without crossing a node more than once.
The nodes, branches and closed paths of a typical circuit are shown in Fig. 1.5. The nodes
of the circuit are the meeting points of the elements denoted as A, B, C, D, E and F. The nodes A,
B, C and D are principal nodes because these nodes are meeting points of more than two elements.
E2 R3
+ E
F
E2 R3 A
+ C
E
A R2 B R4
F B C
R2 B R4 B
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R6 R5 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D D
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Branches of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3
+ E
R2 B R4 R1
R2 R4 R5 R6
E
A C + +
E1 E1
R1 R5 E E
R6 D
E2 R3
+ E
F
Fig. c : Nodes of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3 E2 R3
+ E + E
F F
R2 B B R4 E2 R3
A C A C + E
F
R1 R2 R4
B
R5 R6 R5 A C
E
+
E1
E
E2 R3
D D + E
F
R2 B B R4
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R5 R6 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D
Fig. d : Closed paths of the circuit in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.5 : A typical circuit and its branches, nodes and closed paths.
1.2.3 Series, Parallel, Star and Delta Connections

The various types of connections that we may encounter in electric circuits are series,
parallel, star and delta connections.
Series Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the current through them is the same then
the connection is called a series connection. In a circuit if the current in a path is the same then
the elements in that path are said to be in series.
R1 R2 R3 I L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3
I I
Fig. a : Resistances in Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances

series. in series. in series.
V1 V2 V3 L C
I I R L I R C I R
E + E + E +
Fig. d : Voltage Fig. e : Resistance and Fig. f : Resistance and Fig. g : Resistance,
sources in series. inductance in series. capacitance in series. inductance and
capacitance in series.
Fig. 1.6 : Examples of series connected elements.
Ic
Ic
R3 L
R3 L
Ib R2 R4
B Id A C
A C A C
Ia Ie If Ia If
R1 R1
R5 R6 R6
+ +
~ E ~ E
E E
R7 D C R7 D D C
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : Series paths in the circuit of Fig. a.

Fig. 1.7 : A typical circuit and its series paths.
Parallel Connection
If two or more elements are connected such that the voltage across them is the same then
the connection is called a parallel connection. In a circuit if the voltage across two or more paths
is the same then, they are said to be in parallel.
+ + + +
V R1 R2 R3 V L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3 V R L
V
E E E E
Fig. a : Resistances Fig. b : Inductances Fig. c : Capacitances Fig. d : R and L in parallel.

in parallel. in parallel. in parallel.
+ +
V R C V R L C I1 I2 I3
E E
Fig. e : R and C in parallel. Fig. f : R, L and C in parallel. Fig. g : Current sources in parallel.
Fig. 1.8 : Examples of parallel connected elements.
+ R1 R2 + R2 + R1
E ~ E ~ R1 E ~ R2
E E E
L C C L
Fig. a : The voltage source, series Fig. b : The voltage source, Resistance Fig. c : The voltage source,
combination of R1 and L and series R1 and series combination of R2 series combination of R1 and L
combination of R2 and C are in parallel. and C are in parallel. and resistance R2 are in parallel.
Fig. 1.9 : Simple circuits with parallel branches.
R6 G L
R2 R3 R3
B B B
A C C
R6 L +
G
R1
F R4 R5 R4 R5
V BD
+ VAC
E ~ + _
C A C C _
E
D A C D
E R2 B R3 E D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : The path AGC is parallel Fig. c : The path BCD is parallel
to the path ABC. to the path BED.
R2 R3
R2 A B B C
A B
A A C
+ _ B B _
+ VAB + VBC
R1 R1
F V AE R4 F R4 R4 R5
+ +
E ~ _ E
E E
~ C
E D
E E E
Fig. d : The path ABE is Fig. e : The path AFEB is parallel Fig. f : The path BEDC is parallel
parallel to the path AFE. to the resistance R2 . to the resistance R3 .
Fig. 1.10 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
R1 R3 R5 R5 D
A B C D CC
+
+
R4 VCE R6
E R2 R4 R6
E
_
E E E EE E
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : R4 in parallel with series

combination of R5 and R6.
B B R3 C R1
A B B
+ +
+
R2 VBE R4 VBE
E R2
E
_ _
E E E E E
Fig. c : The path BCE is in parallel Fig. d : The path EAB is in parallel
to resistance R2 . to resistance R2 .
Fig. 1.11 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
Star-Delta Connection 1
R1 R2
N
R1 1 2
If three elements are connected
N
to meet at a node then the three R3 R2
R3
elements are said to be in a star 2
connection. If three elements with 3

3 3
a node in between any two elements Fig. a : Star connection. Fig. b : T-connection.
are connected to form a closed path 1 1
then they are said to be in a delta 1 2
R1 R2 R2
connection. The star connection
R1 R3
is also called T-connection and 3 2
R3 2
delta connection is also called 3 3
3
P-connection.
Fig. c : Delta connection. Fig. d : -connection.
Fig. 1.12 : Basic star and delta connections.
R5 R5
R1 B R3 R1 B R3 B R3
A C A C A C
+
E R2 R4 R2 R4
E
D D D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : Star connections in circuit of Fig. a.

R5 R3
B
C
R1 B R3 R2 R4
A C
D
Fig. c : Delta connections in circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.13 : A typical circuit and its star and delta connections.
1.2.4 Open Circuit and Short Circuit

In a circuit if there is an open path or path of infinite resistance between two nodes then
that path is called an open circuit (OC). Since current can flow only in closed paths, the current
in the open circuit will be zero.
2 5
A A
A 1
Circuit OC 10 V +E 4 OC OC
N1
B 20 V +E
B B
1 3
Fig. 1.14 : Examples of open circuit (OC).

While applying KVL to closed paths the open circuit can be included as an element of
infinite resistance in the path because a voltage exists across the two open nodes of a circuit.
In a circuit if there is a closed path of zero resistance between two nodes then it is called
short circuit (SC). Since the resistance of the short circuit is zero, the voltage across the short
circuit is zero.
2 5 A A
A
1
Circuit I SC 10 V +E 4 SC SC
N1
+
20 V E
B
3 B B
1
Fig. 1.15 : Examples of short circuit (SC).

In a circuit if there are elements parallel to a short circuit then they will not carry any
current because the current will prefer the path of least resistance (or opposition) and so the entire
current will flow through the short circuit. Hence, the elements parallel to a short-circuit need not
be considered for analysis as shown in the example circuit of Fig. 1.16.
1W 2W A 4W 2W 1W 2W A
10 V +- 2W SC 1W 1W Þ +
10 V - 2W SC
B B
2W A 2W A
5 V +- 3W 4W SC 5 V +- SC
Þ
6W
B B
6W
Fig. 1.16 : Examples of short circuit.
1.2.5 Sign Conventions

Every element of a circuit will have two terminals. When a circuit is excited (i.e., power
supply is switched ON) a voltage is developed across the two terminals of the element such that
one end is positive and the other end is negative, and a current flows through the element. When
an element delivers energy, the current leaves the element from the positive terminal and when an
element absorbs energy, the current enters at the positive terminal.
In a circuit, normally the sources deliver energy and the passive elements−resistance,
inductance and capacitance absorb energy. Therefore, in a voltage/current source, when it delivers
energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal. In the parameters R, L and C, the current
enters at the positive terminal when they absorb energy.
I I I
+ + + +
+
E E I V R V L V C V
E E E E
Fig. a :Voltage Fig. b : Current Fig. c : Fig. d : Inductance Fig. e : Capacitance

source source Resistance absorbing absorbing energy.
delivering energy. delivering energy. absorbing energy. energy.
Fig. 1.17 : Sign conventions for sources when it delivers energy
and parameters when they absorb energy.
A chargeable battery is the best example I
for understanding the concept of energy delivery E +E

E
V
I
and absorption by sources. When the battery +
is connected to a load, it delivers energy. When

the battery is charged, it absorbs energy. When a Fig. a :Voltage source Fig. b : Current source
source absorbs energy, the current enters the source absorbing energy. absorbing energy.
at the positive terminal, as shown in Fig. 1.18. Fig. 1.18 : Sign conventions for sources when
they absorb energy.
The resistance always absorbs energy but
the inductance and capacitance can deliver the stored energy temporarily. The inductance and
capacitance store energy when the supply is switched ON and when the supply is switched OFF
the stored energy is discharged in the available paths or leakage paths. When the inductance and
capacitance discharge energy, the current leaves from the positive terminal as shown in Fig. 1.19.
I I
+ +
L V C V
E E
Fig. a : Inductance discharging energy. Fig. b : Capacitance discharging energy.

Fig. 1.19 : Sign conventions for inductance and capacitance parameters when they discharge energy.
1.2.6 Voltage and Current Sources

Voltage and current are two quantities that decide the energy supplied by the sources of
electrical energy. Usually, the sources are operated by maintaining one of the two quantities as
constant and by allowing the other quantity to vary depending on the load.
When voltage is maintained constant and current is allowed to vary then the source is called
a voltage source. When current is maintained constant and voltage is allowed to vary then the
source is called a current source.
1.2.7 Ideal and Practical Sources
In ideal conditions the voltage across an ideal voltage source should be constant for
whatever current is delivered by the source. Similarly, the ideal current source should deliver a
constant current for whatever voltage across its terminals.
Is
E
I
+
+ V
E E Is
E
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of an ideal voltage source. Fig. b : Characteristics of an ideal current source.
Fig. 1.20 : Characteristics of ideal sources.
In reality, ideal conditions never exist (but for analysis purpose, the sources can be considered
ideal). In practical voltage source, the voltage across the source decreases with increasing load
current and the reduction in voltage is due to its internal resistance. In a practical current source,
the current delivered by the source decreases with increasing load voltage and the reduction in
current is due to its internal resistance.
E Is
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of practical Fig. b : Characteristics of practical

voltage source. current source.
Fig. 1.21 : Characteristics of practical sources.
Let, Es = Voltage across ideal source (or internal voltage of the source)
Is = Current delivered by ideal source (or current generated by the source)
V = Voltage across the terminals of the source
I = Current delivered through the terminals of the source
Rs = Source resistance (or internal resistance).
A practical voltage source can be IRs I
V, E
+ E
considered as a series combination of an ideal +
Rs
voltage source and a source resistance, Rs. The E Vs I
E +E
}IRs
reduction in voltage across the terminals with V VV
sI
increasing load current is due to the voltage drop
E
in the source resistance. When the value of source I
resistance is zero the ideal condition is achieved in V = E E IRs

voltage sources. Hence, “the source resistance for Fig. 1.22 : A practical dc voltage source.
an ideal voltage source is zero”.
Is, I
I
A practical current source can be +
Ish
considered as a parallel combination of an ideal Is Vs V
current source and a source resistance, Rs. The Is Rs I Vs

}Ish
V V
reduction in current delivered by the source is
due to the current drawn by the parallel source E V
resistance. When the value of source resistance is I = Is E Ish
infinite the ideal condition is achieved in current Fig. 1.23 : A practical dc current source.
sources. Hence, “the source resistance for an ideal
current source is infinite”.
1.2.8 DC Source Transformation

A practical voltage source can be converted into an equivalent practical current source and
vice-versa, with the same terminal behaviour. In these conversions the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be the same as that of the original source, so that the power
delivered to a load connected at the terminals of original and equivalent source is the same.
Rs
A A
+ + +
IRs - I Ish I
E +- V RL Þ Is Rs V RL
- -
B Is = E/Rs B
Fig. a : Voltage source. Fig. b : Equivalent current source of the

voltage source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.24 : Conversion of voltage source to current source.
A voltage source with series resistance can be converted into an equivalent current source
with parallel resistance as shown in Fig. 1.24. Similarly, a current source with parallel resistance
can be converted into an equivalent voltage source with series resistance as shown in Fig. 1.25.
The proof for source conversions are presented in Chapter 2.
A Rs
A
+ + - +
V I IRs I
Rs
Is Rs V RL Þ E +- V RL
- -
B E = Is R s B
Fig. a : Current source. Fig. b : Equivalent voltage source of the

current source in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.25 : Conversion of current source to voltage source.
1.2.9 Power and Energy

Power is the rate at which work is done or it is the rate of energy transfer.
Let, w = Instantaneous value of energy
q = Instantaneous value of charge.
dq
Now, Instantaneous power, p = dw = dw #
dt dq dt Refer equations
dq (1.5) and (1.7).
We know that, dw = v and = i
dq dt
` p = vi
Therefore, power is the product of voltage and current. In circuits excited by dc sources,
the voltage and current are constant and so the power is constant. This constant power is called
average power or power and it is denoted by P.
\ In dc circuits,
Power, P = VI
Power is the rate of work done and Energy is the total work done. Hence, energy is given
by the product of power and time. When time is expressed in second, the unit of energy is watt-
second and when the time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
\ Energy, E = P t in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of electrical energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy
is called one unit.
` Energy, E = Pt in kWh
1000 # 3600
1.3 Network Terminology

Topology is a branch of science which deals with the study of geometrical properties and
special relations unaffected by continuous change of shape or size of figures. The concept of to-
pology was first applied to networks by Kirchoff to study the relationship between the nodes and
branches in a network.
A circuit or network can be drawn in different shapes and sizes by maintaining the
relationship between the nodes and branches as shown in Fig. 1.26.
Therefore, “the network topology is the study of the properties of the network which are
unaffected when we stretch, twist or distort the size and shape of the network”. A network consists
of interconnections of various elements. The physical arrangement of the elements and the length
of wires used for connecting the elements may give rise to different types of layout for the circuits.
As long as the relationship between the nodes and branches are maintained, the circuit response
will be the same.
R3 3
2
L R1
R3
L 2 C E
1 3 C R2
1 +E 0 C
1
+ R2 +
E E R1 E
R3 R2
L E
3
2 0
0 R1
Fig. 1.26 : Different shapes of a circuit.
1.3.1 Graph of a Network

The topological properties of networks are described by a graph. The graph of a network
consists of nodes and branches of the network. In a network the branches have elements but in
a graph the branches are drawn by lines. When arrows are placed on the branches of a graph it
is called an oriented graph. The arrow indicates the direction of branch current and polarity of
branch voltage.
Fig. a : Network. Fig. b : Graph of network Fig. c : Oriented graph of

in Fig. a. network in Fig. a.
Fig. 1.27 : A typical network and its graph and oriented graph.
A sequence of branches traversed while going from one node to another node is called a
path. A graph is said to be a connected graph if there exists at least one path from each node of
a graph to every other node of the graph.
To draw the graph of a circuit first redraw the circuit by replacing the sources by their
internal impedances. The ideal voltage sources are replaced by short circuits and ideal current
sources are replaced by open circuits. Now, the circuit becomes a network consisting of R, L
and C elements only. Then represent the nodes of the network as small circles and the elements
connected between the nodes as lines. The series connected elements are considered as a single
branch. While drawing the graph of a network, the number of nodes and branches and the
relationship between them has to be maintained. But the size and shape of graph and curvature of
lines in the graph are not important.
R6 R6
R3 R4 R3 R4
2 2
1 3 1 3
R1
R2 I R5 R1 R2 R5
+
E E
4 4
Fig. a : Typical circuit. Fig. b : The circuit of Fig. a after replacing
sources by their internal impedance.
a a a 1
1 3
b c
b a
b 2 c
1 3 2
b 2 c d 2 c 3
1 3
e f e f
d
d d e f e f
4 4
4 4
Fig. c : Various shapes of graphs for the circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 1.28 : A typical circuit and its different graphs.
A typical circuit and its different graphs are shown in Fig. 1.28. In the graph, the nodes are
represented by small circles and denoted by numerals 1, 2, 3 and 4. In the graph, the elements
connected between the nodes are represented by lines. These lines are called branches and denoted
by lower case letters a, b, c, d, e and f. This convention of denoting nodes by numerals and
branches by lower case letters has been followed in this book.
1.3.2 Trees, Link, Twig and Cotree
When some of the branches in an original graph are removed, the resultant graph is called
a subgraph. The tree is a subgraph which is obtained by removing some branches such that the
subgraph includes all the nodes of the original graph, but does not have any closed paths. For
a given graph, there may be more than one possible tree. Hence, a tree can be defined as any
connected open set of branches which includes all nodes of a given graph. A tree of a graph with
N nodes has the following properties:
l The tree contains all the nodes of the graph.
l The tree contains N − 1 branches.
l The tree does not have a closed path.
The branches removed to form a tree are called links or chords. By removing a link from
a graph, one closed path can be eliminated. Alternatively, on adding a link to a tree one closed
path is created. Hence, by adding the links one by one to a tree all closed paths can be created.
Therefore, the number of closed paths in a graph is equal to the number of links.
1
The cotree is the complement of a tree. Hence, every tree has a cotree.
The links connected to the nodes of a graph form a cotree. The branches of a a b c
tree are called twigs and the branches of a cotree are called links. A typical
d e
graph is shown in Fig. 1.29, and some possible trees of the graph and the cotree 2
3
4
of each tree are shown in Table 1.4. f
For most of the trees the cotree will also be in the form of a tree. But Fig. 1.29 : Graph.
for some possible tree, the cotree may have closed paths and cotree may not be
connected (i.e., all the nodes are not connected in a cotree).
A definite relationship exists between the number of nodes and branches in a tree. Any
tree of the graph with B branches and N nodes will consist of N − 1 branches and the remaining
branches are links.
Therefore, for a graph with B branches and N nodes, the number of links or chords is given by,
Link, L = B - (N - 1) = B - N + 1
Table 1.4 : The Trees and Cotrees of the Graph in Fig. 1.29
Tree Cotree Tree Cotree
1 1
1 1
c
b a
a c b
2 4 2
3 4
f 3
2 d 3 e 4 2 4 f
d 3 e
Twig: [a, d, e] Link: [b, c, f] Twig: [c, d, e] Link: [a, b, f]
1
1
1 1 a
a
c b c
b
2 4
2 4 3 e
3 2 4
2 4 f d 3 f
d 3 e
Twig: [b, c, d] Link: [a, e, f]
Twig: [c, d, e] Link: [a, b, f]
1
1 1
c 1
b b
a a c
2 4 2 4
3 2 4 d 3 4
d 3 e f 2 3 e
f
Twig: [b, c, f] Link: [a, d, e] Twig: [b, d, f] Link: [a, c, e]
1 1 1
1
a
b c b a
c
2 4 2 4
3 e 2 e 4 2
f d 3 3 4
d 3
f
Twig: [a, b, f] Link: [c, d, e] Twig: [b, e, f] Link: [a, c, d]
1.3.3 Network Variables

When a network is excited by connecting a source, every branch will have a current
flowing through it and so a voltage will exist across the terminals of the branch. Hence, a graph
(or network) with B branches will have B number of branch currents and B number of branch
voltages. These branch currents and voltages are called network variables. The branch currents
are called current variables and branch voltages are called voltage variables of the network.
An arrow is placed on the branch to indicate the direction of the branch current and polarity
of the branch voltage. The arrow placed on the branch is called reference or orientation. In a
branch, a single reference is used to represent both the directions of branch current and polarity
of branch voltage.
The current-voltage relation of a branch is obtained by Ohm’s law, by treating the branch
as load. Hence, the set of references for the branches of a graph are called load set reference.
+ Ibr -
Vbr Þ Vbr Þ
- + Ibr
Vbr = Branch voltage ; Ibr = Branch current
Fig. 1.30 : Orientation (or reference) of a branch.

The conventional direction of branch current and polarity of branch voltage are shown in
Fig. 1.30. In a network, branch current directions can be assumed arbitrarily and the polarity of
branch voltages can be fixed as per Ohm’s law, by treating the branches as loads. Alternatively,
the polarity of branch voltages can be assumed arbitrarily and the direction of branch current can
be fixed as per Ohm’s law, by treating the branch as load.
1.3.4 Solution of Network Variables
In a network or a circuit we may be interested in the voltage and current in the various
branches which is normally referred to as response. In a network if all the branch currents are
known then the voltages can be obtained by Ohm’s law. Alternatively, if the branch voltages are
known then the currents can be obtained by Ohm’s law.
Hence, in order to determine the response on current basis first we have to solve B number
of branch currents and to determine the response on voltage basis first we have to solve B number
of branch voltages.
For a unique solution of B number of variables, we have to form B number of equations
involving the B variables and solve them. But in practice it can be shown that all the branch
currents are not independent and so the independent current variables which are less than B, are
sufficient to solve the currents. Similarly, all the branch voltages are not independent and so the
independent voltage variables which are less than B, are sufficient to solve the voltages.
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Fearful lest their misery should soften popular hatred (and even
Bernaldez admits that none saw them leave their homes without
pity), Torquemada had forbidden the Christians to hold any
intercourse with Jews after August 1, 1492, or to allow them food or
shelter as they started on their exodus. He also took care that all the
old calumnies of devilish rites and of insults to Christian relics and
objects of veneration should be published abroad to impress the
credulous. The theft of the consecrated wafer for use in a sacrilegious
plot, the murder of a Christian child as a necessary portion of the
Jewish rites, the revival of these and many other such tales helped to
keep fanaticism at white heat.
In defiance of the law, many of the exiles hid money about their
clothes and persons; but those, who were not discovered and
despoiled before they left the country, spent most of it in attempts to
buy the food and protection they could not obtain from friendliness
and compassion. The rulers of the synagogues, who made
arrangements for the future of the community, were forced also to
accept asylums where they could at the owner’s price; and the weary
masses, who crossed the Portuguese border, paid to its king a
cruzado a head, for permission to spend six months within his
boundaries on their way to some permanent refuge. From there
many of them crossed to the north coast of Africa to join those of
their race, who had sailed direct from Spain to the kingdom of Fez;
but so frightful were the sufferings they endured that numbers in
despair returned home seeking baptism. Robbed and maltreated by
the native guards, whom they had paid to protect them, their wives
and daughters violated before their eyes, the unhappy exiles, in their
feebleness and poverty, found no favour in the sight of the Moorish
King and were driven from his capital.
A like inhumanity was shown to those who had made Navarre or
Italy their destination; and thus by the sword, pestilence, slavery, or
starvation, Christian vengeance on pride of race, wealth, and unbelief
was exacted to the uttermost farthing. Here is the witness of a son of
one of the exiles:
For some the Turks killed to take out the gold which they had swallowed to hide
it; some of them the hunger and plague consumed, and some of them were cast
naked by the captains on the isles of the sea; and some of them were sold for men-
servants and maid-servants in Genoa and its villages, and some of them were cast
into the sea.... For there were, among those who were cast into the isles of the sea
upon Provence, a Jew and his old father fainting from hunger, begging bread, for
there was no one to break unto him in a strange country. And the man went and
sold his son for bread to restore the soul of the old man. And it came to pass, when
he returned to his old father, that he found him fallen down dead, and he rent his
clothes. And he returned unto the baker to take his son, and the baker would not
give him back, and he cried out with a loud and bitter cry for his son, and there was
none to deliver.[5]
5. Lea, History of the Spanish Inquisition, i., Ch. III.
The statistics of the expulsion have been variously estimated; but
the latest and most trustworthy investigation reckons the number of
those baptized at 50,000, and of those who emigrated or died at
185,000, though this may err on the side of exaggeration.
“Do you call this king a statesman, who impoverishes his land and
enriches mine?” asked the Sultan of Turkey, who, alone of European
sovereigns, held out a welcoming hand to the refugees.
It is probable Ferdinand and Isabel realized their political folly in
driving from their shores that most valuable of all national wealth,
talent, and industry. Fanaticism not policy had dictated their edict;
and to their determination that one faith alone should be held within
their dominions they were prepared to sacrifice even the economic
welfare that they had next at heart.
It seemed at first as if the “Mudejares,” or subject Moors, would
escape the general persecution. They had neither the strong racial
characteristics of the Jew, nor, though industrious and able workers,
the same capacity for fleecing their Christian neighbours; and thus
their conquerors came to regard them with contemptuous toleration
rather than antipathy. For eight years after the fall of Granada peace
reigned in that city, in spite of the difficulties attending the terms of
capitulation, to which Ferdinand and Isabel had been forced to agree
in their eagerness for a speedy surrender.
Such a treaty [says Prescott] depending for its observance on the good faith and
forbearance of the stronger party would not hold together a year in any country of
Christendom even at the present day, before some flaw or pretext would be devised
to evade it.
That it had been possible so long was chiefly due to the
conciliatory policy adopted by the military governor, the Count of
Tendilla, and by the Archbishop, Fra Fernando de Talavera. The
latter had entered on his office in a spirit of humility that was to
serve him far better than any self-assurance. Convinced of the inborn
righteousness and appeal of the Christian Faith, he believed that it
had only to be understood to be accepted; and, in order to bring
himself mentally in touch with the “Alfaquis,” or Doctors of the
Mahometan law, he proceeded to learn Arabic himself and to exhort
his subordinate priests to do the same. By his orders an Arabic
vocabulary and grammar were written, while the catechism and
liturgy, with portions from the Gospels, were translated into the
same language.
The Moors of Granada had been subject to tyranny all their days,
whether under a Boabdil or an Abdallah “El Zagal,” and, though at
first suspicious of their conquerors, they soon began to respond to
the justice and sympathy that they encountered. Numbers, after
discussions and talks with “El Santo Alfaki,” “The Holy Priest” as
they called Fra Fernando, accepted baptism; while those who held to
their old religion learned to revere and trust him. Granada was in
fact adapting herself fast to the new conditions of life; and, when in
1499 Ferdinand and Isabel visited the city, they expressed their
appreciation of the peace and order that they found there. So little
wrath did they feel against the Mahometans that, when two years
before King Emmanuel of Portugal had offered to his Moorish
subjects a choice of baptism or expulsion, they had welcomed the
exiles as a valuable addition to their population, taking them under
their special protection.
Ximenes de Cisneros had accompanied the sovereigns to Granada;
and by misfortune when they left he remained to assist his fellow-
Archbishop in the task of conversion. Impatient of the slow process
of religious absorption that he found in progress, he mistook the
friendliness of the Mudejar for weakness and declared that only a
little firmness was now needed to induce the whole population to
accept Christianity. As a preliminary he summoned the leading
“Alfaquis” to various conferences in which he harangued them on the
truths of Catholicism, endeavouring to gain their agreement with his
views, not only by eloquence but by liberal gifts of rich stuffs and
clothing that he guessed would appeal to Oriental taste.
The result was so successful that Cisneros was confirmed in the
conviction that he was indeed on the right track, and the humble Fra
Fernando was deeply impressed. The majority of the “Alfaquis,”
whether intimidated by a consciousness of approaching storms, or
moved by the Primate’s arguments and gifts, accepted conversion,
bringing with them to the font those who looked to them for spiritual
guidance. On a single day three thousand candidates were said to
have presented themselves for baptism, a number so great that the
ordinary individual ablution proved impossible and the kneeling
crowd had to be sprinkled with holy water from a brush.
The stricter Mahometans protested angrily that the Archbishop’s
methods were a violation of the terms of surrender that had
guaranteed them the free exercise of their religion without any undue
influence; whereupon Cisneros, equally irritated at this opposition,
seized and imprisoned its ringleader, a certain Zegri Azaator. Strict
confinement in fetters, under the charge of a Castilian official called
Leon, soon led the prisoner to repent of his temerity and to express a
desire for baptism, with the rueful admission that if “this lion,” as he
referred to his gaoler, were let loose in Granada few would be able to
resist his arguments.
Such a remark could only add fuel to the Archbishop of Toledo’s
already ardent belief in the efficacy of strong measures; and from
this time the old toleration and confidence vanished for ever. The
new spirit may be seen in Cisneros’s scornful criticism of Fra
Fernando’s scheme for translating the scriptures completely into
Arabic, as he had done with the liturgy and catechism. “Will you,” he
asked, “cast pearls before swine? or can they in their ignorance fail to
interpret the Word of God to their own destruction?”
Determined that at any rate the Moors should not continue their
heretical studies, he began to make inquiries as to Arabic literature;
and, as a result of this inquisition, instituted autos-de-fé of
illuminated manuscripts, priceless because they were often unique.
Out of the many thousand treasures of eastern lore that perished in
the flames, a few hundred treatises on medicine were alone saved to
grace the shelves of the Toledan library at Alcalá de Henares.
It was a sight to make cultured Moors weep with rage, but Cisneros
was soon no less unpopular with the poorer and more ignorant
citizens. These numbered in their ranks a fair proportion of Christian
renegades, men who for various causes had passed into the service of
the Moors, and with their allegiance changed their faith. It had been
necessary to insert special clauses for their protection in the terms of
capitulation; for the Christians regarded them with special loathing,
as guilty of treachery in its vilest form; and Cisneros, quibbling
between the spirit and the letter of the law, now asserted that the
treaty did not hold good where their children were concerned. As
descendants of persons who had once been baptized, these should be
baptized also, and for the same reason come under the jurisdiction of
the Holy Office.
One day he sent two of his officials to arrest the daughter of a
renegade who lived in the Albaycin, a quarter of the city whose
turbulence we have already noticed. The girl, screaming as they
dragged her from the house, that she would be compelled to become
a Christian against her will, attracted a large crowd from the
surrounding streets; and in the scuffle that followed one of the
officials was killed by a heavy stone thrown from a window above,
while the other barely escaped with his life.
Having thus drawn blood, the mob, in a dangerous mood,
clamoured for the death of the unpopular Archbishop, and seizing
arms rushed to the fortress of the Alcazaba where he resided. The
Count of Tendilla, who was in the Alhambra, came to his assistance
and managed to disperse the rioters; but the disaffection increased,
and the situation grew every hour more strained.
At this crisis, Fra Fernando de Talavera, unarmed and
accompanied solely by a cross-bearer, made his way where the
throng of rioters was densest. The effect was magical; for, almost in a
moment, the prevailing anger and suspicion vanished, and many of
the ring-leaders crowding round the old Archbishop humbly knelt to
kiss his robe. The Count of Tendilla, seeing a hope of reconciliation,
came forward also with a few of his men-at-arms, and throwing his
scarlet cap upon the ground in sign of peace, induced them, by the
surrender of his wife and children as hostages for his good faith, to
lay down their arms and return to their homes.
Accounts of the riot and its causes were hastily dispatched to the
King and Queen at Seville; and, Cisneros’s particular messenger
being delayed, their anger was at first directed against him; and
Isabel wrote, demanding an explanation of his provocative action. In
response Cisneros himself soon appeared at Court, and, undaunted
by the failure of his last efforts or the coldness with which he was
received, justified his conduct with much the same reasoning that
Torquemada upheld the righteousness of the Inquisition. The people
of Granada, he declared in conclusion, had forfeited the terms of
capitulation by their outburst of rebellion; and he urged that the
sovereigns should not let them go unpunished, and that they should
push forward the Faith with unswerving devotion by every means in
their power.
His arguments, with their obvious flaw that he himself by an
evasion of the terms was mainly responsible for the rebellion in
question, yet carried conviction in an atmosphere, whose natural
intolerance of heretics and infidels had been considerably stimulated
by the persecution of the last twenty years—for it is a commonplace
that fanaticism breeds fanatics. The milder counsels of Fra Fernando
de Talavera and the Count of Tendilla were rejected; and a certain
patriotic sanction seemed given to the rigorous proceedings taken
against the rioters, when threatening letters were received from the
Sultan of Egypt, showing that the Mahometans of Granada had dared
to appeal to him for assistance.
Cisneros’s triumphant return to the southern capital was marked
by the baptism of from fifty to seventy thousand Moors within the
city and its environs. Outward peace reigned; but trouble was
brewing in the mountains of the Alpujarras to the south-east, where
many of those who were determined not to accept conversion had
taken refuge to plan and plot.
The sovereigns, alarmed at this news, dictated a letter of
conciliation to their secretary, and sent it to the disaffected area:
“Be it known unto you [they said] that, a report having reached our ears that
some declare it is our will that you should be compelled by force to embrace
Christianity, and, since it never was, nor is it our will that any Moor should turn
Christian under compulsion, we therefore assure and promise you, on our royal
word, that we have not consented nor allowed this; and that we wish that the
Moors, our vassals, should remain secure and meet with all justice as our vassals
and servants.
Given in the City of Seville, in the twenty and sixth day of the month of
January.... I the King. I the Queen.”
The matter of the writing was fair enough, but the Moors might be
forgiven if they considered the royal word a somewhat dubious
safeguard. Ferdinand, despite his pacific protestations, was
collecting an army; and the rebels hastened to seize the nearest
fortresses and to make raids in the Vega beyond.
The Count of Tendilla, and Gonsalvo de Cordova, who happened at
this time to be in Granada, marched against them; and, although the
enemy flooded the deep furrows of the ploughland across which the
troops must ride until they floundered up to their horses’ girths, yet
the Christians succeeded in storming the important stronghold of
Guejar. The arrival of Ferdinand and his army led to the reduction of
other fortresses, conquests stained by sanguinary deeds of
vengeance, as when the Count of Lerin blew up with gunpowder a
mosque, in which a number of Moors had taken refuge with their
wives and children.
The rebels, realizing at length the futility of resistance, sued for
peace; and by the mediation of Gonsalvo de Cordova conditions were
arranged, and Ferdinand departed to Seville. He and the Queen were
now convinced that Southern Spain would never be quiet or secure
so long as its inhabitants remained Mahometans, and were thus
more closely allied in sympathy with the tribes of Africa than with
Castilians or Aragonese. They therefore sent Franciscan missionaries
to Baeza, Guadix, Almeria, and the Alpujarras, arming them with the
alternative weapons of concessions or threats; a provision so
efficacious that by the close of the year the friars could boast of a
wholesale conversion of their flock.
In the meantime the disaffection that had died down or been
smothered in the south-east broke out with greater violence in
Western Granada, where the Berber race that inhabited Ronda and
its mountainous environs suddenly raised the standard of revolt.
Washington Irving, in his legend of The Death of Don Alonso de
Aguilar, has left a graphic account of the punitive expedition
commanded by that famous warrior. He took with him Don Pedro
his son; and, as they rode out of Cordova in March, 1504, the people,
punning on the family name so closely resembling the Spanish word
for eagle, cried aloud: “Behold the eagle teaching her young to fly!
Long live the valiant line of Aguilar!”
Many of the rebels, who knew his reputation, came and
surrendered at his approach; while the rest, under the leadership of a
certain El Feri Ben Estepar, retreated before him into the fastnesses
of the Sierra Vermeja. The Christians pursued hot after them, and
coming one evening upon a fortified camp, where the enemy had
placed their women and children and stored their possessions, the
vanguard recklessly rushed to the assault. The fierceness of their
attack, backed up by the speedy reinforcement of Don Alonso and
the rest of his army, carried the position in the teeth of far superior
numbers; whereupon the besiegers, thinking their victory assured,
began to plunder. They were soon punished for their lack of caution,
since, through a spark falling on a keg of gunpowder, the whole scene
was momentarily lit up, and showed the weakness of the scattered
troops to the Moors, still hovering on the mountainside above. With
a shout of triumph these returned to renew the combat, and
descending from peak and ridge, drove their foes before them in
hopeless confusion.
Don Alonso and some few hundred knights alone disdained to
escape. “Never,” cried the leader, “did the banner of the House of
Aguilar retreat one foot in the field of battle.” His young son was
seriously wounded, but would have struggled on still had not his
father ordered some of his men to carry him to a place of safety,
saying: “Let us not put everything to venture upon one hazard.... Live
to comfort and honour thy mother.” He himself remained fighting
valiantly till wounded and already exhausted, he met in personal
combat with El Feri Ben Estepar, and the latter’s dagger ended his
life.
Thus fell Alonso de Aguilar, the mirror of Andalusian chivalry; one of the most
powerful grandees of Spain, for person, blood, estate, and office. For forty years he
had waged successful war upon the Moors; in childhood, by his household and
retainers; in manhood, by the prowess of his arm and the wisdom and valour of his
spirit; he had been general of armies, viceroy of Andalusia, and the author of
glorious enterprises, in which kings were vanquished and mighty alcaydes and
warriors laid low.
TOMB OF FRANCISCO RAMIREZ (“EL ARTILLERO”)
FROM “HISTORIA DE LA VILLA Y CORTE DE MADRID” BY

AMADOR DE LOS RIOS
The anger and sorrow that swept through Spain at the news of this
disaster can be imagined, the more that Don Alonso had found a
fitting companion in death in Francisco Ramirez de Madrid, the
famous artillery-captain of the Moorish war. As they saw these
heroes, lying surrounded by the corpses of unknown Christian
knights and soldiers, the very Moors were appalled at the extent of
their own victory. What direful vengeance would be exacted for lives
so precious? they asked one another; and all felt that only instant
submission could save them from extermination.
Ferdinand was never the man to let passion obscure his ultimate
object; and, in response to the rebels’ petition for mercy, he agreed to
grant an amnesty; but he insisted that they and the rest of their race
must choose between baptism and expulsion. In the latter case, he
offered to provide ships to convey the exiles to the African coast, on
the payment of ten doblas of gold per head,—a sum that, according to
Bleda the chronicler, few of them could hope to raise. The majority
therefore accepted baptism; and, with the conversion of the
“Moriscos,” as these new Christians were called, the Mahometan
Faith vanished from the soil of Granada.
One last crowning work was needed to complete the edifice of
religious unity; and that was the conversion of the “Mudejares,”
descendants of the Moorish villagers and artisans left on Spanish
territory by the receding waves of Islam. In February, 1502, their
knell was also struck; and a royal proclamation determined the
baptism or exile of all males over fourteen years or of females over
twelve; so many restrictions as to the wealth and destination of the
exiles being imposed that the choice was virtually narrowed to
acceptance of the other alternative. Plainly, the sovereigns did not
intend to lose any more of their prosperous and hard-working
subjects.
The proclamation, evaded and even rescinded in Aragon, held
good in Castile; and Isabel, looking round on her dominions, could
pride herself on having attained her spiritual ideal. The Catholic
Faith, and that alone, was acknowledged in Castile.
CHAPTER X
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
The name of Christopher Columbus stands already on the roll of

“Heroes of the Nations.” “Hero of two nations” we should perhaps
call him,—by birth a son of Genoa, and by adoption of Castile to
whom, in his own words, “he gave a new world.”
Those who would read of his voyages should turn to the pages of
Washington Irving, of Thacher, and of Filson Young; for it is chiefly
in his immediate connection with Castile and her Queen and not for
his actual work as mariner and discoverer that his life falls within the
scope of this biography.
Here is the man who has made the name of Spain ring with glory
down the centuries. Here, in the background, somewhat dimmed in
the sight of posterity through the radiance of a greater genius, is
Isabel of Castile, she whose tireless patriotism made it possible for
Spain to enter on the newly discovered heritage of wealth and
empire. Between pioneer and Queen there is the link not only of
mere capacity but of that greatness of vision and unfaltering
determination to reach a desired goal, that finds in obstacles an
incentive to renewed efforts rather than a check. It is a fitting
harmony, not often granted in history, that two such spirits should
act in unison. Yet in truth the proposed harmony threatened more
than once to end if not in discord at least in silence; and the
discoverer was to gain the sanction of his patroness to his schemes
only after many vicissitudes and trials of his patience.
The son of a Genoese wool-carder, the history of his youth and
early manhood is obscured by numberless conflicting statements and
traditions, a confusion only increased by the information
volunteered by Columbus himself. From the suburb of a busy
commercial city, unknown and poor, he passed to the seats of the
mighty, and, in the light of his fame, recalled half-effaced memories
of the days he had put so far behind him, an autobiography
sometimes more in accordance with imagination than with truth.
Admirers added their embellishments, detractors their quota of
sneering comments, till the information so combined is almost more
baffling than complete silence.
IMAGINARY PORTRAIT
THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
Even as to the date of his birth there is a divergence of opinion

amongst historians varying as widely as some twenty-six years; while
tradition has connected him with noble families of Italy and France,
has sent him to the University of Pavia, has made him one of an
expedition to place the House of Anjou on the throne of Naples, and
has driven him on his journeyings as far north as Iceland. Here,
some say, he heard of the voyages to Greenland and the Canadian
coast of old Norse heroes of the tenth and eleventh centuries; and
that, when in the island of Porto Santo many years later, the
whispered tale of a shipwrecked mariner on his death-bed gave him
the data, on which he based his belief that land existed beyond the
Atlantic.
Of actual fact this much emerges, that, still a boy, probably about
the age of fourteen, he gave up his father’s trade to which he had
been apprenticed and turned to the sea for a livelihood. His voyages
were not confined to the Mediterranean but took him as far north as
England and to the south along the Guinea coast of Africa, till about
the year 1476 they landed him either by chance or mischance on the
shores of Portugal. In Lisbon he found a wife and home, living in the
house of his mother-in-law, and earning a small income, it is
supposed, by drawing the maps and charts demanded by the most
seafaring nation of the day. It was a task that with such a
temperament would be certain to draw dormant theories of nautical
enterprise from the realm of dreams to that of possibilities; and from
this time Columbus’s ambitions and hopes began to take definite
shape.
Amongst men of science, and indeed amongst the cultured people
of Europe generally, the idea that the earth was a sphere composed
of land and water had been long accepted; though theologians were
still found who declared that such a theory conflicted with the
Gospels and statements of the early Fathers of the Church and must
therefore be false. If an Antipodes existed, how could all the nations
of the world see Christ at His coming?
Another popular argument had been based on the assumption that
the ever-increasing warmth of the atmosphere, experienced by
travellers as they journeyed southwards, culminated in a zone of
unendurable heat. The ship that ventured too far in southern waters
might find itself driven forward by sudden winds or unknown
currents into a belt of perpetual flame and there perish miserably.
That fear at least had been dispelled by the enterprise of the very
nation with whom Columbus had cast in his fortunes.
Always, from the wide extent of their coast, interested in the sea
and its wonders, the Portuguese had received a special stimulus in
the field of discovery during the fifteenth century from the brother of
their King, the famous “Prince Henry the Navigator.” Under his
orders, as he sat in his castle at Sagres overlooking the great Atlantic,
studying charts and records of exploration by day, the course of the
stars by night, his captains had pursued their way, league by league,
along the West African coast. Ever as they went, new lands, rich in
possibilities of trade, were exposed, and old doubts and fears
receded. Madeira and the Canary Islands were added to the
dominions of Portugal; Cape Bojador, once believed the gateway to
unknown horrors, was doubled; the Cape Verde Islands and the
Guinea coast explored.
Prince Henry the Navigator died; and in time his great-nephew,
King John II., son of Alfonso V., “El Africano,” sat on the throne of
Portugal, but the tide of maritime energy never slackened, and the
west coast of Africa began to assume in maps something of its real
shape. Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher, was one of
those who served in the famous expedition of Bartholomew Diaz in
1487, which, tempest-tossed and wholly at the mercy of the elements,
unexpectedly doubled the “stormy cape,” later to be called with
symbolic appropriateness the “Cape of Good Hope.”
This, while Christopher drew maps and charts in Lisbon, was yet
of the future; nor had ever-widening views on African discovery cast
any light across the broad Atlantic, the “sea of darkness” as mariners
named it, when, hugging the Portuguese and French shores, they
journeyed northwards to England and the Baltic. According to a
certain Arabian writer of mediæval times
the ocean encircles the ultimate bounds of the inhabited earth, and all beyond it is
unknown. No one has been able to verify anything concerning it, on account of its
difficult and perilous navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth and
frequent tempests, through fear of its mighty fishes and its haughty winds.
Yet imagination did not fail to fill in the blank left by lack of
knowledge, and from the days of Plato, tradition had planted the
Western Ocean with mysterious lands. Here, some maintained, the
lost continent of Atlantis had sunk to rest, leaving on the surface of
the water a sluggish mire impassable for ships; here, beyond the
Pillars of Hercules, Ulysses had found his “Isles of the Blest,” the
Irish Saint Brandan discovered an earthly Paradise, and Gothic
bishops, flying before the Moors, built seven cities.
Such tales stood on the ground of conjecture alone; but, where the
mind is set on a project, conjecture will often assume a fictitious
value. Columbus had decided, with that finality of purpose that is the
hall-mark of genius, that he would sail to the west across the “sea of
darkness”; and he gravely accepted all that would make his schemes
less fearful in popular estimation. He himself had an underlying
conviction that, the earth being round, a passage across its surface
must be possible either from west to east or east to west. A study of
the voyages of Marco Polo, the great Venetian traveller of the
thirteenth century, had excited his fancy with its descriptions of the
territories of the Great Khan and the island of Cipango, where gold
and jewels, rich stuffs, spices, and perfumes, were the ordinary
possession and barter of its inhabitants. To open up those lands of
the Orient to easy commerce with Western Europe would be a task to
bring the man who accomplished it not only wealth but that still
more desirable reward, power.
Columbus’s idea of India, or “the Indies” as the territories of the
far East were called in Europe, was distinctly hazy; but his own
desires and his acceptance of the views of an eminent Arabian
cosmographer, whose calculations had greatly reduced the
circumference of the earth, inclined him to the belief that after a
short stretch of ocean he would almost certainly land amid the
wonders of Cathay and Cipango. Such a theory was not without
biblical confirmation; since the Prophet Esdras had plainly stated
that God commanded “that the waters should be gathered into the
seventh part of the earth,” thus limiting the sea within the bounds of
navigable channels.
To pure romance, scripture, and science, were added sailors’ tales
of strange debris cast by the sea on the Azores, the westernmost
point of African discovery: bits of wood carved but not with metal,
canoes made of hollowed barks of trees, corpses even, whose faces
bore no European nor negro semblance. All such evidence was
carefully collected and, we may be sure, lost none of its significance
in the telling, when Columbus rehearsed his project before King John
and his Court, begging that monarch to grant him the necessary
ships, and to promise him, in the event of success, the office of
Admiral over all the lands he might discover, with a viceroy’s share of
the spoils and power.
Perhaps King John considered this demand exorbitant, or else the
scheme too hare-brained; it is more likely that he believed he had
struck a mine of wealth in Western Africa and saw no reason, so long
as that source of profit remained unexhausted, to risk ships and lives
in a problematical voyage elsewhere. According to one tradition, he
and his councillors obtained Columbus’s plans under pledge of
secrecy, and then to test their worth hastily dispatched an
expedition, whose mariners, quailing before their task, soon returned
to pronounce the design impossible. Whether this be true or false, it
is certain that, after long delays, the committee especially appointed
by King John to inquire into the matter, unanimously decided
against Columbus’s schemes.
“I went to take refuge in Portugal,” wrote Christopher himself
some years later, relieving his bitterness by what was probably
exaggeration as to the length of his sojourn, “since the King of that
country was more versed in discovery than any other; but he put to
shame his sight, his hearing, and all his faculties, for in fourteen
years I could not make him understand what I said.”
From Portugal Columbus passed to Spain in 1485. His wife, it is
believed, had died some little time before; and it is likely he was
thankful to leave a country whose associations were by this time
mainly sad. He took with him his son Diego and settled in Seville,
where he succeeded in interesting in his project one of the great
territorial lords of the neighbourhood, the Duke of Medina-Celi.
At a first glance it is perhaps curious that Columbus did not find in
some rich Castilian noble the patron he required, without being
forced to sue the Crown in vain for so many years. It would have
been a small matter for the Cardinal of Spain, the Duke of Medina-
Sidonia, the Duke of Medina-Celi, or the Marquis of Cadiz to equip
him with a squadron twice the size of that with which he finally
achieved his purpose; but it is not too much to say that such an
arrangement would have entirely altered the character of the
expedition.
Columbus was a visionary in that he relied on the eye of faith
rather than of knowledge; but his visions did not put to sleep the
natural shrewdness of an Italian of his class, especially in a matter
where his personal interests were so deeply involved. It was not his
policy to sow a crop whose harvest he could not to some extent
control; and the clue to his object in seeking royal patronage is given
in a letter written in 1500, where he says,
Although I know but little, I do not think that anyone considers me so foolish as
not to realize that even if the Indies were mine, I would not be able to sustain them
without the aid of some Prince.
The discoverer might have succeeded in signing contracts

favourable to himself with cardinal, duke, or marquis; but he could
not guard against later royal encroachments turning his gains to so
much waste paper. It was not only greatness of conception but a
strong business instinct that made him a suppliant of the Castilian
Queen.
In response to the Duke of Medina-Celi’s letter, recommending
Columbus to her attention, Isabel commanded his appearance at the
Court at Cordova; and thither in 1486 came Christopher to lodge in
the house of the Castilian treasurer, Alonso de Quintanilla. We can
picture him at this time from the descriptions of contemporaries,—
an impressive figure, well above the middle height, with his long face
tanned and freckled by exposure to sun and storm, his eyes a vivid
blue, his hair ruddy that was soon to be bleached by cares.
The Queen, we are told, “did not consider the undertaking very
certain.” Here spoke her habitual caution, prompted by a life in
which the demands on her assistance perpetually outran not her
interest but her resources; yet it is evident from the first the project
caught her fancy, while in Ferdinand it merely aroused a cold
distrust. The country was scarcely pacified from the anarchy of civil
war and foreign invasion; national credit and patriotism were
strained to the uttermost in what, it had become evident, must be a
prolonged struggle against the Moors; the French were threatening
his own loved kingdom of Aragon, and he could spare neither time
nor money to regain command of the eastern Pyrenees; insidious
heresy was sapping the Catholic Faith, and wide care and
organization would be required for its suppression. Was this the
moment to take up chimerical schemes for reaching China or
discovering lands that every man of common-sense or culture had
long believed to be fabulous?
His arguments, somewhat to this effect, can be imagined, uttered
with a dry, logical force, not without its appeal to Isabel’s own logical
brain. She could see it all from his point of view, her reason accept
his conclusion; and yet deep in her nature was a power that
differentiated her statesmanship from his, and that in a crisis
prompted her, in the teeth of the logic that ordinarily governed her
actions, to run what has been happily called a “divine risk.”
If Ferdinand lacked the visionary instinct that made Isabel
recognize the Genoese sailor, not as adventurer or fool, but as a
possible genius, it must be confessed that in his case faith would
have made greater demands. Castile and Aragon were united into a
single Spain, but it is reading history from a modern outlook to
suppose the individual sympathies of King and Queen Spanish rather
than distinctively Aragonese and Castilian.
Throughout past centuries, as we have remarked before, the
magnet of Aragonese attraction had been the Mediterranean; and
Ferdinand was no less under its spell than his uncle, Alfonso V., the
conqueror of Naples. It required an effort to turn his mental gaze
westwards; whereas Isabel, heiress of Castilian hopes and ambitions,
was imbued with the spirit of rivalry with Portugal and looked on the
“sea of darkness” not with bored aloofness but with awed
speculation. It might well seem that its secrets held no immediate
prospects for Aragon; they were pregnant with possibilities of empire
and wealth for the sister kingdom with her Galician and Andalusian
seaboard. It is thus that both by character and race Isabel and not
her husband was destined to be Columbus’s true patron, and that
looking back over years of probation he could write later:
In all men there was disbelief; but to the Queen, my lady, God gave the spirit of
understanding and great courage, and made her heiress of all as a dear and much-
loved daughter.
Yet even Isabel did not understand at once; or, if she did, caution
and her intense preoccupation with the Moorish war delayed and
hindered the practical fulfilment of her sympathy. Juntas of learned
men met at her summons, and with academic coldness discussed and
condemned the discoverer’s project. Those who did not make a mock
of it declared that it savoured of heresy; while others, according to
Columbus, to hide their ignorance invented hindrances and
obstacles. A few courtiers, and notably the Marquis of Moya and his
wife Beatriz de Bobadilla, Isabel’s most trusted servants, remained
his staunch friends, but the real friend of Columbus in these years of
anxiety, when he vainly followed the Court from Cordova to the
frontier, and from siege to siege, was, in the words of Thacher,
“Columbus himself.”
This was the one man who insisted and persisted ... the man with a single
thought, a powerful soul committed to one supreme purpose.... Whether he was
inspired, elected, foreordained, it matters not. He thought he was all these things
and the result was due to his own conception of himself.
A CARAVEL UNDER SAIL
FROM COLUMBUS’S FIRST LETTER
In spite of his condemnation by learned men, Isabel had not

forgotten him, and a quarterly salary of 3000 maravedis, small
though it was, and messages, that she would herself examine his
claims when she had time, kept them in touch; but such things could
not satisfy an explorer, fretting to be once more on the broad seas. In
1491 he renewed his application for assistance.
The Court was then at Santa Fé, pressing Boabdil to his last
surrender, and before the conquest of Moslem Granada, the
attraction of unknown islands paled. For the second time a
committee of the learned declared the proposed journey
impracticable and contrary to the opinions of Saint Augustine and
the early Fathers; though Alessandro Geraldino, tutor of the royal
Infantas, ventured to urge in Cardinal Mendoza’s ear, that Saint
Augustine, no doubt a good theologian, might yet prove a bad
geographer.

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Copyright © 2018, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

ISBN (13): 978-93-87572-47-8

Vice President—Finance & Operations: Ashutosh Verma

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Wife, Mrs. C. Gnanaparanjothi (B.Sc, M.L.)

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS................................................. xix

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS.................................................. 1.1

1.1 Introduction to Circuits and Networks........................................................................ 1. 1

1.4 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws ........................................................................................ 1. 24

CHAPTER 2 - NETWORK REDUCTION AND THEOREMS FOR

CHAPTER 3 - TRANSIENT RESPONSE ANALYSIS...................................... 3.1

CHAPTER 4 - AC SINGLE AND THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS............................. 4.1

4.15 KVL, KCL and Ohm’s Law Applied to AC Circuits ...................................................... 4. 35

4.16 Current and Voltage Division Rules for Impedances .................................................. 4. 35

4.16.1 Current Division in Parallel Connected Impedances...................................... 4. 35

4.16.2 Voltage Division in Series Connected Impedances ........................................ 4. 35

4.17 Solved Problems in Single Phase Circuits................................................................... 4. 36

4.18 Three-Phase Circuits..................................................................................................... 4. 59

4.19 Three-Phase Sources..................................................................................................... 4. 60

4.20 Representation of Three-Phase EMFs ......................................................................... 4. 61

4.21 Analysis of Three-Phase Star and Delta-connected Source ....................................... 4. 63

4.21.1 Star-connected Source Three-Wire System..................................................... 4. 63

4.21.2 Star-connected Source Four-Wire System....................................................... 4. 66

4.21.3 Delta-connected Source ................................................................................... 4. 67

4.22 Three-Phase Loads........................................................................................................ 4. 72

4.22.1 Choice of Reference Phasor in Analysis of Three-Phase Circuits ................ 4. 73

4.23 Analysis of Balanced Loads ......................................................................................... 4. 74

4.23.1 Four-Wire Star-connected Balanced Load ...................................................... 4. 74

4.23.2 Three-Wire Star-connected Balanced Load .................................................... 4. 76

4.23.3 Delta-connected Balanced Load ...................................................................... 4. 76

4.23.4 Power Consumed by Three Equal Impedances in Star and Delta................. 4. 78

4.24 Analysis of Unbalanced Loads ..................................................................................... 4. 79

4.24.1 Four-Wire Star-connected Unbalanced Load .................................................. 4. 79

4.24.2 Three-Wire Star-connected Unbalanced Load ................................................ 4. 81

4.24.3 Neutral Shift in Star-connected Load .............................................................. 4. 83

4.24.4 Delta-connected Unbalanced Load ................................................................. 4. 83

4.25 Power Measurement in Three-Phase Circuits ............................................................. 4. 85

4.25.1 Power Measurement in Balanced Load .......................................................... 4. 86

4.25.2 Relation Between Power Factor and Wattmeter Readings ............................ 4. 88

4.26 Solved Problems in Three-Phase Circuits ................................................................... 4. 90

4.27 Summary of Important Concepts ................................................................................. 4. 133

4.28 Short-answer Questions ............................................................................................... 4. 139

CHAPTER 5 - RESONANCE AND COUPLED CIRCUITS................................. 5.1

5.9 Solved Problems in Coupled Circuits ......................................................................... 5. 72

Online Learning Center

List of Symbols and Abbreviations

vC - Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor

BASIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1.1.2 Ideal Elements

1.1.3 Electric Circuits

Energy Sources Parameters or Loads

Dependent DC Voltage Source

Dependent DC Current Source

AC (Alternating Current) Sources

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of electric circuits - Energy source.

Elements of Electric Circuits

Parameters or Loads Energy Sources

Fig. 1.2 : Elements of electric circuits - Parameters or loads.

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Equivalent Equivalent