Discrete Mathematics

MATH 290
22 / 02 / 2024

Moustapha Dieye •
Ecole Polytechnique de Thiès
mdieye@ept.sn

Discrete Mathematics 1
Four topics are covered:

1. Mathematical Logic
2. Set Theory
3. Graph Theory
4. Discrete Probability

Discrete Mathematics 2
 Mathematical Logic

Set Theory

Discrete Mathematics 3
What is a Proof ?

A proof in Philosophy1 involves careful delineation and persuasion

based on a series of small, plausible arguments. But Mathematics has
its own concept of proof.

Definition 1.
A proof in Mathematics is a series of logical deductions that lead to a
proposition from a set of axioms.

• A mathematical proof can be mechanically verified. It is,

however, very technical to create a new proof in general.

• Then, there are objects(concepts), operations, and rules that can

be used to establish or to find results.

1
;Philosophy is considered as the mother of all sciences
Discrete Mathematics 4
What is a Proof ?

Definition 2.
A proposition is a statement (communication, information) that is
either true or false.

As an example, both of the following statements are propositions.

Proposition 1. 2 + 3 = 5.

Proposition 2. 1 + 1 = 3.

Proposition 3. Senegal is a European country.

Proposition 4.
Under normal conditions, the boiling point of water is 100°C that is
equal to 212°F.

Discrete Mathematics 5
What is a Proof ?

Unfortunately it is not always easy to decide if a claimed proposition

is true or false:
Claim 1.
For every nonnegative integer n the value of n2 + n + 41 is prime.
We recall that a prime is an integer greater than 1 that is not divisible

by any other integer greater than 1. For example, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, are the
first five primes.
Let’s try some numerical experimentation to check this proposition.
Let
p(n) := n2 + n + 41
2

2
The symbol := means equal by definition. For simplicity write = instead of :=,
but reminding the reader that an equality holds by definition can be helpful.
Discrete Mathematics 6
What is a Proof ?

• We have that p(0) = 41 is prime; then

p(1) = 43, p(2) = 47, p(3) = 53, . . . p(20) = 461 are each
prime.
• It looks like a plausible claim. In fact we can keep checking
through n = 39 and confirm that p(39) = 1601 is prime.
• But p(40) = 402 + 40 + 41 = 40(40 + 1) + 41 = 41 × 41,
which is not prime.
• So Claim 1 is false since it’s not true that p(n) is prime for all
nonnegative integers n.

Discrete Mathematics 7
What is a Proof ?

• The above highlights the point that, in general, you can’t check a
claim about an infinite set by checking a finite sample of its
elements, no matter how large the sample.
• By the way, propositions like this about all numbers or all items
of some kind are so common that there is a special notation for
them. With this notation, Claim 1. would be

∀n ∈ N, p(n) is prime.

Here
- The symbol ∀ is read for all.
- The symbol N stands for the set of nonnegative integers:
0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
- The symbol ∈ is read as is a member of, or belongs to, or simply
as is in.

Discrete Mathematics 8
What is a Proof ?
Conjecture.[Euler]
The equation
a4 + b4 + c4 = d4
has no solution when a, b, c, d are positive integers.

It was conjectured by Euler in 1769. But Elkies proved the conjecture

false 218 years later. The solution he found was
a = 414560, b = 217519; c = 95800; d = 422481.
In logical notation, Euler’s Conjecture could be written,

∀a ∈ Z+ , ∀b ∈ Z+ , ∀c ∈ Z+ , ∀d ∈ Z+ , : a4 + b4 + c4 ̸= d4 .

Here, Z+ is a symbol for the positive integers. Strings of ∀’s like this
are usually abbreviated for easier reading:

∀a, b, c, d ∈ Z+ : a4 + b4 + c4 ̸= d4 .

Discrete Mathematics 9
What is a Proof ?

There are assertions (claims) that pose a significant challenge for

falsification through sampling: the minimum values for x, y, z that
fulfill the equality are all comprised of over 1000 digits each!

Claim 2.(false)
313 × (x3 + y 3 ) = z 3 has no solution when x, y, z ∈ Z+ .

The following propositions, whose proofs remained elusive for

centuries, deserve mention:
Proposition 2. (Fermat’s Last Theorem).
There are no positive integers x, y and z such that

xn + y n = z n

for some integer n > 2.

Discrete Mathematics 10
What is a Proof ?

Around 1630, Fermat asserted this proposition in a book he read. His

explanation was that there was not sufficient margin space to
transcribe the text. Despite the fact that the theorem has been proved
for all values of n up to 4,000,000 over the years, this does not
guarantee its validity for all n. There is a parallel between Fermat’s
Last Theorem and Euler’s error. Andrew Wiles, a British
mathematician who labored in secrecy and isolation for seven years in
his attic, provided a proof in 1994. Remarkably, his proof defied
margin constraints.

To conclude, let us discuss another simple proposition whose truth

remains unknown.
Conjecture 1. (Goldbach).
Every even integer greater than 2 is the sum of two primes.

Discrete Mathematics 11
Predicates
Definition 3. A predicate can be understood as a proposition whose
truth depends on the value of one or more variables.

So ”n is even” describes a predicate, since you can’t say if it’s true or

false until you know what the value of the variable n happens to be.
Once you know, for example, that n equals 4, the predicate becomes
the true proposition 4 is even. Remember, nothing says that the
proposition has to be true: if the value of n were 5, you would get the
false proposition 5 is even.
Like other propositions, predicates are often named with a letter.
Furthermore, a function-like notation is used to denote a predicate
supplied with specific variable values. For example, we might use the
name P for predicate above:

P (n) := n is a perfect square;

and repeat the remarks above by asserting that P (4) is true, and P (5)
is false.
Discrete Mathematics 12
Axioms
Euclid : There is a straight line segment between every pair of points.
Propositions like these that are simply accepted as true are called
axioms.
From these axioms, Euclid established the truth of many additional
propositions by providing proofs.
Definition 1.’ A proof is a sequence of logical deductions from
axioms and previously proved statements that concludes with the
proposition in question
Note that
• Important true propositions are called theorems.
• A lemma is a preliminary proposition useful for proving later
propositions.
• A corollary is a proposition that follows in just a few logical
steps from a theorem.
Discrete Mathematics 13
Logical Rules

Logical deductions, or inference rules, are used to prove new

propositions using previously proved ones.
• A fundamental inference rule is modus ponens. This rule says
that a proof of P together with a proof that P implies Q (noted
P =⇒ Q) is a proof of Q. Inference rules are sometimes written
in a funny notation. For example, modus ponens is written:

Rule. if P is true and P =⇒ Q then Q is true.

We said that P =⇒ Q is true if and only if not(P ) or Q is true

Discrete Mathematics 14
Logical Rules

• A key requirement of an inference rule is that it must be sound:

an assignment of truth values to the letters P, Q, . . . , that makes
all the antecedents true must also make the consequent true. So if
we start off with true axioms and apply sound inference rules,
everything we prove will also be true. There are many other
natural, sound inference rules, for example:

Rule. P =⇒ Q, and Q =⇒ R then P =⇒ R.

• Contra-positive rule

Rule. not(Q) =⇒ not(P ) then P =⇒ R.

Discrete Mathematics 15
Proving an Implication
• Method #1
In order to prove that P =⇒ Q:
1. Write,”Assume P .”
2. Show that Q logically follows.
Theorem : If 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 then −x3 + 4x + 1 > 0
• Method #2
Prove the Contrapositive
An implication (P =⇒ Q) is logically equivalent to its
contrapositive not(Q) =⇒ not(P ) :
Proving one is as good as proving the other, and proving the
contrapositive is sometimes easier than proving the original
statement. If so, then you can proceed as follows:
1. Write, We prove the contrapositive: and then state the
contrapositive.
2. Proceed as in Method #1.
√
Theorem. If r is irrational then r is irrational.

Discrete Mathematics 16
Proving an If and Only If
Many mathematical theorems assert that two statements are logically
equivalent; that is, one holds if and only if the other does. Here is an
example :
The standard deviation of a sequence of values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is
defined to be:
s
(x1 − µ)2 + (x2 − µ)2 + · · · + (xn − µ)2
µ

whereµ is the average or mean of the values:

x1 + x2 + · · · + xn
µ := .
n
Theorem: The standard deviation of a sequence of values x1 , . . . , xn
is zero iff all the values are equal to the mean.

Discrete Mathematics 17
Proof by Contradiction

• In a proof by contradiction, or indirect proof, you show that if a

proposition were false, then some false fact would be true. Since
a false fact by definition can’t be true, the proposition must be
true.
• Proof by contradiction is always a viable approach. However, as
the name suggests, indirect proofs can be a little convoluted, so
direct proofs are generally preferable when they are available.
• Method: In order to prove a proposition P by contradiction:
1. Write, We use proof by contradiction.
2. Write, Suppose P is false.
3. Deduce something known to be false (a logical contradiction).
4. Write, This is a contradiction. Therefore, P must be true.
√
Theorem: If p > 1 is prime then p is irrational.

Discrete Mathematics 18
Good Proofs in Practice

State your game plan. A good proof begins by explaining the

general line of reasoning, for example, We use case analysis or We
argue by contradiction.

Keep a linear flow. Sometimes proofs are written like mathematical

mosaics,with juicy tidbits of independent reasoning sprinkled
throughout. This is not good. The steps of an argument should follow
one another in an intelligible order.

A proof is an essay,not a calculation. Many students initially write

proofs the way they compute integrals. The result is a long sequence
of expressions without explanation, making it very hard to follow.
This is bad. A good proof usually looks like an essay with some
equations thrown in. Use complete sentences.

Discrete Mathematics 19
Good Proofs in Practice

Avoid excessive symbolism. Your reader is probably good at

understanding words, but much less skilled at reading arcane
mathematical symbols. Use words where you reasonably can.

Revise and simplify. Your readers will be grateful.

Introduce notation thoughtfully. Sometimes an argument can be

greatly simplified by introducing a variable, devising a special
notation, or defining a new term. But do this sparingly, since you’re
requiring the reader to remember all that new stuff. And remember to
actually define the meanings of new variables, terms, or notations;
don’t just start using them!

Discrete Mathematics 20
Good Proofs in Practice
Structure long proofs. Long programs are usually broken in to a
hierarchy of smaller procedures. Long proofs are much the same.
When your proof needed facts that are easily stated, but not readily
proved, those fact are best pulled out as preliminary lemmas. Also, if
you are repeating essentially the same argument over and over, try to
capture that argument in a general lemma, which you can cite
repeatedly instead.

Be wary of the obvious. When familiar or truly obvious facts are

needed in a proof, it’s OK to label them as such and to not prove
them.

Finish. At some point in a proof, you’ll have established all the

essential facts you need. Resist the temptation to quit and leave the
reader to draw the obvious conclusion. Instead, tie everything together
yourself and explain why the original claim follows.

Discrete Mathematics 21
 Mathematical Logic

Set Theory

Discrete Mathematics 22
Set
Informally, a set is a bunch of objects, which are called the elements
of the set. The elements of a set can be just about anything: numbers,
points in space, or even other sets. The conventional way to write
down a set is to list the elements inside curly-braces. For example,
here are some sets:

A = { Thies ; Saint-Louis ; Dakar}; 3 cities

B = {red; blue; yellow} primary colors
C = {{a; b}; {a; c}; {b; c}} a set of sets

This works fine for small finite sets. Other sets might be defined by
indicating how to generate a list of them:

D = {1; 2; 4; 8; 16; . . .}

the powers of 2

Discrete Mathematics 23
Defining a set
• The order of elements is not significant, so {x; y} and {y; x} are the
same set written two different ways.
• Also, any object is, or is not, an element of a given set–there is no
notion of an element appearing more than once in a set. So, writing
{x; x} is just indicating the same thing twice: that x is in the set. In
particular, {x; x} = {x}.
Mathematicians have devised special symbols to represent some common
sets (popular sets.).
symbol set elements
∅ the empty set none
N nonnegative integers {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z integers {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Q rational numbers { pq , p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0 . . .}
√
R real numbers e, π, 2, pq , etc.
C complex numbers {a + ib, a, b ∈ R} where i2 = −1

A superscript + restricts a set to its positive elements; for example, R+

denotes the set of positive real numbers. Similarly, Z − denotes the set of
negative integers.
Discrete Mathematics 24
Defining a set
• A set is typically expressed by curly braces, { } enclosing its elements. A
set that contains no element is called the empty set or the null set and is
denoted by {} or ∅. A set that has only one element is called a singleton set.

One has three main ways for specifying a set. They are:
1. Listing all its elements (list notation), e.g., X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Then
X is the set of even integers between 0 and 12.

2. Stating a property with notation (predicate notation), e.g.,

(a) X = {x : x is a prime number}. This is read as ¨X is the set of
all x such that x is a prime number”. Here, x is a variable and
stands for any object that meets the criteria after the colon.
(b) The set X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} in the predicate notation can be
written as
i. X = {x : 0 < x ≤ 10, x is an even integer},or
ii. X = {x : 1 < x < 11, x is an even integer},or
iii. X={x : 2 ≤ x ≤ 10, x is an even integer} etc.

Discrete Mathematics 25
Defining a set
• Note that the above expressions are certain rules that help in defining the
elements of the set X. In general, one writes X = {x : p(x)} or
X = {x|p(x)} to denote the set of all elements x (variable) such that
property p(x) holds. In the above, note that ¨colon” is sometimes replaced
by ¨|”.

3. Defining a set of rules which generate its members (recursive notation),

e.g., let X = {x : x is an even integer greater than3}. Then, X can also
be specified by
(a) 4 ∈ X,
(b) when ever x ∈ X, then x + 2 ∈ X,and
(c) every element of X satisfies the above two rules.
In the recursive definition of a set, the first rule is the basis of recursion, the
second rule gives a method to generate new element(s) from the elements
already determined and the third rule binds or restricts the defined set to the
elements generated by the first two rules. The third rule should always be
there. But, in practice it is left implicit. At this stage, one should make it
explicit.

Discrete Mathematics 26
Defining a set

Definition 4.
Let X and Y be two sets.
1. Suppose X is the set such that whenever x ∈ X, then x ∈ Y as well.
Here, X is said to be a subset of the set Y , and is denoted by X ⊂ Y .
When there exists x ∈ X such that x ̸∈ Y , then we say that X is not a
subset of Y ; and we write X ̸⊂ Y .
2. If X ⊂ Y and Y ⊂ X, then X and Y are said to be equal, and is
denoted by X = Y .
3. If X ⊂ Y and X = Y , then X is called a proper subset of Y . Thus, X
is a proper subset of Y if and only if X ⊂ Y and X ̸= Y .

Discrete Mathematics 27
Defining a set

Example 1.

1. For any set X, we see that X ⊂ X. Thus, ∅ ⊂ ∅. Also, ∅ ⊂ X.

Hence,the empty set is a subset of every set. It thus follows that there is
only one empty set.
2. We know that N ⊂ D ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
3. Note that ∅ ̸∈ ∅.
4. Let X = {a, b, c}. Then a ∈ X but {a} ⊂ X. Also, {{a}} ̸⊂ X.
5. Notice that {{a}} ̸⊂ {a} and {a} ̸⊂ {{a}}; though {a} ∈ {a, {a}}
and also {a} ⊂ {a, {a}}.

Discrete Mathematics 28
Operations on sets
Definition 5.
Let X and Y be two sets.
1. The union of X and Y , denoted by X ∪ Y , is the set that consists of all
elements of X and also all elements of Y . More specifically,
X ∪ Y = {x|x ∈ X or x ∈ Y }.
2. The intersection of X and Y , denoted by X ∩ Y , is the set of all
common elements of X and Y . More specifically,
X ∩ Y = {x|x ∈ X and x ∈ Y }.
3. The sets X and Y are said to be disjoint if X ∩ Y = ∅.
Example 2.

1. Let A = {1, 2, 4, 18} and B = {x : x is an integer, 0 < x ≤ 5}. Then,

A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 18} and A ∩ B = {1, 2, 4}.
2. Let S = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and T = {x ∈ R : .5 ≤ x < 7}. Then,
S ∪ T = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x < 7} and S ∩ T = {x ∈ R : .5 ≤ x ≤ 1}.
3. Let X = {{b, c}, {{b}, {c}}, b} and Y = {a, b, c}. Then X ∩ Y = {b}
and X ∪ Y = {a, b, c, {b, c}, {{b}, {c}}}.

Discrete Mathematics 29
Operations on sets
We now state a few properties related to the union and intersection of sets.
Lemma 1.
Let R, S and T be sets. Then,
1. (a) S ∪ T = T ∪ S and S ∩ T = T ∩ S (union and intersection are
commutative operations).
(b) R ∪ (S ∪ T ) = (R ∪ S) ∪ T and R ∩ (S ∩ T ) = (R ∩ S) ∩ T
(union and intersection are associative operations).
(c) S ⊆ S ∪ T, T ⊆ S ∪ T .
(d) S ∩ T ⊆ S, S ∩ T ⊆ T .
(e) S ∪ ∅ = S, S ∩ ∅ = ∅.
(f) S ∪ S = S ∩ S = S.
2. Distributive laws (combines union and intersection):
(a) R ∪ (S ∩ T ) = (R ∪ S) ∩ (R ∪ T ) (union distributes over
intersection).
(b) R ∩ (S ∪ T ) = (R ∩ S) ∪ (R ∪ T ) (intersection distributes over
union).

Discrete Mathematics 30
Operations on sets
Exercise 1.
Prove the following:
(a) S ∪ (S ∩ T ) = S ∩ (S ∪ T ) = S.
(b) S ⊆ T if and only if S ∪ T = T .
(c) If R ⊆ T and S ⊆ T then R ∪ S ⊆ T .
(d) If R ⊆ S and R ⊆ T then R ⊆ S ∩ T .
(e) If S ⊆ T then R ∪ S ⊆ R ∪ T and R ∩ S ⊆ R ∩ T .
(f) If S ∪ T ̸= ∅ then either S ̸= ∅ or T ̸= ∅.
(g) If S ∩ T ̸= ∅ then both S ̸= ∅ and T ̸= ∅.
(h) S = T if and only if S ∪ T = S ∩ T .
Definition 6.
Let X and Y be two sets.
1. The set difference of X and Y , denoted by X \ Y , is defined by
X \ Y = {x ∈ X : x ̸∈ Y }.
2. The set (X \ Y ) ∪ (Y \ X), denoted by X∆Y , is called the symmetric
difference of X and Y .

Discrete Mathematics 31
Operations on sets

Example 3.
1. Let A = {1, 2, 4, 18} and B = {x ∈ Z : 0 < x ≤ 5}. Then,
A \ B = {18}, B \ A = {3, 5} and A∆B = {3, 5, 18}.
2. Let S = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1} and T = {x ∈ R : 0.5 ≤ x < 7}. Then,
S \ T = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x < 0.5} and T \ S = {x ∈ R : 1 < x < 7}.
3. Let X = {{b, c}, {{b}, {c}}, b} and Y = {a, b, c}. Then
X \ Y = {{b, c}, {{b}, {c}}}, Y \ X = {a, c} and
X∆Y = {a, c, {b, c}, {{b}, {c}}}.

In naive set theory, all sets are essentially defined to be subsets of some
reference set, referred to as the universal set, and is denoted by U. We now
define the complement of a set.
Definition 7. Let U be the universal set and X ⊂ U . Then, the complement
of X, denoted by X c , is defined by X c = {x ∈ U : x ̸∈ X}.

Discrete Mathematics 32
Operations on sets
We state more properties of sets.
Lemma 2. Let U be the universal set and S, T ⊆ U . Then,
1. U c = ∅ and ∅c = U .
2. S ∪ S c = U and S ∩ S c = ∅.
3. S ∪ U = U and S ∩ U = S.
4. (S c )c = S.
5. S ⊆ S c if and only if S = ∅.
6. S ⊆ T if and only if T c ⊆ S c .
7. S = T c if and only if S ∩ T = ∅ and S ∪ T = U .
8. S \ T = S ∩ T c and T \ S = T ∩ S c .
9. S∆T = (S ∪ T ) \ (S ∩ T ).
10. De-Morgan’s Laws:
(a) (S ∪ T )c = S c ∩ T c .
(b) (S ∩ T )c = S c ∪ T c .
The De-Morgan’s laws help us to convert arbitrary set expressions into those that
involve only complements and unions or only complements and intersections.
Discrete Mathematics 33
Operations on sets
Exercise 2.
Let S and T be subsets of a universal set U .
1. Then prove Lemma 2.
2. Suppose that S∆T = T . Is S = ∅ ?
Definition 8.
Let X be a set. Then, the set that contains all subsets of X is called the power set of
X and is denoted by P(X) or 2X .

Example 4.
1. Let X = ∅. Then P(∅) = P(X) = {∅, X} = {∅}.
2. Let X = {∅}. Then P({∅}) = P(X) = {∅, X} = {∅, {∅}}.
3. Let X = {a, b, c}. Then
P(X) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
4. Let X = {{b, c}, {{b}, {c}}}. Then
P(X) = {∅, {{b, c}}, {{{b}, {c}}}, {{b, c}, {{b}, {c}}}}.

Discrete Mathematics 34
Relations
In this section, we introduce the set theoretic concepts of relations and functions. We
will use these concepts to relate different sets. This method also helps in constructing
new sets from existing ones.
Definition 9.
Let X and Y be two sets. Then their Cartesian product, denoted by X × Y , is
defined as X × Y = {(a, b) : a ∈ X, b ∈ Y }. The elements of X × Y are also
called ordered pairs with the elements of X as the first entry and elements of Y as the
second entry. Thus,

(a1 , b1 ) = (a2 , b2 ) if and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .

Example 4.
1. Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then
X × X = {(a, a), (a, b), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b), (b, c), (c, a), (c, b), (c, c)}.
X ×Y =
{(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (a, 4), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3), (b, 4), (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4)}.
2. The Euclidean plane, denoted by R2 = R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}.
3. By convention, ∅ × Y = X × ∅ = ∅. In fact,
X × Y = ∅ if and only if X = ∅ or Y = ∅.
Discrete Mathematics 35
Relations

Exercise 3.
Let X, Y, Z and W be nonempty sets. Then, prove the following statements:
1. The product construction can be used on sets several times, e.g., X × Y × Z =
{(x, y, z) : x ∈ X, y ∈ Y, z ∈ Z} = (X × Y ) × Z = X × (Y × Z).
2. X × (Y ∪ Z) = (X × Y ) ∪ (X × Z).
3. X × (Y ∩ Z) = (X × Y ) ∩ (X × Z).
4. (X × Y ) ∩ (Z × W ) = (X ∩ Z) × (Y ∩ W ).
5. (X × Y ) ∪ (Z × W ) ⊆ (X ∪ Z) × (Y ∪ W ). Give an example to show that
the converse need not be true.
6. Is it possible to write the set T = {(x, x, y) : x, y ∈ N} as Cartesian product
of 3 sets? What about the the set T = {(x, x2 , y) : x, y ∈ N}?

Discrete Mathematics 36
Relations

A relation can be informally thought of as a property which either holds or does not
hold between two objects. For example, x is taller than y can be a relation. However,
if x is taller than y, then y cannot be taller than x. Definition 10.
Let X and Y be two nonempty sets. A relation R from X to Y is a subset of X × Y ,
i.e., it is a collection of certain ordered pairs. We write xRy to mean
(x, y) ∈ R ⊆ X × Y . Thus, for any two sets X and Y , the sets ∅ and X × Y are
always relations from X to Y . A relation from X to X is called a relation on X.
Example 5.
1. Let X be any nonempty set and consider the set P(X). Define a relation R on
P(X) by R = {(S, T ) ∈ P(X) × P(X) : S ⊆ T }.

Discrete Mathematics 37
Relations

2. Let A = {a, b, c, d}. Some relations R on A are:

(a) R = A × A.
(b) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (a, c), (b, c)}.
(c) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}.
(d) R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b), (c, d)}.
(e) R = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (a, c), (c, a), (c, c), (b, b)}.
(f) R = {(a, b), (b, c), (a, c), (d, d)}.
(g) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (b, c)}.
(h) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (a, b), (b, a), (b, c), (c, b)}.
(i) R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (a, b), (b, c)}.

Discrete Mathematics 38
 Thank you for your attention.
Discrete Mathematics 39