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U n d e r s ta n d a b l e s tat i s t i c s
co n c e p t s a n d br ase
methods br ase
12E
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
TWELFTH EDITION
Understandable
Statistics
CONCEPTS AND METHODS
Charles Henry Brase

REGIS UNIVERSITY
Corrinne Pellillo Brase

ARAPAHOE COMMUNITY COLLEGE
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This book is dedicated to the memory of
a great teacher, mathematician, and friend
Burton W. Jones
Professor Emeritus, University of Colorado
Understandable Statistics: Concepts and © 2018, 2015, 2012 Cengage Learning

Methods, Twelfth Edition
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
Contents
Preface xv
Table of Prerequisite Material 1
1 Getting Started 2
FOCUS PROBLEM: Where Have All the Fireflies Gone? 3
1.1 What Is Statistics? 4
1.2 Random Samples 13
1.3 Introduction to Experimental Design 22
Summary 32
Important Words & Symbols 32
Chapter Review Problems 33
Data Highlights: Group Projects 35
Linking Concepts: Writing Projects 36
USING TECHNOLOGY 37
2 Organizing Data 40
FOCUS PROBLEM: Say It with Pictures 41
2.1 Frequency Distributions, Histograms, and Related Topics 42
2.2 Bar Graphs, Circle Graphs, and Time-Series Graphs 59
2.3 Stem-and-Leaf Displays 69
Summary 78
USING TECHNOLOGY 85
3 Averages and Variation 88

FOCUS PROBLEM: Water: Yellowstone River 89
3.1 Measures of Central Tendency: Mode, Median, and Mean 90
3.2 Measures of Variation 102
3.3 Percentiles and Box-and-Whisker Plots 121
Summary 132
USING TECHNOLOGY 138
Cumulative Review Problems: Chapters 1-3 139
iii
iv CONTENTS
4 Elementary Probability Theory 142

FOCUS PROBLEM: How Often Do Lie Detectors Lie? 143
4.1 What Is Probability? 144
4.2 Some Probability Rules—Compound Events 155
4.3 Trees and Counting Techniques 177
Summary 188
5 The Binomial Probability

Distribution and Related Topics 196
FOCUS PROBLEM: Personality Preference Types: Introvert or Extrovert? 197
5.1 Introduction to Random Variables and Probability Distributions 198
5.2 Binomial Probabilities 212
5.3 Additional Properties of the Binomial Distribution 229
5.4 The Geometric and Poisson Probability Distributions 242
Summary 260
6 Normal Curves and Sampling Distributions 270

FOCUS PROBLEM: Impulse Buying 271
PART I: Normal Distributions 272
6.1 Graphs of Normal Probability Distributions 272
6.2 Standard Units and Areas Under the Standard Normal Distribution 288
6.3 Areas Under Any Normal Curve 299
PART II: Sampling Distributions and the Normal Approximation to Binomial
Distribution 314
6.4 Sampling Distributions 314
6.5 The Central Limit Theorem 320
6.6 Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution and to p̂ Distribution 332
Summary 343
7 Estimation 358
FOCUS PROBLEM: The Trouble with Wood Ducks 359
PART I: Estimating a Single Mean or Single Proportion 360
7.1 Estimating m When s Is Known 360
CONTENTS v
7.2 Estimating m When s Is Unknown 374

7.3 Estimating p in the Binomial Distribution 387
PART II: Estimating the Difference Between Two Means or Two Proportions 400
7.4 Estimating m1 m2 and p1 p2 401
Summary 423
8 Hypothesis Testing 436

FOCUS PROBLEM: Benford’s Law: The Importance of Being Number 1 437
PART I: Testing a Single Mean or Single Proportion 438
8.1 Introduction to Statistical Tests 438
8.2 Testing the Mean m 454
8.3 Testing a Proportion p 470
PART II: Testing a Difference Between Two Means or Two Proportions 481
8.4 Tests Involving Paired Differences (Dependent Samples) 481
8.5 Testing m1 m2 and p1 p2 (Independent Samples) 496
Summary 522
Finding the P-Value Corresponding to a Sample Test Statistic 522
9 Correlation and Regression 532

FOCUS PROBLEM: Changing Populations and Crime Rate 533
PART I: Simple Linear Regression 534
9.1 Scatter Diagrams and Linear Correlation 534
9.2 Linear Regression and the Coefficient of Determination 552
9.3 Inferences for Correlation and Regression 573
PART II: Multiple Regression 593
9.4 Multiple Regression 594
Summary 610

10 Chi-Square and F Distributions 622

FOCUS PROBLEM: Archaeology in Bandelier National Monument 623
PART I: Inferences Using the Chi-Square Distribution 624
Overview of the Chi-Square Distribution 624
10.1 Chi-Square: Tests of Independence and of Homogeneity 625
vi CONTENTS
10.2 Chi-Square: Goodness of Fit 640

10.3 Testing and Estimating a Single Variance or Standard Deviation 650
PART II: Inferences Using the F Distribution 663
Overview of the F Distribution 663
10.4 Testing Two Variances 664
10.5 One-Way ANOVA: Comparing Several Sample Means 673
10.6 Introduction to Two-Way ANOVA 689
Summary 701
11 Nonparametric Statistics 710

FOCUS PROBLEM: How Cold? Compared to What? 711
11.1 The Sign Test for Matched Pairs 712
11.2 The Rank-Sum Test 720
11.3 Spearman Rank Correlation 728
11.4 Runs Test for Randomness 739
Summary 748
Appendix I: Additional Topics A1

Part I: Bayes’s Theorem A1
Part II: The Hypergeometric Probability Distribution A5
Appendix II: Tables A9

Table 1: Random Numbers A9
Table 2: Binomial Coefficients Cn,r A10
Table 3: Binomial Probability Distribution Cn,r prqnr A11
Table 4: Poisson Probability Distribution A16
Table 5: Areas of a Standard Normal Distribution A22
Table 6: Critical Values for Student’s t Distribution A24
Table 7: The x2 Distribution A25
Table 8: Critical Values for F Distribution A26
Table 9: Critical Values for Spearman Rank Correlation, rs A36
Table 10: Critical Values for Number of Runs R
(Level of Significance a 0.05) A37
Answers and Key Steps to Odd-Numbered Problems A39

Answers to Selected Even-Numbered Problems A73
Index I1
Critical Thinking
Students need to develop critical thinking skills in order to understand and evaluate the limitations of
statistical methods. Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods makes students aware of method
appropriateness, assumptions, biases, and justifiable conclusions.
CRITICAL
Critical Thinking
THINKING Unusual Values
Critical thinking is an important
Chebyshev’s theorem tells us that no matter what the data distribution looks like, skill for students to develop in
at least 75% of the data will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean. As order to avoid reaching misleading
we will see in Chapter 6, when the distribution is mound-shaped and symmetric,
conclusions. The Critical Thinking
about 95% of the data are within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Data values
beyond 2 standard deviations from the mean are less common than those closer
feature provides additional clari-
to the mean. fication on specific concepts as a
In fact, one indicator that a data value might be an outlier is that it is more safeguard against incorrect evalua-
than 2.5 standard deviations from the mean (Source: Statistics, by G. Upton and tion of information.
I. Cook, Oxford University Press).
UNUSUAL VALUES
For a binomial distribution, it is unusual for the number of successes r to be
higher than m 1 2.5s or lower than m 2.5s.
We can use this indicator to determine whether a specified number of successes

out of n trials in a binomial experiment are unusual.
For instance, consider a binomial experiment with 20 trials for which probability
of success on a single trial is p 5 0.70. The expected number of successes is m 5 14,
with a standard deviation of s < 2. A number of successes above 19 or below 9
would be considered unusual. However, such numbers of successes are possible.
Interpretation SOLUTION: Since we want to know the number of standard deviations from the mean,
we want to convert 6.9 to standard z units.
Increasingly, calculators and computers are used
to generate the numeric results of a statistical pro- x m 6.9 8
cess. However, the student still needs to correctly z5 5 5 2.20
s 0.5
interpret those results in the context of a particu-
lar application. The Interpretation feature calls Interpretation The amount of cheese on the selected pizza is only 2.20 standard
attention to this important step. Interpretation is deviations below the mean. The fact that z is negative indicates that the amount of
stressed in examples, in guided exercises, and in cheese is 2.20 standard deviations below the mean. The parlor will not lose its fran-
the problem sets. chise based on this sample.
6. Interpretation A campus performance series features plays, music groups, Critical Thinking and Interpretation
dance troops, and stand-up comedy. The committee responsible for selecting
the performance groups include three students chosen at random from a pool
Exercises
of volunteers. This year the 30 volunteers came from a variety of majors. In every section and chapter problem set, Critical Thinking
However, the three students for the committee were all music majors. Does
this fact indicate there was bias in the selection process and that the selection problems provide students with the opportunity to test their
process was not random? Explain. understanding of the application of statistical methods and
7. Critical Thinking Greg took a random sample of size 100 from the popula- their interpretation of their results. Interpretation problems
tion of current season ticket holders to State College men’s basketball games. ask students to apply statistical results to the particular
Then he took a random sample of size 100 from the population of current application.
season ticket holders to State College women’s basketball games.
(a)
venience, random) did Greg use to sample from the population of current
season ticket holders to all State College basketball games played by
either men or women?
(b) Is it appropriate to pool the samples and claim to have a random sample of
size 200 from the population of current season ticket holders to all State
College home basketball games played by either men or women? Explain. vii
viii Chapter 1 GETTING STARTED
Statistical Literacy
No language, including statistics, can be spoken without learning the vocabulary. Understandable
Statistics: Concepts and Methods introduces statistical terms with deliberate care.
What Does (concept, method,

What Does the Level of Measurement Tell Us? statistical result) Tell Us?
The level of measurement tells us which arithmetic processes are appropriate for the This feature gives a brief summary of the informa-
data. This is important because different statistical processes require various kinds of tion we obtain from the named concept, method, or
arithmetic. In some instances all we need to do is count the number of data that meet statistical result.
specified criteria. In such cases nominal (and higher) data levels are all appropriate. In
other cases we need to order the data, so nominal data would not be suitable. Many
other statistical processes require division, so data need to be at the ratio level. Just
keep the nature of the data in mind before beginning statistical computations.
Important Features of a
(concept, method, or result) Important Features of a Simple Random Sample
For a simple random sample
In statistics we use many different types of graphs,
n from the population has an equal chance
samples, data, and analytical methods. The features
of being selected.
of each such tool help us select the most appropriate
No researcher bias occurs in the items selected for the sample.
ones to use and help us interpret the information we

receive from applications of the tools.
For instance, from a population of 10 cats and 10 dogs, a random sample
of size 6 could consist of all cats.
Statistical Literacy Problems

SECTION 6.1 PROBLEMS 1. Statistical Literacy Which, if any, of the curves in Figure 6-10 look(s) like a
normal curve? If a curve is not a normal curve, tell why.
In every section and chapter problem set,
2. Statistical Literacy m,
m 1 s, and s. Statistical Literacy problems test student under-
FIGURE 6-10 standing of terminology, statistical methods, and
the appropriate conditions for use of the differ-
ent processes.
FIGURE 6-11
Definition Boxes
Box-and-Whisker Plots
Whenever important terms are introduced in
The quartiles together with the low and high data values give us a very useful
text, blue definition boxes appear within the
number summary of the data and their spread.
discussions. These boxes make it easy to reference
or review terms as they are used further.
FIVE-NUMBER SUMMARY
Lowest value, Q1, median, Q3, highest value
box-and-whisker plot. Box-and-whisker plots provide another useful technique

viii from exploratory data analysis (EDA) for describing data.
IMPORTANT WORDS & SYMBOLS Important Words & Symbols
SECTION 4.1 Multiplication rules of probability (for The Important Words & Symbols within the
Probability of an event A, P(A) 144 independent and dependent events) 156
Intuition 144 More than two independent events 161 Chapter Review feature at the end of each
Relative frequency 144 Probability of A or B 161 chapter summarizes the terms introduced in the
Equally likely outcomes 144 Event A and B 161
Law of large numbers 146 Event A or B 161 Definition Boxes for student review at a glance.
Mutually exclusive events 163
Statistical experiment 146
Addition rules (for mutually exclusive and general
Page numbers for first occurrence of term are
Event 146
Simple event 146 events) 163 given for easy reference.
Sample space 146 More than two mutually exclusive events 165
Complement of event Ac 148 Basic probability rules 168
SECTION 4.2 SECTION 4.3

Independent events 156 Multiplication rule of counting 177
Dependent events 156 Tree diagram 178
Probability of A and B 156 Factorial notation 181
Event A | B 156 Permutations rule 181
Conditional probability 156 Combinations rule 183
P1A | B2 156
Linking Concepts:
Writing Projects LINKING CONCEPTS: Discuss each of the following topics in class or review the topics on your own. Then
WRITING PROJECTS write a brief but complete essay in which you summarize the main points. Please
Much of statistical literacy is the ability include formulas and graphs as appropriate.
1. What does it mean to say that we are going to use a sample to draw an inference
to communicate concepts effectively. The about a population? Why is a random sample so important for this process? If
Linking Concepts: Writing Projects feature we wanted a random sample of students in the cafeteria, why couldn’t we just
at the end of each chapter tests both choose the students who order Diet Pepsi with their lunch? Comment on the
statement, “A random sample is like a miniature population, whereas samples
statistical literacy and critical thinking by that are not random are likely to be biased.” Why would the students who order
asking the student to express their under- Diet Pepsi with lunch not be a random sample of students in the cafeteria?
standing in words. 2. In your own words, explain the differences among the following sampling
-
ter sample, multistage sample, and convenience sample. Describe situations in
which each type might be useful.
5. Basic Computation: Central Limit Theorem Suppose x has a distribution Basic Computation
with a mean of 8 and a standard deviation of 16. Random samples of size Problems
n 5 64 are drawn. These problems focus student
(a) Describe the x distribution and compute the mean and standard deviation attention on relevant formulas,
of the distribution. requirements, and computational pro-
(b) Find the z value corresponding to x 5 9. cedures. After practicing these skills,
(c) Find P1x 7 92. students are more confident as they
(d) Interpretation Would it be unusual for a random sample of size 64 from approach real-world applications.
the x distribution to have a sample mean greater than 9? Explain.
30. Expand Your Knowledge: Geometric Mean When data consist of percent-
ages, ratios, compounded growth rates, or other rates of change, the geomet-
ric mean is a useful measure of central tendency. For n data values,
Expand Your Knowledge Problems n
Geometric mean 5 1product of the n data values, assuming all data
values are positive
Expand Your Knowledge problems present
optional enrichment topics that go beyond the average growth factor over 5 years of an investment in a mutual
material introduced in a section. Vocabulary -
and concepts needed to solve the problems are metric mean of 1.10, 1.12, 1.148, 1.038, and 1.16. Find the average growth
included at point-of-use, expanding students’ factor of this investment.
statistical literacy.
ix
Direction and Purpose
Real knowledge is delivered through direction, not just facts. Understandable Statistics: Concepts and
Methods ensures the student knows what is being covered and why at every step along the way to statis-
tical literacy.
Chapter Preview
Questions Normal Curves and Sampling
Preview Questions at the beginning of
each chapter give the student a taste Distributions
of what types of questions can be
answered with an understanding of the
knowledge to come.
PREVIEW QUESTIONS
PART I
What are some characteristics of a normal distribution? What does
the empirical rule tell you about data spread around the mean?
How can this information be used in quality control? (SECTION 6.1)
Pressmaster/Shutterstock.com
Can you compare apples and oranges, or maybe elephants and butter-
flies? In most cases, the answer is no—unless you first standardize
your measurements. What are a standard normal distribution and
a standard z score? (SECTION 6.2)
How do you convert any normal distribution to a standard normal
distribution? How do you find probabilities of “standardized
events”? (SECTION 6.3)
PART II
FOCUS PROBLEM As humans, our experiences are finite and limited. Consequently, most of the important
decisions in our lives are based on sample (incomplete) information. What is a prob-
ability sampling distribution? How will sampling distributions help us make good
Benford’s Law: The Importance decisions based on incomplete information? (SECTION 6.4)
There is an old saying: All roads lead to Rome. In statistics, we could recast this saying: All
of Being Number 1 probability distributions average out to be normal distributions (as the sample size
increases). How can we take advantage of this in our study of sampling
distributions? (SECTION 6.5)
Benford’s Law states that in a wide variety of circum-
The binomial and normal distributions are two of the most important probability
distributions in statistics. Under certain limiting condi-
disproportionately often. Benford’s Law applies to such
diverse topics as the drainage areas of rivers; properties of
BRENDAN SMIALOWSKI/AFP/Getty Images
magazines, and government reports; and the half-lives of

radioactive atoms!
“1” about 30% of the time, with “2” about 18% of time,
and with “3” about 12.5% of the time. Larger digits occur
less often. For example, less than 5% of the numbers in
circumstances such as these begin with the digit 9. This
is in dramatic contrast to a random sampling situation, in
which each of the digits 1 through 9 has an equal chance 8. Focus Problem: For online student
Benford’s Law resources, visit theyou
Again, suppose Brase/Brase,
are the auditor for a very
Understandable Statistics, 12th edition web site
of appearing. at http://www.cengage.com/statistics/brase
-
puter data bank (see Problem 7). You draw a random sample of n 5 228 numbers
r 5 92 p represent the popu-
i. Test the claim that p is more than 0.301. Use a 5 0.01.

▲ Chapter Focus Problems ii. If p is in fact larger than 0.301, it would seem there are too many num-
The Preview Questions in each chapter are followed by a

Focus Problem, which serves as a more specific example of from the point of view of the Internal Revenue Service. Comment from
what questions the student will soon be able to answer. The the perspective of the Federal Bureau of Investigation as it looks for
Focus Problems are set within appropriate applications and
iii. Comment on the following statement: “If we reject the null hypothesis at
are incorporated into the end-of-section exercises, giving a, we have not proved H0 to be false. We can say that
students the opportunity to test their understanding. the probability is a that we made a mistake in rejecting H0.” Based on the
outcome of the test, would you recommend further investigation before
accusing the company of fraud?
x
Focus Points
SECTION 3.1 Measures of Central Tendency: Mode,
Each section opens with bul- Median, and Mean
leted Focus Points describing FOCUS POINTS
the primary learning objectives t Compute mean, median, and mode from raw data.
t Interpret what mean, median, and mode tell you.
of the section. t Explain how mean, median, and mode can be affected by extreme data values.
t What is a trimmed mean? How do you compute it?
t Compute a weighted average.
The average price of an ounce of gold is $1350. The Zippy car averages 39 miles
This section can be covered quickly. Good per gallon on the highway. A survey showed the average shoe size for women is
discussion topics include The Story of Old size 9.
Faithful in Data Highlights, Problem 1; Linking In each of the preceding statements, one number is used to describe the entire
Concepts, Problem 1; and the trade winds of
sample or population. Such a number is called an average. There are many ways to
Hawaii (Using Technology).
compute averages, but we will study only three of the major ones.
Average The easiest average to compute is the mode.
Mode The mode of a data set is the value that occurs most frequently. Note: If a data set
has no single value that occurs more frequently than any other, then that data set
has no mode.
EXAMPLE 1 Mode
Count the letters in each word of this sentence and give the mode. The numbers of
letters in the words of the sentence are
5 3 7 2 4 4 2 4 8 3 4 3 4
Looking Forward
LOOKING FORWARD
This feature shows students where the presented material will be used
In later chapters we will use information based later. It helps motivate students to pay a little extra attention to key
topics.
on a sample and sample statistics to estimate
population parameters (Chapter 7) or make
decisions about the value of population param-
eters (Chapter 8).
CHAPTER REVIEW
SUMMARY
In this chapter, you’ve seen that statistics is the study of how rSampling strategies, including simple random,
to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret numerical infor-
mation from populations or samples. This chapter discussed Inferential techniques presented in this text are based
some of the features of data and ways to collect data. In on simple random samples.
particular, the chapter discussed rMethods of obtaining data: Use of a census, simula-
rIndividuals or subjects of a study and the variables tion, observational studies, experiments, and surveys
associated with those individuals rConcerns: Undercoverage of a population, nonre-
r sponse, bias in data from surveys and other factors,
levels of measurement of data effects of confounding or lurking variables on other
rSample and population data. Summary measurements variables, generalization of study results beyond the
from sample data are called statistics, and those from population of the study, and study sponsorship
populations are called parameters.
▲ Chapter Summaries
The Summary within each Chapter Review feature now also appears in bulleted
form, so students can see what they need to know at a glance.
xi
Real-World Skills
Statistics is not done in a vacuum. Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods gives students valu-
able skills for the real world with technology instruction, genuine applications, actual data, and group
projects.
REVISED! Tech Notes > Tech Notes Box-and-Whisker Plot

Both Minitab and the TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire calculators support box-
and-whisker plots. On the TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire, the quartiles Q1 and Q3
Tech Notes appearing throughout the text are calculated as we calculate them in this text. In Minitab and Excel 2013, they are
give students helpful hints on using TI- calculated using a slightly different process.
84Plus and TI-nspire (with TI-84Plus TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire (with TI-84Plus Keypad) Press STATPLOT ➤On.
keypad) and TI-83Plus calculators, Highlight box plot. Use Trace and the arrow keys to display the values of the
Microsoft Excel 2013, Minitab, and Minitab
Express to solve a problem. They include
display screens to help students visualize
and better understand the solution.
Med = 221.5
Excel 2013 Does not produce box-and-whisker plot. However, each value of the
Home ribbon, click the Insert Function
fx. In the dialogue box, select Statistical as the category and scroll to Quartile. In
> USING TECHNOLOGY

the dialogue box, enter the data location and then enter the number of the value you
Minitab Press Graph ➤ Boxplot. In the dialogue box, set Data View to IQRange Box.
MinitabExpress Press Graph ➤ Boxplot ➤ simple.
Binomial Distributions -
Although tables of binomial probabilities can be found in priate subtraction of probabilities, rather than addition of
most libraries, such tables are often inadequate. Either the
value of p (the probability of success on a trial) you are look- 3 to 7 easier.
ing for is not in the table, or the value of n (the number 3. Estimate the probability that Juneau will have at most 7
of trials) you are looking for is too large for the table. In clear days in December.
Chapter 6, we will study the normal approximation to the bi- 4. Estimate the probability that Seattle will have from 5 to
nomial. This approximation is a great help in many practical 10 (including 5 and 10) clear days in December.
5. Estimate the probability that Hilo will have at least 12
REVISED! Using Technology
applications. Even so, we sometimes use the formula for the
binomial probability distribution on a computer or graphing clear days in December.
calculator to compute the probability we want. 6. Estimate the probability that Phoenix will have 20 or Further technology instruction is
more clear days in December. available at the end of each chapter in
Applications 7. Estimate the probability that Las Vegas will have from
The following percentages were obtained over many years 20 to 25 (including 20 and 25) clear days in December. the Using Technology section. Problems
of observation by the U.S. Weather Bureau. All data listed Technology Hints are presented with real-world data from
are for the month of December.
TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire (with TI-84 a variety of disciplines that can be
Long-Term Mean % of Plus keypad), Excel 2013, Minitab/MinitabExpress
Location Clear Days in Dec.
solved by using TI-84Plus and TI-nspire
Juneau, Alaska 18% for binomial distribution functions on the TI-84Plus/
(with TI-84Plus keypad) and TI-83Plus
Seattle, Washington 24% TI-83Plus/TI-nspire (with TI-84Plus keypad) calculators, calculators, Microsoft Excel 2013, Minitab,
Hilo, Hawaii 36% Excel 2013, Minitab/MinitabExpress, and SPSS.
Honolulu, Hawaii 60%
and Minitab Express.
SPSS
Las Vegas, Nevada 75%
In SPSS, the function PDF.BINOM(q,n,p) gives the prob-
Phoenix, Arizona 77%
ability of q successes out of n trials, where p is the prob-
Adapted from Local Climatological Data, U.S. Weather Bureau publication, “Normals, ability of success on a single trial. In the data editor, name
Means, and Extremes” Table.
a variable r and enter values 0 through n. Name another
In the locations listed, the month of December is a rela- variable Prob_r. Then use the menu choices Transform ➤
tively stable month with respect to weather. Since weather Compute. In the dialogue box, use Prob_r for the target
patterns from one day to the next are more or less the same, variable. In the function group, select PDF and Noncentral
it is reasonable to use a binomial probability model. PDF. In the function box, select PDF.BINOM(q,n,p). Use
1. Let r be the number of clear days in December. Since the variable r for q and appropriate values for n and p. Note
December has 31 days, 0 r 31. Using appropriate that the function CDF.BINOM(q,n,p), from the CDF and
Noncentral CDF group, gives the cumulative probability of
the probability P(r) for each of the listed locations when 0 through q successes.
r 5 0, 1, 2, . . . , 31.
2. For each location, what is the expected value of the
probability distribution? What is the standard deviation?
xii
EXAMPLE 13 Central Limit Theorem
A certain strain of bacteria occurs in all raw milk. Let x be the bacteria count per
milliliter of milk. The health department has found that if the milk is not contami-
UPDATED! Applications
nated, then x has a distribution that is more or less mound-shaped and symmetric. Real-world applications are used
The mean of the x distribution is m 5 2500, and the standard deviation is s 5 300.
In a large commercial dairy, the health inspector takes 42 random samples of the milk from the beginning to introduce each
produced each day. At the end of the day, the bacteria count in each of the 42 samples statistical process. Rather than just
is averaged to obtain the sample mean bacteria count x. crunching numbers, students come
(a) Assuming the milk is not contaminated, what is the distribution of x? to appreciate the value of statistics
SOLUTION: The sample size is n 5 42. Since this value exceeds 30, the central
through relevant examples.
limit theorem applies, and we know that x will be approximately normal, with
mean and standard deviation
11. Pain Management: Laser Therapy “Effect of Helium-Neon Laser

Auriculotherapy on Experimental Pain Threshold” is the title of an article in
the journal Physical Therapy (Vol. 70, No. 1, pp. 24–30). In this article, laser
therapy was discussed as a useful alternative to drugs in pain management of
chronically ill patients. To measure pain threshold, a machine was used that de-
livered low-voltage direct current to different parts of the body (wrist, neck, and
back). The machine measured current in milliamperes (mA). The pretreatment
Most exercises in each section detectable) at m 5 3.15 mA with standard deviation s 5 1.45 mA. Assume that
are applications problems. the distribution of threshold pain, measured in milliamperes, is symmetric and
more or less mound-shaped. Use the empirical rule to
(a) estimate a range of milliamperes centered about the mean in which about
68% of the experimental group had a threshold of pain.
(b) estimate a range of milliamperes centered about the mean in which about
95% of the experimental group had a threshold of pain.
12. Control Charts: Yellowstone National Park Yellowstone Park Medical
Services (YPMS) provides emergency health care for park visitors. Such
health care includes treatment for everything from indigestion and sunburn
to more serious injuries. A recent issue of Yellowstone Today (National Park
DATA HIGHLIGHTS: Break into small groups and discuss the following topics. Organize a brief outline in
GROUP PROJECTS which you summarize the main points of your group discussion.
Data Highlights: Group
1.Examine Figure 2-20, “Everyone Agrees: Slobs Make Worst Roommates.”
This is a clustered bar graph because two percentages are given for each re-
sponse category: responses from men and responses from women. Comment
about how the artistic rendition has slightly changed the format of a bar graph. Projects
Do the bars seem to have lengths that accurately the relative percentages
of the responses? In your own opinion, does the artistic rendition enhance or Using Group Projects, students gain
confuse the information? Explain. Which characteristic of “worst roommates” experience working with others by
does the graphic seem to illustrate? Can this graph be considered a Pareto chart
for men? for women? Why or why not? From the information given in the - discussing a topic, analyzing data,
ure, do you think the survey just listed the four given annoying characteristics? and collaborating to formulate their
Do you think a respondent could choose more than one characteristic? Explain
response to the questions posed in
FIGURE 2-20 the exercise.
Source: Advantage Business Research for Mattel Compatibility
xiii
Making the Jump
Get to the “Aha!” moment faster. Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods provides the push
students need to get there through guidance and example.
Procedures and
PROCEDURE
Requirements
How to test M when S is known Procedure display boxes summarize
simple step-by-step strategies for
Requirements
carrying out statistical procedures
Let x be a random variable appropriate to your application. Obtain a simple and methods as they are intro-
random sample (of size n) of x values from which you compute the sample duced. Requirements for using
mean x. The value of s is already known (perhaps from a previous study). the procedures are also stated.
If you can assume that x has a normal distribution, then any sample size n Students can refer back to these
will work. If you cannot assume this, then use a sample size n 30. boxes as they practice using the
Procedure procedures.
1. In the context of the application, state the null and alternate hypothe-
ses and set the a.
2. Use the known s, the sample size n, the value of x from the sample, and m
from the null hypothesis to compute the standardized sample test statistic.
x m
z5 GUIDED EXERCISE 11 Probability Regarding x
s
1n In mountain country, major highways sometimes use tunnels instead of long, winding roads over high passes. However,
too many vehicles in a tunnel at the same time can cause a hazardous situation. Traffic engineers are studying a long
3. Use the standard tunnel in Colorado.
normal distribution and theIf x represents
type ofthetest,
time for a vehicle to go
one-tailed orthrough the tunnel, it is known that the x distribution
has mean m 5 12.1 minutes and standard deviation s 5 3.8 minutes under ordinary traffic conditions. From a
P-value corresponding to the test statistic.
histogram of x values, it was found that the x distribution is mound-shaped with some symmetry about the mean.
4. Conclude the test. If P-value a, then reject H0. If P-value 7 a,
Engineers have calculated that, on average, vehicles should spend from 11 to 13 minutes in the tunnel. If
then do not reject H0. the time is less than 11 minutes, traffic is moving too fast for safe travel in the tunnel. If the time is more than
5. Interpret your conclusion in 13
theminutes,
contextthereof
is athe
problem of bad air quality (too much carbon monoxide and other pollutants).
application.
Under ordinary conditions, there are about 50 vehicles in the tunnel at one time. What is the probability that the
mean time for 50 vehicles in the tunnel will be from 11 to 13 minutes?
We will answer this question in steps.
(a) Let x represent the sample mean based on sam- From the central limit theorem, we expect the x dis-
ples of size 50. Describe the x distribution. tribution to be approximately normal, with mean and
standard deviation
s 3.8
mx 5 m 5 12.1 sx 5 5 < 0.54
1n 150
(b) Find P111 6 x 6 132. We convert the interval

11 6 x 6 13
Jupiterimages/Stockbyte/Getty Images
to a standard z interval and use the standard normal

probability table to find our answer. Since
x m x 12.1
Guided Exercises z5
s/ 1n
<
0.54
11 12.1
Students gain experience with new x 5 11 converts to z < 5 2.04
0.54
procedures and methods through 13 12.1
Guided Exercises. Beside each problem and x 5 13 converts to z < 5 1.67
0.54
in a Guided Exercise, a completely Therefore,
worked-out solution appears for im- P111 6 x 6 132 5 P1 2.04 6 z 6 1.672
mediate reinforcement. 5 0.9525 0.0207
5 0.9318
(c) Interpret your answer to part (b). It seems that about 93% of the time, there should be no
xiv safety hazard for average traffic flow.
Preface
Welcome to the exciting world of statistics! We have written this text to make statis-
tics accessible to everyone, including those with a limited mathematics background.
Statistics affects all aspects of our lives. Whether we are testing new medical devices
or determining what will entertain us, applications of statistics are so numerous that,
in a sense, we are limited only by our own imagination in discovering new uses for
statistics.
Overview
The twelfth edition of Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods contin-
ues to emphasize concepts of statistics. Statistical methods are carefully presented
with a focus on understanding both the suitability of the method and the meaning
of the result. Statistical methods and measurements are developed in the context of
applications.
Critical thinking and interpretation are essential in understanding and evaluat-
ing information. Statistical literacy is fundamental for applying and comprehending
statistical results. In this edition we have expanded and highlighted the treatment of
statistical literacy, critical thinking, and interpretation.
We have retained and expanded features that made the first 11 editions of the
text very readable. Definition boxes highlight important terms. Procedure displays
summarize steps for analyzing data. Examples, exercises, and problems touch on
applications appropriate to a broad range of interests.
The twelfth edition continues to have extensive online support. Instructional
videos are available on DVD. The companion web site at http://www.cengage.com/
statistics/brase contains more than 100 data sets (in JMP, Microsoft Excel, Minitab,
SPSS, and TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire with TI-84Plus keypad ASCII file for-
mats) and technology guides.
Available with the twelfth edition is MindTap for Introductory Statistics. MindTap
for Introductory Statistics is a digital-learning solution that places learning at the
center of the experience and can be customized to fit course needs. It offers algorith-
mically-generated problems, immediate student feedback, and a powerful answer
evaluation and grading system. Additionally, it provides students with a personalized
path of dynamic assignments, a focused improvement plan, and just-in-time, inte-
grated review of prerequisite gaps that turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy
into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
MindTap for Introductory Statistics is a digital representation of the course
that provides tools to better manage limited time, stay organized and be successful.
Instructors can customize the course to fit their needs by providing their students
with a learning experience—including assignments—in one proven, easy-to-use
interface.
With an array of study tools, students will get a true understanding of course
concepts, achieve better grades, and set the groundwork for their future courses.
These tools include:
r A Pre-course Assessment—a diagnostic and follow-up practice and review oppor-
tunity that helps students brush up on their prerequisite skills to prepare them to
succeed in the course.
xv
xvi PREFACE
r Just-in-time and side-by-side assignment help –provide students with scaffolded

and targeted help, all within the assignment experience, so everything the student
needs is in one place.
r Stats in Practice—a series of 1-3 minute news videos designed to engage students
and introduce each unit by showing them how that unit’s concepts are practically
used in the real world. Videos are accompanied by follow-up questions to rein-
force the critical thinking aspect of the feature and promote in-class discussion.
Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
Major Changes in the Twelfth Edition

With each new edition, the authors reevaluate the scope, appropriateness, and effec-
tiveness of the text’s presentation and reflect on extensive user feedback. Revisions
have been made throughout the text to clarify explanations of important concepts and
to update problems.
Additional Flexibility Provided by Dividing Chapters into Parts

In the twelfth edition several of the longer chapters have been broken into easy to
manage and teach parts. Each part has a brief introduction, brief summary, and list
of end-of-chapter problems that are applicable to the sections in the specified part.
The partition gives appropriate places to pause, review, and summarize content. In
addition, the parts provide flexibility in course organization.
Chapter 6 Normal Distributions and Sampling Distributions: Part I discusses the
normal distribution and use of the standard normal distribution while Part II
contains sampling distributions, the central limit theorem, and the normal
approximation to the binomial distribution.
Chapter 7 Estimation: Part I contains the introduction to confidence intervals
and confidence intervals for a single mean and for a single proportion while
Part II has confidence intervals for the difference of means and for the differ-
ence of proportions.
Chapter 8 Hypothesis Testing: Part I introduces hypothesis testing and includes
tests of a single mean and of a single proportion. Part II discusses hypothesis
tests of paired differences, tests of differences between two means and differ-
ences between two proportions.
Chapter 9 Correlation and Regression: Part I has simple linear regression while
Part II has multiple linear regression.
Revised Examples and New Section Problems

Examples and guided exercises have been updated and revised. Additional section
problems emphasize critical thinking and interpretation of statistical results.
Updates in Technology Including Mindtab Express

Instructions for Excel 2013, Minitab 17 and new Minitab Express are included in the
Tech Notes and Using Technology.
Continuing Content
Critical Thinking, Interpretation, and Statistical Literacy
The twelfth edition of this text continues and expands the emphasis on critical
thinking, interpretation, and statistical literacy. Calculators and computers are very
good at providing numerical results of statistical processes. However, numbers from
a computer or calculator display are meaningless unless the user knows how to
interpret the results and if the statistical process is appropriate. This text helps stu-
dents determine whether or not a statistical method or process is appropriate. It helps
PREFACE xvii
students understand what a statistic measures. It helps students interpret the results of
a confidence interval, hypothesis test, or liner regression model.
Introduction of Hypothesis Testing Using P-Values

In keeping with the use of computer technology and standard practice in research,
hypothesis testing is introduced using P-values. The critical region method is still
supported but not given primary emphasis.
Use of Student’s t Distribution in Confidence Intervals and

Testing of Means
If the normal distribution is used in confidence intervals and testing of means, then the
population standard deviation must be known. If the population standard deviation is
not known, then under conditions described in the text, the Student’s t distribution
is used. This is the most commonly used procedure in statistical research. It is also
used in statistical software packages such as Microsoft Excel, Minitab, SPSS, and
TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire calculators.
Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Tests of Difference

of Means
If the normal distribution is used, then both population standard deviations must be
known. When this is not the case, the Student’s t distribution incorporates an approx-
imation for t, with a commonly used conservative choice for the degrees of freedom.
Satterthwaite’s approximation for the degrees of freedom as used in computer soft-
ware is also discussed. The pooled standard deviation is presented for appropriate
applications (s1 s2).
Features in the Twelfth Edition

Chapter and Section Lead-ins
r Preview Questions at the beginning of each chapter are keyed to the sections.
r Focus Problems at the beginning of each chapter demonstrate types of questions stu-
dents can answer once they master the concepts and skills presented in the chapter.
r Focus Points at the beginning of each section describe the primary learning objec-
tives of the section.
Carefully Developed Pedagogy

r Examples show students how to select and use appropriate procedures.
r Guided Exercises within the sections give students an opportunity to work with
a new concept. Completely worked-out solutions appear beside each exercise to
give immediate reinforcement.
r Definition boxes highlight important definitions throughout the text.
r Procedure displays summarize key strategies for carrying out statistical procedures
and methods. Conditions required for using the procedure are also stated.
r What Does (a concept, method or result) Tell Us? summarizes information we
obtain from the named concepts and statistical processes and gives insight for
additional application.
r Important Features of a (concept, method, or result) summarizes the features of the
listed item.
r Looking Forward features give a brief preview of how a current topic is used later.
r Labels for each example or guided exercise highlight the technique, concept, or
process illustrated by the example or guided exercise. In addition, labels for sec-
tion and chapter problems describe the field of application and show the wide
variety of subjects in which statistics is used.
xviii PREFACE
r Section and chapter problems require the student to use all the new concepts mas-
tered in the section or chapter. Problem sets include a variety of real-world appli-
cations with data or settings from identifiable sources. Key steps and solutions to
odd-numbered problems appear at the end of the book.
r Basic Computation problems ask students to practice using formulas and statisti-
cal methods on very small data sets. Such practice helps students understand what
a statistic measures.
r Statistical Literacy problems ask students to focus on correct terminology and
processes of appropriate statistical methods. Such problems occur in every section
and chapter problem set.
r Interpretation problems ask students to explain the meaning of the statistical
results in the context of the application.
r Critical Thinking problems ask students to analyze and comment on various issues
that arise in the application of statistical methods and in the interpretation of
results. These problems occur in every section and chapter problem set.
r Expand Your Knowledge problems present enrichment topics such as negative bino-
mial distribution; conditional probability utilizing binomial, Poisson, and normal
distributions; estimation of standard deviation from a range of data values; and more.
r Cumulative review problem sets occur after every third chapter and include key
topics from previous chapters. Answers to all cumulative review problems are
given at the end of the book.
r Data Highlights and Linking Concepts provide group projects and writing projects.
r Viewpoints are brief essays presenting diverse situations in which statistics is used.
r Design and photos are appealing and enhance readability.
Technology Within the Text

r Tech Notes within sections provide brief point-of-use instructions for the
TI-84Plus, TI-83Plus, and TI-nspire (with 84Plus keypad) calculators, Microsoft
Excel 2013, and Minitab.
r Using Technology sections show the use of SPSS as well as the TI-84Plus,
TI-83Plus, and TI-nspire (with TI-84Plus keypad) calculators, Microsoft Excel,
and Minitab.
Interpretation Features
To further understanding and interpretation of statistical concepts, methods, and
results, we have included two special features: What Does (a concept, method,
or result) Tell Us? and Important Features of a (concept, method, or result).
These features summarize the information we obtain from concepts and statistical
processes and give additional insights for further application.
Expand Your Knowledge Problems and Quick Overview Topics

With Additional Applications
Expand Your Knowledge problems do just that! These are optional but contain very
useful information taken from the vast literature of statistics. These topics are not
included in the main text but are easily learned using material from the section or
previous sections. Although these topics are optional, the authors feel they add depth
and enrich a student’s learning experience. Each topic was chosen for its relatively
straightforward presentation and useful applications. All such problems and their
applications are flagged with a sun logo.
Expand Your Knowledge problems in the twelfth edition involve donut graphs;
stratified sampling and the best estimate for the population mean m; the process of
using minimal variance for linear combinations of independent random variables;
and serial correlation (also called autocorrelation).
Some of the other topics in Expand Your Knowledge problems or quick over-
views include graphs such as dotplots and variations on stem-and-leaf plots; out-
liers in stem-and-leaf plots; harmonic and geometric means; moving averages;
PREFACE xix
calculating odds in favor and odds against; extension of conditional probability to

various distributions such as the Poisson distribution and the normal distribution;
Bayes’s theorem; additional probability distributions such as the multinomial
distribution, negative binomial distribution, hypergeometric distribution, contin-
uous uniform distribution, and exponential distribution; waiting time between
Poisson events; quick estimate of the standard deviation using the Empirical rule;
plus four confidence intervals for proportions; Satterthwaite’s approximation
for degrees of freedom in confidence intervals and hypothesis tests; relationship
between confidence intervals and two-tailed hypothesis testing; pooled two-
sample procedures for confidence intervals and hypothesis tests; resampling (also
known as bootstrap); simulations of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests
using different samples of the same size; mean and standard deviation for linear
combinations of dependent random variables; logarithmic transformations with
the exponential growth model and the power law model; and polynomial (curvi-
linear) regression.
For location of these optional topics in the text, please see the index.
Most Recent Operating System for the

TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus Calculators
The latest operating system (v2.55MP) for the TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus calculators is
discussed, with new functions such as the inverse t distribution and the chi-square
goodness of fit test described. One convenient feature of the operating system is that
it provides on-screen prompts for inputs required for many probability and statistical
functions. This operating system is already on new TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus calculators
and is available for download to older calculators at the Texas Instruments web site.
Alternate Routes Through the Text

Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods, Twelfth Edition, is designed to be
flexible. It offers the professor a choice of teaching possibilities. In most one-semester
courses, it is not practical to cover all the material in depth. However, depending on the
emphasis of the course, the professor may choose to cover various topics. For help in
topic selection, refer to the Table of Prerequisite Material on page 1.
r Introducing linear regression early. For courses requiring an early presentation
of linear regression, the descriptive components of linear regression (Sections 9.1
and 9.2) can be presented any time after Chapter 3. However, inference topics
involving predictions, the correlation coefficient r, and the slope of the least-
squares line b require an introduction to confidence intervals (Sections 7.1 and
7.2) and hypothesis testing (Sections 8.1 and 8.2).
r Probability. For courses requiring minimal probability, Section 4.1 (What Is
Probability?) and the first part of Section 4.2 (Some Probability Rules—Compound
Events) will be sufficient.
Acknowledgments
It is our pleasure to acknowledge all of the reviewers, past and present, who have
helped make this book what it is over its twelve editions:
Jorge Baca, Cosumnes River College Abraham Biggs, Broward Community

Wayne Barber, Chemeketa Community College
College Dexter Cahoy, Louisiana Tech University
Molly Beauchman, Yavapai College Maggy Carney, Burlington County College
Nick Belloit, Florida State College Christopher Donnelly, Macomb
at Jacksonville Community College
Kimberly Benien, Wharton County Tracy Leshan, Baltimore City Community
Junior College College
xx PREFACE
Meike Niederhausen, University of Raja Khoury, Collin County Community

Portland College
Deanna Payton, Northern Oklahoma Diane Koenig, Rock Valley College
College in Stillwater Charles G. Laws, Cleveland State
Michelle Van Wagoner, Nashville State Community College
Community College Michael R. Lloyd, Henderson State
University
Reza Abbasian, Texas Lutheran University Beth Long, Pellissippi State Technical
Paul Ache, Kutztown University and Community College
Kathleen Almy, Rock Valley College Lewis Lum, University of Portland
Polly Amstutz, University of Nebraska Darcy P. Mays, Virginia Commonwealth
at Kearney University
Delores Anderson, Truett-McConnell Charles C. Okeke, College of Southern
College Nevada, Las Vegas
Robert J. Astalos, Feather River College Peg Pankowski, Community College of
Lynda L. Ballou, Kansas State Allegheny County
University Ram Polepeddi, Westwood College,
Mary Benson, Pensacola Junior College Denver North Campus
Larry Bernett, Benedictine University Azar Raiszadeh, Chattanooga State
Kiran Bhutani, The Catholic University Technical Community College
of America Traei Reed, St. Johns River Community
Kristy E. Bland, Valdosta State University College
John Bray, Broward Community College Michael L. Russo, Suffolk County
Bill Burgin, Gaston College Community College
Toni Carroll, Siena Heights University Janel Schultz, Saint Mary’s University
Pinyuen Chen, Syracuse University of Minnesota
Emmanuel des-Bordes, James A. Rhodes Sankara Sethuraman, Augusta State
State College University
Jennifer M. Dollar, Grand Rapids Stephen Soltys, West Chester University
Community College of Pennsylvania
Larry E. Dunham, Wor-Wic Community Ron Spicer, Colorado Technical
College University
Andrew Ellett, Indiana University Winson Taam, Oakland University
Ruby Evans, Keiser University Jennifer L. Taggart, Rockford College
Mary Fine, Moberly Area Community William Truman, University of North
College Carolina at Pembroke
Rebecca Fouguette, Santa Rosa Junior Bill White, University of South Carolina
College Upstate
Rene Garcia, Miami-Dade Community Jim Wienckowski, State University of
College New York at Buffalo
Larry Green, Lake Tahoe Community Stephen M. Wilkerson, Susquehanna
College University
Shari Harris, John Wood Community Hongkai Zhang, East Central
College University
Janice Hector, DeAnza College Shunpu Zhang, University of Alaska,
Jane Keller, Metropolitan Community Fairbanks
College Cathy Zucco-Teveloff, Trinity College
We would especially like to thank Roger Lipsett for his careful accuracy review
of this text. We are especially appreciative of the excellent work by the editorial and
production professionals at Cengage Learning. In particular we thank Spencer Arritt,
Hal Humphrey, and Catherine Van Der Laan.
Without their creative insight and attention to detail, a project of this quality
and magnitude would not be possible. Finally, we acknowledge the cooperation of
Minitab, Inc., SPSS, Texas Instruments, and Microsoft.
Charles Henry Brase

Corrinne Pellillo Brase
Additional Resources–Get More
from your Textbook!
MindTap™
New to this Enhanced Edition is MindTap for Introductory Statistics. MindTap for
Introductory Statistics is a digital-learning solution that places learning at the center
of the experience and can be customized to fit course needs. It offers algorithmically-
generated problems, immediate student feedback, and a powerful answer evalua-
tion and grading system. Additionally, it provides students with a personalized path
of dynamic assignments, a focused improvement plan, and just-in-time, integrated
review of prerequisite gaps that turn cookie cutter into cutting edge, apathy into
engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.
MindTap for Introductory Statistics is a digital representation of the course that pro-
vides tools to better manage limited time, stay organized and be successful. Instructors
can customize the course to fit their needs by providing their students with a learning
experience—including assignments—in one proven, easy-to-use interface.
With an array of study tools, students will get a true understanding of course
concepts, achieve better grades, and set the groundwork for their future courses.
These tools include:
r A Pre-course Assessment—a diagnostic and follow-up practice and review oppor-
tunity that helps students brush up on their prerequisite skills to prepare them to
succeed in the course.
r Just-in-time and side-by-side assignment help –provide students with scaffolded
and targeted help, all within the assignment experience, so everything the student
needs is in one place.
r Stats in Practice—a series of 1-3 minute news videos designed to engage students
and introduce each unit by showing them how that unit’s concepts are practically
used in the real world. Videos are accompanied by follow-up questions to rein-
force the critical thinking aspect of the feature and promote in-class discussion.
Go to http://www.cengage.com/mindtap for more information.
Instructor Resources
Annotated Instructor’s Edition (AIE) Answers to all exercises, teaching com-
ments, and pedagogical suggestions appear in the margin, or at the end of the text in
the case of large graphs.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero A flexible, online system that
allows you to:
r BVUIPS FEJU BOENBOBHFUFTUCBOLDPOUFOUGSPNNVMUJQMF$FOHBHF-FBSOJOHTPMVUJPOT
r DSFBUFNVMUJQMFUFTUWFSTJPOTJOBOJOTUBOU
r EFMJWFSUFTUTGSPNZPVS-.4 ZPVSDMBTTSPPNPSXIFSFWFSZPVXBOU
Companion Website The companion website at http://www.cengage.com/brase
contains a variety of resources.
r .JDSPTPGU® PowerPoint® lecture slides
r .PSFUIBOEBUBTFUTJOBWBSJFUZPGGPSNBUT JODMVEJOH
{
JMP

{
Microsoft Excel

{
Minitab

{
SPSS

{
TI-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire with 84plus keypad ASCII file formats

xxi
xxii ADDITIONAL RESOURCES–GET MORE FROM YOUR TEXTBOOK!
r 5FDIOPMPHZHVJEFTGPSUIFGPMMPXJOHQSPHSBNT
{
JMP

{
TI-84Plus, TI-83Plus, and TI-nspire graphing calculators

{
Minitab software (version 14)

{
Microsoft Excel (2010/2007)

{
SPSS Statistics software

Student Resources
Student Solutions Manual Provides solutions to the odd-numbered section and
chapter exercises and to all the Cumulative Review exercises in the student textbook.
Instructional DVDs Hosted by Dana Mosely, these text-specific DVDs cover

all sections of the text and provide explanations of key concepts, examples, exer-
cises, and applications in a lecture-based format. DVDs are close-captioned for the
hearing-impaired.
JMP is a statistics software for Windows and Macintosh computers from SAS, the
market leader in analytics software and services for industry. JMP Student Edition is
a streamlined, easy-to-use version that provides all the statistical analysis and graph-
ics covered in this textbook. Once data is imported, students will find that most pro-
cedures require just two or three mouse clicks. JMP can import data from a variety of
formats, including Excel and other statistical packages, and you can easily copy and
paste graphs and output into documents.
JMP also provides an interface to explore data visually and interactively, which
will help your students develop a healthy relationship with their data, work more
efficiently with data, and tackle difficult statistical problems more easily. Because
its output provides both statistics and graphs together, the student will better see and
understand the application of concepts covered in this book as well. JMP Student
Edition also contains some unique platforms for student projects, such as mapping
and scripting. JMP functions in the same way on both Windows and Macintosh plat-
forms and instructions contained with this book apply to both platforms.
Access to this software is available with new copies of the book. Students can
purchase JMP standalone via CengageBrain.com or www.jmp.com/getse.
Minitab® and IBM SPSS These statistical software packages manipulate and in-
terpret data to produce textual, graphical, and tabular results. Minitab® and/or SPSS
may be packaged with the textbook. Student versions are available.
The companion website at http://www.cengage.com/statistics/brase contains useful

assets for students.
r Technology Guides Separate guides exist with information and examples for each
of four technology tools. Guides are available for the TI-84Plus, TI-83Plus, and
TI-nspire graphing calculators, Minitab software (version 14) Microsoft Excel
(2010/2007), and SPSS Statistics software.
r Interactive Teaching and Learning Tools include online datasets (in JMP, Microsoft
Excel, Minitab, SPSS, and Tl-84Plus/TI-83Plus/TI-nspire with TI-84Plus keypad
ASCII file formats) and more.
CengageBrain.com Provides the freedom to purchase online homework and other

materials à la carte exactly what you need, when you need it.
For more information, visit http://www.cengage.com/statistics/brase or contact

your local Cengage Learning sales representative.
Table of Prerequisite Material
Chapter Prerequisite Sections
1 Getting Started None
2 Organizing Data 1.1, 1.2
3 Averages and Variation 1.1, 1.2, 2.1
4 Elementary Probability Theory 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2
5 The Binomial Probability 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2
Distribution and Related Topics 4.3 useful but not essential
6 Normal Curves and Sampling
Distributions (omit 6.6) 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1
(include 6.6) also 5.2, 5.3
7 Estimation
(omit 7.3 and parts of 7.4) 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5
(include 7.3 and all of 7.4) also 5.2, 5.3, 6.6
8 Hypothesis Testing
(omit 8.3 and part of 8.5) 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5
(include 8.3 and all of 8.5) also 5.2, 5.3, 6.6
9 Correlation and Regression
(9.1 and 9.2) 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2
(9.3 and 9.4) also 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 7.1, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2
10 Chi-Square and F Distributions
(omit 10.3) 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4,
(include 10.3) 6.5, 8.1 also 7.1
11 Nonparametric Statistics 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5,
8.1, 8.3
1
1
2 Chapter 1 GETTING STARTED
1.1 What Is Statistics?
1.2 Random Samples
1.3 Introduction to Experimental Design
Paul Spinelli/Major League Baseball/Getty Images
Chance favors the prepared mind.

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) is the founder of modern bacteriology. At age 57,
Bettmann/Historical/Corbis
—LOUIS PASTEUR Pasteur was studying cholera. He accidentally left some bacillus culture unattended
Statistical techniques are tools in his laboratory during the summer. In the fall, he injected laboratory animals with
of thought . . . not substitutes for this bacilli. To his surprise, the animals did not die—in fact, they thrived and were
thought. resistant to cholera.
—ABRAHAM KAPLAN When the final results were examined, it is said that Pasteur remained silent for a
minute and then exclaimed, as if he had seen a vision, “Don’t you see they have been
vaccinated!” Pasteur’s work ultimately saved many human lives.
Most of the important decisions in life involve incomplete information. Such
decisions often involve so many complicated factors that a complete analysis is not
practical or even possible. We are often forced into the position of making a guess
based on limited information.
As the first quote reminds us, our chances of success are greatly improved if we
have a “prepared mind.” The statistical methods you will learn in this book will help
you achieve a prepared mind for the study of many different fields. The second quote
reminds us that statistics is an important tool, but it is not a replacement for an
in-depth knowledge of the field to which it is being applied.
The authors of this book want you to understand and enjoy statistics. The
reading material will tell you about the subject. The examples will show you how it
works. To understand, however, you must get involved. Guided exercises, calculator
and computer applications, section and chapter problems, and writing exercises are
all designed to get you involved in the subject. As you grow in your understanding
of statistics, we believe you will enjoy learning a subject that has a world full of
interesting applications.
2
Section 1.1 What is Statistics 3
Getting Started
PREVIEW QUESTIONS
Why is statistics important? (SECTION 1.1)
What is the nature of data? (SECTION 1.1)
How can you draw a random sample? (SECTION 1.2)
What are other sampling techniques? (SECTION 1.2)
How can you design ways to collect data? (SECTION 1.3)
iStock/Getty Images Plus/north-tail/Getty Images

FOCUS PROBLEM
Where Have All the Fireflies Gone?
A feature article in The Wall Street Journal discusses the disappearance of fire-
flies. In the article, Professor Sara Lewis of Tufts University and other scholars
express concern about the decline in the worldwide population of fireflies.
There are a number of possible explanations for the decline, including habi-
tat reduction of woodlands, wetlands, and open fields; pesticides; and
pollution. Artificial nighttime lighting might interfere with the Morse-
code-like mating ritual of the fireflies. Some chemical companies pay a
bounty for fireflies because the insects contain two rare chemicals used
in medical research and electronic detection systems used in spacecraft.
What does any of this have to do with statistics?
The truth, at this time, is that no one really knows (a) how much the
world firefly population has declined or (b) how to explain the decline.
The population of all fireflies is simply too large to study in its entirety.
Courtesy of Corrinne and Charles Brase
In any study of fireflies, we must rely on incomplete information

from samples. Furthermore, from these samples we must draw realistic
conclusions that have statistical integrity. This is the kind of work that
makes use of statistical methods to determine ways to collect, analyze,
and investigate data.
Suppose you are conducting a study to compare firefly populations
exposed to normal daylight/darkness conditions with firefly populations
exposed to continuous light (24 hours a day). You set up two firefly colo-
Adapted from Ohio State University Firefly Files logo
nies in a laboratory environment. The two colonies are identical except
that one colony is exposed to normal daylight/darkness conditions and the other is
exposed to continuous light. Each colony is populated with the same number of ma-
ture fireflies. After 72 hours, you count the number of living fireflies in each colony.
After completing this chapter, you will be able to answer the following questions.
(a) Is this an experiment or an observation study? Explain.
(b) Is there a control group? Is there a treatment group? For online student resources, visit the Brase/Brase,
Understandable Statistics, 12th edition web site
at http://www.cengage.com/statistics/brase
3
(c) What is the variable in this study?

(d) What is the level of measurement (nominal, interval, ordinal, or ratio) of the
variable?
(See Problem 11 of the Chapter 1 Review Problems.)
SECTION 1.1 What Is Statistics?

FOCUS POINTS
t Identify variables in a statistical study.
t Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative variables.
t Identify populations and samples.
t Distinguish between parameters and statistics.
t Determine the level of measurement.
t Compare descriptive and inferential statistics.
Introduction
Decision making is an important aspect of our lives. We make decisions based on the
information we have, our attitudes, and our values. Statistical methods help us exam-
ine information. Moreover, statistics can be used for making decisions when we are
faced with uncertainties. For instance, if we wish to estimate the proportion of people
who will have a severe reaction to a flu shot without giving the shot to everyone who
wants it, statistics provides appropriate methods. Statistical methods enable us to
look at information from a small collection of people or items and make inferences
about a larger collection of people or items.
Procedures for analyzing data, together with rules of inference, are central topics
in the study of statistics.
Statistics Statistics is the study of how to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret numerical
information from data.
The subject of statistics is multifaceted. The following definition of statistics is

found in the International Encyclopedia of Statistical Science, edited by Miodrag
Lovric. Professor David Hand of Imperial College London—the president of the
Royal Statistical Society—presents the definition in his article “Statistics: An
Overview.”
Statistics is both the science of uncertainty and the technology of extracting

information from data.
The statistical procedures you will learn in this book should supplement your
built-in system of inference—that is, the results from statistical procedures and good
sense should dovetail. Of course, statistical methods themselves have no power to
work miracles. These methods can help us make some decisions, but not all conceiv-
able decisions. Remember, even a properly applied statistical procedure is no more
accurate than the data, or facts, on which it is based. Finally, statistical results should
be interpreted by one who understands not only the methods, but also the subject
matter to which they have been applied.
The general prerequisite for statistical decision making is the gathering of data.
First, we need to identify the individuals or objects to be included in the study and
the characteristics or features of the individuals that are of interest.
Section 1.1 What Is Statistics 5
Individuals Individuals are the people or objects included in the study.

Variable A variable is a characteristic of the individual to be measured or observed.
For instance, if we want to do a study about the people who have climbed
Mt. Everest, then the individuals in the study are all people who have actually made
it to the summit. One variable might be the height of such individuals. Other vari-
ables might be age, weight, gender, nationality, income, and so on. Regardless of the
variables we use, we would not include measurements or observations from people
who have not climbed the mountain.
The variables in a study may be quantitative or qualitative in nature.
Quantitative variable A quantitative variable has a value or numerical measurement for which opera-
Qualitative variable tions such as addition or averaging make sense. A qualitative variable describes
an individual by placing the individual into a category or group, such as male or
female.
For the Mt. Everest climbers, variables such as height, weight, age, or income
are quantitative variables. Qualitative variables involve nonnumerical observations
such as gender or nationality. Sometimes qualitative variables are referred to as
Categorical variable categorical variables.
Another important issue regarding data is their source. Do the data comprise
information from all individuals of interest, or from just some of the individuals?
Population data In population data, the data are from every individual of interest.
Sample data In sample data, the data are from only some of the individuals of interest.
It is important to know whether the data are population data or sample data. Data
from a specific population are fixed and complete. Data from a sample may vary
from sample to sample and are not complete.
Population parameter A population parameter is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of

a population.
Sample statistic A sample statistic is a numerical measure that describes an aspect of a sample.
For instance, if we have data from all the individuals who have climbed Mt. Everest,
then we have population data. The proportion of males in the population of all climbers
who have conquered Mt. Everest is an example of a parameter.
LOOKING FORWARD
On the other hand, if our data come from just some of the climbers, we have
In later chapters we will use information based sample data. The proportion of male climbers in the sample is an example of a
on a sample and sample statistics to estimate statistic. Note that different samples may have different values for the proportion
population parameters (Chapter 7) or make
of male climbers. One of the important features of sample statistics is that they
decisions about the value of population param-
eters (Chapter 8). can vary from sample to sample, whereas population parameters are fixed for a
given population.
EXAMPLE 1 Using Basic Terminology

The Hawaii Department of Tropical Agriculture is conducting a study of ready-to-
harvest pineapples in an experimental field.
(a) The pineapples are the objects (individuals) of the study. If the researchers are
interested in the individual weights of pineapples in the field, then the variable
consists of weights. At this point, it is important to specify units of measurement
and degrees of accuracy of measurement. The weights could be measured to

the nearest ounce or gram. Weight is a quantitative variable because it is a nu-
merical measure. If weights of all the ready-to-harvest pineapples in the field
are included in the data, then we have a population. The average weight of all
ready-to-harvest pineapples in the field is a parameter.
(b) Suppose the researchers also want data on taste. A panel of tasters rates the
pineapples according to the categories “poor,” “acceptable,” and “good.” Only
some of the pineapples are included in the taste test. In this case, the variable
is taste. This is a qualitative or categorical variable. Because only some of the
pineapples in the field are included in the study, we have a sample. The pro-
Gallo Images/Landbouweekblad/Getty Images
portion of pineapples in the sample with a taste rating of “good” is a statistic.
Throughout this text, you will encounter guided exercises embedded in the
reading material. These exercises are included to give you an opportunity to work
immediately with new ideas. The questions guide you through appropriate analy-
sis. Cover the answers on the right side (an index card will fit this purpose). After
you have thought about or written down your own response, check the answers.
If there are several parts to an exercise, check each part before you continue. You
should be able to answer most of these exercise questions, but don’t skip them—
they are important.
GUIDED EXERCISE 1 Using Basic Terminology

How important is music education in school (K–12)? The Harris Poll did an online survey of 2286 adults (aged 18 and older)
within the United States. Among the many questions, the survey asked if the respondents agreed or disagreed with the state-
ment, “Learning and habits from music education equip people to be better team players in their careers.” In the most recent
survey, 71% of the study participants agreed with the statement.
(a) Identify the individuals of the study and the The individuals are the 2286 adults who participated in
variable. the online survey. The variable is the response agree or
disagree with the statement that music education equips
people to be better team players in their careers.
(b) Do the data comprise a sample? If so, what is the The data comprise a sample of the population of
underlying population? responses from all adults in the United States.
(c) Is the variable qualitative or quantitative? Qualitative — the categories are the two possible
response’s, agrees or disagrees with the statement that
music education equips people to be better team players
in their careers.
(d) Identify a quantitative variable that might be of Age or income might be of interest.
interest.
(e) Is the proportion of respondents in the sample Statistic—the proportion is computed from sample data.
who agree with the statement regarding music
education and effect on careers a statistic or a
parameter?
Levels of Measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio

We have categorized data as either qualitative or quantitative. Another way to clas-
sify data is according to one of the four levels of measurement. These levels indicate
the type of arithmetic that is appropriate for the data, such as ordering, taking differ-
ences, or taking ratios.
Levels of Measurement LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Nominal level The nominal level of measurement applies to data that consist of names, labels,
or categories. There are no implied criteria by which the data can be ordered from
smallest to largest.
Ordinal level The ordinal level of measurement applies to data that can be arranged in
order. However, differences between data values either cannot be determined or
are meaningless.
Interval level The interval level of measurement applies to data that can be arranged in order.
In addition, differences between data values are meaningful.
Ratio level The ratio level of measurement applies to data that can be arranged in order. In
addition, both differences between data values and ratios of data values are mean-
ingful. Data at the ratio level have a true zero.
EXAMPLE 2 Levels of Measurement

Identify the type of data.
(a) Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Cochiti are the names of four Native American pueblos
from the population of names of all Native American pueblos in Arizona and
New Mexico.
Michelle Dulieu/Shutterstock.com
SOLUTION: These data are at the nominal level. Notice that these data values
are simply names. By looking at the name alone, we cannot determine if one
name is “greater than or less than” another. Any ordering of the names would be
numerically meaningless.
(b) In a high school graduating class of 319 students, Jim ranked 25th, June ranked
19th, Walter ranked 10th, and Julia ranked 4th, where 1 is the highest rank.
SOLUTION: These data are at the ordinal level. Ordering the data clearly makes
sense. Walter ranked higher than June. Jim had the lowest rank, and Julia the
highest. However, numerical differences in ranks do not have meaning. The dif-
ference between June’s and Jim’s ranks is 6, and this is the same difference that
exists between Walter’s and Julia’s ranks. However, this difference doesn’t really
mean anything significant. For instance, if you looked at grade point average,
Walter and Julia may have had a large gap between their grade point averages,
whereas June and Jim may have had closer grade point averages. In any rank-
ing system, it is only the relative standing that matters. Computed differences
between ranks are meaningless.
iStockphoto.com/Korban Schwabi
(c) Body temperatures (in degrees Celsius) of trout in the Yellowstone River.
SOLUTION: These data are at the interval level. We can certainly order the data,
and we can compute meaningful differences. However, for Celsius-scale tem-
peratures, there is not an inherent starting point. The value 0C may seem to be a
starting point, but this value does not indicate the state of “no heat.” Furthermore,
it is not correct to say that 20C is twice as hot as 10C.
(d) Length of trout swimming in the Yellowstone River.

SOLUTION: These data are at the ratio level. An 18-inch trout is three times as
long as a 6-inch trout. Observe that we can divide 6 into 18 to determine a mean-
ingful ratio of trout lengths.
In summary, there are four levels of measurement. The nominal level is con-
sidered the lowest, and in ascending order we have the ordinal, interval, and ratio
levels. In general, calculations based on a particular level of measurement may not be
appropriate for a lower level.
PROCEDURE
How to determine the level of measurement
The levels of measurement, listed from lowest to highest, are nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio. To determine the level of measurement of data,
state the highest level that can be justified for the entire collection of data.
Consider which calculations are suitable for the data.
Level of
Measurement Suitable Calculation
Nominal We can put the data into categories.
Ordinal We can order the data from smallest to largest or “worst” to “best.”
Each data value can be compared with another data value.
Interval We can order the data and also take the differences between data
values. At this level, it makes sense to compare the differences
between data values. For instance, we can say that one data
value is 5 more than or 12 less than another data value.
Ratio We can order the data, take differences, and also find the ratio
between data values. For instance, it makes sense to say that
one data value is twice as large as another.
What Does the Level of Measurement Tell Us?

The level of measurement tells us which arithmetic processes are appropriate for the
data. This is important because different statistical processes require various kinds of
arithmetic. In some instances all we need to do is count the number of data that meet
specified criteria. In such cases nominal (and higher) data levels are all appropriate. In
other cases we need to order the data, so nominal data would not be suitable. Many
other statistical processes require division, so data need to be at the ratio level. Just
keep the nature of the data in mind before beginning statistical computations.
GUIDED EXERCISE 2 Levels of Measurement

The following describe different data associated with a state senator. For each data entry, indicate the corresponding level
of measurement.
(a) The senator’s name is Sam Wilson. Nominal level
(b) The senator is 58 years old. Ratio level. Notice that age has a meaningful zero. It
makes sense to give age ratios. For instance, Sam is twice
as old as someone who is 29.
Continued
Guided Exercise 2 continued
(c) The years in which the senator was elected to the Interval level. Dates can be ordered, and the difference
Senate are 2000, 2006, and 2012. between dates has meaning. For instance, 2006 is 6 years
later than 2000. However, ratios do not make sense. The
year 2000 is not twice as large as the year 1000. In addi-
tion, the year 0 does not mean “no time.”
(d) The senator’s total taxable income last year was Ratio level. It makes sense to say that the senator’s
$878,314. income is 10 times that of someone earning $87,831.
(e) The senator surveyed his constituents regarding Ordinal level. The choices can be ordered, but there is no
his proposed water protection bill. The choices for meaningful numerical difference between two choices.
response were strong support, support, neutral,
against, or strongly against.
(f) The senator’s marital status is “married.” Nominal level
(g) A leading news magazine claims the senator Ordinal level. Ranks can be ordered, but differences
is ranked seventh for his voting record on bills between ranks may vary in meaning.
regarding public education.
CRITICAL
THINKING “Data! Data! Data!” he cried impatiently. “I can’t make bricks without clay.”
Sherlock Holmes said these words in The Adventure of the Copper Beeches by
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
Reliable statistical conclusions require reliable data. This section has provided
some of the vocabulary used in discussing data. As you read a statistical study or con-
duct one, pay attention to the nature of the data and the ways they were collected.
When you select a variable to measure, be sure to specify the process and re-
quirements for measurement. For example, if the variable is the weight of ready-
to-harvest pineapples, specify the unit of weight, the accuracy of measurement,
and maybe even the particular scale to be used. If some weights are in ounces
and others in grams, the data are fairly useless.
Another concern is whether or not your measurement instrument truly mea-
sures the variable. Just asking people if they know the geographic location of the
island nation of Fiji may not provide accurate results. The answers may reflect
the fact that the respondents want you to think they are knowledgeable. Asking
people to locate Fiji on a map may give more reliable results.
The level of measurement is also an issue. You can put numbers into a
calculator or computer and do all kinds of arithmetic. However, you need to
judge whether the operations are meaningful. For ordinal data such as restaurant
rankings, you can’t conclude that a 4-star restaurant is “twice as good” as a 2-star
restaurant, even though the number 4 is twice 2.
Continued
Critical Thinking continued

Are the data from a sample, or do they comprise the entire population?
Sample data can vary from one sample to another! This means that if you are
studying the same statistic from two different samples of the same size, the
data values may be different. In fact, the ways in which sample statistics vary
among different samples of the same size will be the focus of our study from
Section 6.4 on.
INTERPRETATION When you work with sample data, carefully consider the population
from which they are drawn. Observations and analysis of the sample are applicable to only
the population from which the sample is drawn.
Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics involves methods of organizing, picturing, and summarizing
information from samples or populations.
Inferential statistics Inferential statistics involves methods of using information from a sample to
draw conclusions regarding the population.
LOOKING FORWARD We will look at methods of descriptive statistics in Chapters 2, 3, and 9. These
methods may be applied to data from samples or populations.
The purpose of collecting and analyzing data Sometimes we do not have access to an entire population. At other times, the
is to obtain information. Statistical methods
difficulties or expense of working with the entire population is prohibitive. In such
provide us tools to obtain information from
data. These methods break into two branches. cases, we will use inferential statistics together with probability. These are the topics
of Chapters 4 through 11.
VIEWPOINT The First Measured Century

The 20th century saw measurements of aspects of American life that had never been systematically
studied before. Social conditions involving crime, sex, food, fun, religion, and work were numerically
investigated. The measurements and survey responses taken over the entire century reveal unsus-
pected statistical trends. The First Measured Century is a book by Caplow, Hicks, and Wattenberg.
It is also a PBS documentary available on video. For more information, visit the PBS web site and find
the link to the First Measured Century documentary.
SECTION 1.1 PROBLEMS 1. Statistical Literacy In a statistical study what is the difference between an
individual and a variable?
2. Statistical Literacy Are data at the nominal level of measurement quantita-
tive or qualitative?
3. Statistical Literacy What is the difference between a parameter and a
statistic?
4. Statistical Literacy For a set population, does a parameter ever change? If
there are three different samples of the same size from a set population, is it
possible to get three different values for the same statistic?
5. Critical Thinking Numbers are often assigned to data that are categorical in
nature.
(a) Consider these number assignments for category items describing
electronic ways of expressing personal opinions:
1 5 Twitter; 2 5 e-mail; 3 5 text message; 4 5 Facebook; 5 5 blog
Are these numerical assignments at the ordinal data level or higher?

Explain.
(b) Consider these number assignments for category items describing useful-
ness of customer service:
1 5 not helpful; 2 5 somewhat helpful; 3 5 very helpful;

4 5 extremely helpful
Are these numerical assignments at the ordinal data level? Explain. What
about at the interval level or higher? Explain.
6. Interpretation Lucy conducted a survey asking some of her friends to spec-

ify their favorite type of TV entertainment from the following list of choices:
sitcom; reality; documentary; drama; cartoon; other
Do Lucy’s observations apply to all adults? Explain. From the description of

the survey group, can we draw any conclusions regarding age of participants,
gender of participants, or education level of participants?
7. Marketing: Fast Food A national survey asked 1261 U.S. adult fast-food
customers which meal (breakfast, lunch, dinner, snack) they ordered.
(a) Identify the variable.
(b) Is the variable quantitative or qualitative?
(c) What is the implied population?
8. Advertising: Auto Mileage What is the average miles per gallon (mpg) for
all new hybrid small cars? Using Consumer Reports, a random sample of
such vehicles gave an average of 35.7 mpg.
9. Ecology: Wetlands Government agencies carefully monitor water quality and

its effect on wetlands (Reference: Environmental Protection Agency Wetland
Report EPA 832-R-93-005). Of particular concern is the concentration of
nitrogen in water draining from fertilized lands. Too much nitrogen can kill
fish and wildlife. Twenty-eight samples of water were taken at random from
a lake. The nitrogen concentration (milligrams of nitrogen per liter of water)
was determined for each sample.
10. Archaeology: Ireland The archaeological site of Tara is more than 4000
years old. Tradition states that Tara was the seat of the high kings of Ireland.
Because of its archaeological importance, Tara has received extensive study
(Reference: Tara: An Archaeological Survey by Conor Newman, Royal Irish
Academy, Dublin). Suppose an archaeologist wants to estimate the density of
ferromagnetic artifacts in the Tara region. For this purpose, a random sample
of 55 plots, each of size 100 square meters, is used. The number of ferromag-
netic artifacts for each plot is determined.
11. Student Life: Levels of Measurement Categorize these measurements asso-

ciated with student life according to level: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
(a) Length of time to complete an exam
(b) Time of first class
(c) Major field of study
(d) Course evaluation scale: poor, acceptable, good
(e) Score on last exam (based on 100 possible points)
(f) Age of student
12. Business: Levels of Measurement Categorize these measurements associated

with a robotics company according to level: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
(a) Salesperson’s performance: below average, average, above average
(b) Price of company’s stock
(c) Names of new products
(d) Temperature (F) in CEO’s private office
(e) Gross income for each of the past 5 years
(f) Color of product packaging
13. Fishing: Levels of Measurement Categorize these measurements associated

with fishing according to level: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.
(a) Species of fish caught: perch, bass, pike, trout
(b) Cost of rod and reel
(c) Time of return home
(d) Guidebook rating of fishing area: poor, fair, good
(e) Number of fish caught
(f) Temperature of water
14. Education: Teacher Evaluation If you were going to apply statistical

methods to analyze teacher evaluations, which question form, A or B, would
be better?
Form A: In your own words, tell how this teacher compares with other teachers
you have had.
Form B: Use the following scale to rank your teacher as compared with other
teachers you have had.
1 2 3 4 5
worst below average above best
average average
15. Critical Thinking You are interested in the weights of backpacks students
carry to class and decide to conduct a study using the backpacks carried by
30 students.
(a) Give some instructions for weighing the backpacks. Include unit of
measure, accuracy of measure, and type of scale.
(b) Do you think each student asked will allow you to weigh his or her
backpack?
(c) Do you think telling students ahead of time that you are going to weigh
their backpacks will make a difference in the weights?
Section 1.2 Random Samples 13
SECTION 1.2 Random Samples

FOCUS POINTS
t Explain the importance of random samples.
t Construct a simple random sample using random numbers.
t Simulate a random process.
t Describe stratified sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, multistage
sampling, and convenience sampling.
Simple Random Samples

Eat lamb—20,000 coyotes can’t be wrong!
This slogan is sometimes found on bumper stickers in the western United States.
The slogan indicates the trouble that ranchers have experienced in protecting their
flocks from predators. Based on their experience with this sample of the coyote pop-
ulation, the ranchers concluded that all coyotes are dangerous to their flocks and
should be eliminated! The ranchers used a special poison bait to get rid of the coy-
otes. Not only was this poison distributed on ranch land, but with government coop-
eration, it also was distributed widely on public lands.
The ranchers found that the results of the widespread poisoning were not very
beneficial. The sheep-eating coyotes continued to thrive while the general population
of coyotes and other predators declined. What was the problem? The sheep-eating
coyotes that the ranchers had observed were not a representative sample of all coyotes.
Modern methods of predator control, however, target the sheep-eating coyotes. To a
certain extent, the new methods have come about through a closer examination of the
sampling techniques used.
In this section, we will examine several widely used sampling techniques. One
of the most important sampling techniques is a simple random sample.
Simple random sample A simple random sample of n measurements from a population is a subset of the
population selected in such a manner that every sample of size n from the popula-
tion has an equal chance of being selected.
In a simple random sample, not only does every sample of the specified size
have an equal chance of being selected, but every individual of the population also
has an equal chance of being selected. However, the fact that each individual has an
equal chance of being selected does not necessarily imply a simple random sample.
Remember, for a simple random sample, every sample of the given size must also
have an equal chance of being selected.
Important Features of a Simple Random Sample

For a simple random sample
t &WFSZTBNQMFPGTQFDJmFETJ[Fn from the population has an equal chance
of being selected.
t /PSFTFBSDIFSCJBTPDDVSTJOUIFJUFNTTFMFDUFEGPSUIFTBNQMF
t "SBOEPNTBNQMFNBZOPUBMXBZTSFnFDUUIFEJWFSTJUZPGUIFQPQVMBUJPO
For instance, from a population of 10 cats and 10 dogs, a random sample
of size 6 could consist of all cats.
GUIDED EXERCISE 3 Simple Random Sample

Is open space around metropolitan areas important? Players of the Colorado Lottery might think so, since some of the proceeds
of the game go to fund open space and outdoor recreational space. To play the game, you pay $1 and choose any six different
numbers from the group of numbers 1 through 42. If your group of six numbers matches the winning group of six numbers
selected by simple random sampling, then you are a winner of a grand prize of at least $1.5 million.
(a) Is the number 25 as likely to be selected in the Yes. Because the winning numbers constitute a simple
winning group of six numbers as the number 5? random sample, each number from 1 through 42 has an
equal chance of being selected.
(b) Could all the winning numbers be even? Yes, since six even numbers is one of the possible groups
of six numbers.
(c) Your friend always plays the numbers Yes. In a simple random sample, the listed group of six
numbers is as likely as any of the 5,245,786 possible groups
1 2 3 4 5 6
of six numbers to be selected as the winner. (See Section 4.3
Could she ever win? to learn how to compute the number of possible groups of
six numbers that can be selected from 42 numbers.)
How do we get random samples? Suppose you need to know if the emission sys-
tems of the latest shipment of Toyotas satisfy pollution-control standards. You want
to pick a random sample of 30 cars from this shipment of 500 cars and test them. One
way to pick a random sample is to number the cars 1 through 500. Write these num-
bers on cards, mix up the cards, and then draw 30 numbers. The sample will consist
of the cars with the chosen numbers. If you mix the cards sufficiently, this procedure
produces a random sample.
Random-number table An easier way to select the numbers is to use a random-number table. You can make
one yourself by writing the digits 0 through 9 on separate cards and mixing up these cards
in a hat. Then draw a card, record the digit, return the card, and mix up the cards again.
Draw another card, record the digit, and so on. Table 1 in Appendix II is a ready-made
random-number table (adapted from Rand Corporation, A Million Random Digits with
100,000 Normal Deviates). Let’s see how to pick our random sample of 30 Toyotas by
using this random-number table.
EXAMPLE 3 Random-Number Table

Use a random-number table to pick a random sample of 30 cars from a population
of 500 cars.
SOLUTION: Again, we assign each car a different number between 1 and 500, in-
clusive. Then we use the random-number table to choose the sample. Table 1 in
Appendix II has 50 rows and 10 blocks of five digits each; it can be thought of as a
Vibrant Image Studio/Shutterstock.com
solid mass of digits that has been broken up into rows and blocks for user convenience.
You read the digits by beginning anywhere in the table. We dropped a pin on the
table, and the head of the pin landed in row 15, block 5. We’ll begin there and list all
the digits in that row. If we need more digits, we’ll move on to row 16, and so on.
The digits we begin with are
99281 59640 15221 96079 09961 05371

Since the highest number assigned to a car is 500, and this number has three
digits, we regroup our digits into blocks of 3:
992 815 964 015 221 960 790 996 105 371
To construct our random sample, we use the first 30 car numbers we encounter
in the random-number table when we start at row 15, block 5. We skip the first three
groups—992, 815, and 964—because these numbers are all too large. The next group
of three digits is 015, which corresponds to 15. Car number 15 is the first car included
in our sample, and the next is car number 221. We skip the next three groups and
then include car numbers 105 and 371. To get the rest of the cars in the sample, we
continue to the next line and use the random-number table in the same fashion. If we
encounter a number we’ve used before, we skip it.
COMMENT When we use the term (simple) random sample, we have very specific
criteria in mind for selecting the sample. One proper method for selecting a simple
random sample is to use a computer- or calculator-based random-number generator
or a table of random numbers as we have done in the example. The term random
should not be confused with haphazard!
LOOKING FORWARD
The runs test for randomness discussed in PROCEDURE
Section 11.4 shows how to determine if two How to draw a random sample
symbols are randomly mixed in an ordered list
of symbols. 1. Number all members of the population sequentially.
2. Use a table, calculator, or computer to select random numbers from
the numbers assigned to the population members.
3. Create the sample by using population members with numbers corre-
sponding to those randomly selected.
LOOKING FORWARD
Another important use of random-number tables is in simulation. We use the
Simple random samples are key components word simulation to refer to the process of providing numerical imitations of “real”
in methods of inferential statistics that we
phenomena. Simulation methods have been productive in studying a diverse array of
will study in Chapters 7–11. In fact, in order
to draw conclusions about a population, the subjects such as nuclear reactors, cloud formation, cardiology (and medical science
methods we will study require that we have in general), highway design, production control, shipbuilding, airplane design, war
simple random samples from the populations games, economics, and electronics. A complete list would probably include some-
of interest. thing from every aspect of modern life. In Guided Exercise 4 we’ll perform a brief
simulation.
Simulation A simulation is a numerical facsimile or representation of a real-world

phenomenon.
GUIDED EXERCISE 4 Simulation

Use a random-number table to simulate the outcomes of tossing a balanced (that is, fair) penny 10 times.
(a) How many outcomes are possible when you toss Two—heads or tails
a coin once?
Continued
Guided Exercise 4 continued
(b) There are several ways to assign numbers to the 7 1 5 4 9 4 4 8 4 3

two outcomes. Because we assume a fair coin, we
can assign an even digit to the outcome “heads”
and an odd digit to the outcome “tails.” Then,
starting at block 3 of row 2 of Table 1 in
Appendix II, list the first 10 single digits.
(c) What are the outcomes associated with the 10 digits? T T T H T H H H H T
(d) If you start in a different block and row of Table 1 It is possible, but not very likely. (In Section 4.3 you will
in Appendix II, will you get the same sequence of learn how to determine that there are 1024 possible
outcomes? sequences of outcomes for 10 tosses of a coin.)
> Tech Notes Most statistical software packages, spreadsheet programs, and statistical calcula-
tors generate random numbers. In general, these devices sample with replacement.
Sampling with replacement Sampling with replacement means that although a number is selected for the sample,
it is not removed from the population. Therefore, the same number may be selected
for the sample more than once. If you need to sample without replacement, generate
more items than you need for the sample. Then sort the sample and remove dupli-
cate values. Specific procedures for generating random samples using the TI-84Plus/
TI-83Plus/TI-nspire (with TI-84Plus keypad) calculator, Excel 2013, Minitab, Minitab
Express, and SPSS are shown in Using Technology at the end of this chapter. More
details are given in the separate Technology Guides for each of these technologies.
Other Sampling Techniques

Although we will assume throughout this text that (simple) random samples are used,
other methods of sampling are also widely used. Appropriate statistical techniques
exist for these sampling methods, but they are beyond the scope of this text.
Stratified sampling One of these sampling methods is called stratified sampling. Groups or classes
inside a population that share a common characteristic are called strata (plural of
stratum). For example, in the population of all undergraduate college students, some
strata might be freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors. Other strata might be men
or women, in-state students or out-of-state students, and so on. In the method of
stratified sampling, the population is divided into at least two distinct strata. Then a
(simple) random sample of a certain size is drawn from each stratum, and the infor-
mation obtained is carefully adjusted or weighted in all resulting calculations.
The groups or strata are often sampled in proportion to their actual percentages
of occurrence in the overall population. However, other (more sophisticated) ways to
determine the optimal sample size in each stratum may give the best results. In general,
statistical analysis and tests based on data obtained from stratified samples are some-
what different from techniques discussed in an introductory course in statistics. Such
methods for stratified sampling will not be discussed in this text.
Systematic sampling Another popular method of sampling is called systematic sampling. In this method,
it is assumed that the elements of the population are arranged in some natural sequen-
tial order. Then we select a (random) starting point and select every kth element for
our sample. For example, people lining up to buy rock concert tickets are “in order.”
To generate a systematic sample of these people (and ask questions regarding topics
such as age, smoking habits, income level, etc.), we could include every fifth person
in line. The “starting” person is selected at random from the first five.
The advantage of a systematic sample is that it is easy to get. However, there are
dangers in using systematic sampling. When the population is repetitive or cyclic in
nature, systematic sampling should not be used. For example, consider a fabric mill
that produces dress material. Suppose the loom that produces the material makes a
mistake every 17th yard, but we check only every 16th yard with an automated elec-
tronic scanner. In this case, a random starting point may or may not result in detection
of fabric flaws before a large amount of fabric is produced.
Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is a method used extensively by government agencies and cer-
tain private research organizations. In cluster sampling, we begin by dividing the
demographic area into sections. Then we randomly select sections or clusters. Every
member of the cluster is included in the sample. For example, in conducting a survey
of school children in a large city, we could first randomly select five schools and then
include all the children from each selected school.
Often a population is very large or geographically spread out. In such cases,
Multistage samples samples are constructed through a multistage sample design of several stages, with
the final stage consisting of clusters. For instance, the government Current Population
Survey interviews about 60,000 households across the United States each month by
means of a multistage sample design.
For the Current Population Survey, the first stage consists of selecting samples
of large geographic areas that do not cross state lines. These areas are further broken
down into smaller blocks, which are stratified according to ethnic and other factors.
Stratified samples of the blocks are then taken. Finally, housing units in each chosen
block are broken into clusters of nearby housing units. A random sample of these clus-
ters of housing units is selected, and each household in the final cluster is interviewed.
Convenience sampling Convenience sampling simply uses results or data that are conveniently and readily
obtained. In some cases, this may be all that is available, and in many cases, it is better
than no information at all. However, convenience sampling does run the risk of being
severely biased. For instance, consider a newsperson who wishes to get the “opinions
of the people” about a proposed seat tax to be imposed on tickets to all sporting events.
The revenues from the seat tax will then be used to support the local symphony. The
newsperson stands in front of a concert hall and surveys the first five people exiting
after a symphony performance who will cooperate. This method of choosing a sample
will produce some opinions, and perhaps some human interest stories, but it certainly
has bias. It is hoped that the city council will not use these opinions as the sole basis for
a decision about the proposed tax. It is good advice to be very cautious indeed when the
data come from the method of convenience sampling.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Random sampling: Use a simple random sample from the entire population.
Stratified sampling: Divide the entire population into distinct subgroups called
strata. The strata are based on a specific characteristic such as age, income,
education level, and so on. All members of a stratum share the specific characteris-
tic. Draw random samples from each stratum.
Systematic sampling: Number all members of the population sequentially. Then,
from a starting point selected at random, include every kth member of the popula-
tion in the sample.
Cluster sampling: Divide the entire population into pre-existing segments or clus-
ters. The clusters are often geographic. Make a random selection of clusters. Include
every member of each selected cluster in the sample.
Multistage sampling: Use a variety of sampling methods to create successively
smaller groups at each stage. The final sample consists of clusters.
Convenience sampling: Create a sample by using data from population members
that are readily available.
CRITICAL
THINKING We call the list of individuals from which a sample is actually selected the sam-
Sampling frame pling frame. Ideally, the sampling frame is the entire population. However, from
a practical perspective, not all members of a population may be accessible. For
instance, using a telephone directory as the sample frame for residential telephone
contacts would not include unlisted numbers.
Undercoverage When the sample frame does not match the population, we have what is
called undercoverage. In demographic studies, undercoverage could result if
the homeless, fugitives from the law, and so forth, are not included in the study.
A sampling frame is a list of individuals from which a sample is actually

selected.
Undercoverage results from omitting population members from the sample

frame.
In general, even when the sampling frame and the population match, a sam-
ple is not a perfect representation of a population. Therefore, information drawn
from a sample may not exactly match corresponding information from the popu-
lation. To the extent that sample information does not match the corresponding
Sampling error population information, we have an error, called a sampling error.
A sampling error is the difference between measurements from a sample and

corresponding measurements from the respective population. It is caused by the
fact that the sample does not perfectly represent the population.
Nonsampling error A nonsampling error is the result of poor sample design, sloppy data collection,
faulty measuring instruments, bias in questionnaires, and so on.
Sampling errors do not represent mistakes! They are simply the conse-
quences of using samples instead of populations. However, be alert to nonsam-
pling errors, which may sometimes occur inadvertently.
VIEWPOINT Extraterrestrial Life?

Do you believe intelligent life exists on other planets? Using methods of random sampling, a Fox
News opinion poll found that about 54% of all U.S. men do believe in intelligent life on other planets,
whereas only 47% of U.S. women believe there is such life. How could you conduct a random survey
of students on your campus regarding belief in extraterrestrial life?
SECTION 1.2 PROBLEMS 1. Statistical Literacy Explain the difference between a stratified sample and a
cluster sample.
2. Statistical Literacy Explain the difference between a simple random sample
and a systematic sample.
3. Statistical Literacy Marcie conducted a study of the cost of breakfast cereal.

She recorded the costs of several boxes of cereal. However, she neglected to
take into account the number of servings in each box. Someone told her not
to worry because she just had some sampling error. Comment on that advice.
4. Statistical Literacy A random sample of students who use the college
recreation center were asked if they approved increasing student fees for all
students in order to add a climbing wall to the recreation center. Describe
the sample frame. Does the sample frame include all students enrolled in the
college? Explain.
5. Interpretation In a random sample of 50 students from a large university,
all the students were between 18 and 20 years old. Can we conclude that the
entire population of students at the university is between 18 and 20 years old?
Explain.
6. Interpretation A campus performance series features plays, music groups,
dance troops, and stand-up comedy. The committee responsible for selecting
the performance groups include three students chosen at random from a pool
of volunteers. This year the 30 volunteers came from a variety of majors.
However, the three students for the committee were all music majors. Does
this fact indicate there was bias in the selection process and that the selection
process was not random? Explain.
7. Critical Thinking Greg took a random sample of size 100 from the popula-
tion of current season ticket holders to State College men’s basketball games.
Then he took a random sample of size 100 from the population of current
season ticket holders to State College women’s basketball games.
(a) What sampling technique (stratified, systematic, cluster, multistage, con-
venience, random) did Greg use to sample from the population of current
season ticket holders to all State College basketball games played by
either men or women?
(b) Is it appropriate to pool the samples and claim to have a random sample of
size 200 from the population of current season ticket holders to all State
College home basketball games played by either men or women? Explain.
8. Critical Thinking Consider the students in your statistics class as the popu-
lation and suppose they are seated in four rows of 10 students each. To select
a sample, you toss a coin. If it comes up heads, you use the 20 students sitting
in the first two rows as your sample. If it comes up tails, you use the 20 stu-
dents sitting in the last two rows as your sample.
(a) Does every student have an equal chance of being selected for the sample?
Explain.
(b) Is it possible to include students sitting in row 3 with students sitting in
row 2 in your sample? Is your sample a simple random sample? Explain.
(c) Describe a process you could use to get a simple random sample of size 20
from a class of size 40.
9. Critical Thinking Suppose you are assigned the number 1, and the other
students in your statistics class call out consecutive numbers until each person
in the class has his or her own number. Explain how you could get a random
sample of four students from your statistics class.
(a) Explain why the first four students walking into the classroom would not
necessarily form a random sample.
(b) Explain why four students coming in late would not necessarily form a
random sample.
(c) Explain why four students sitting in the back row would not necessarily
form a random sample.
(d) Explain why the four tallest students would not necessarily form a
random sample.
10. Critical Thinking In each of the following situations, the sampling frame
does not match the population, resulting in undercoverage. Give examples of
population members that might have been omitted.
(a) The population consists of all 250 students in your large statistics class.
You plan to obtain a simple random sample of 30 students by using the
sampling frame of students present next Monday.
(b) The population consists of all 15-year-olds living in the attendance district of
a local high school. You plan to obtain a simple random sample of 200 such
residents by using the student roster of the high school as the sampling frame.
11. Sampling: Random Use a random-number table to generate a list of 10
random numbers between 1 and 99. Explain your work.
12. Sampling: Random Use a random-number table to generate a list of eight
random numbers from 1 to 976. Explain your work.
13. Sampling: Random Use a random-number table to generate a list of six
random numbers from 1 to 8615. Explain your work.
14. Simulation: Coin Toss Use a random-number table to simulate the outcomes
of tossing a quarter 25 times. Assume that the quarter is balanced (i.e., fair).
15. Computer Simulation: Roll of a Die A die is a cube with dots on each face.
The faces have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 dots. The table below is a computer simulation
(from the software package Minitab) of the results of rolling a fair die 20 times.
DATA DISPLAY
ROW C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10
1 5 2 2 2 5 3 2 3 1 4
2 3 2 4 5 4 5 3 5 3 4
(a) Assume that each number in the table corresponds to the number of dots
on the upward face of the die. Is it appropriate that the same number
appears more than once? Why? What is the outcome of the fourth roll?
(b) If we simulate more rolls of the die, do you expect to get the same
sequence of outcomes? Why or why not?
16. Simulation: Birthday Problem Suppose there are 30 people at a party. Do
you think any two share the same birthday? Let’s use the random-number
table to simulate the birthdays of the 30 people at the party. Ignoring leap year,
let’s assume that the year has 365 days. Number the days, with 1 represent-
ing January 1, 2 representing January 2, and so forth, with 365 representing
December 31. Draw a random sample of 30 days (with replacement). These
days represent the birthdays of the people at the party. Were any two of the
birthdays the same? Compare your results with those obtained by other stu-
dents in the class. Would you expect the results to be the same or different?
17. Education: Test Construction Professor Gill is designing a multiple-choice
test. There are to be 10 questions. Each question is to have five choices for
answers. The choices are to be designated by the letters a, b, c, d, and e.
Professor Gill wishes to use a random-number table to determine which
letter choice should correspond to the correct answer for a question. Using
the number correspondence 1 for a, 2 for b, 3 for c, 4 for d, and 5 for e, use a
random-number table to determine the letter choice for the correct answer for
each of the 10 questions.
18. Education: Test Construction Professor Gill uses true–false questions. She
wishes to place 20 such questions on the next test. To decide whether to place
a true statement or a false statement in each of the 20 questions, she uses a
random-number table. She selects 20 digits from the table. An even digit tells
her to use a true statement. An odd digit tells her to use a false statement. Use a
random-number table to pick a sequence of 20 digits, and describe the corre-

sponding sequence of 20 true–false questions. What would the test key for your
sequence look like?
19. Sampling Methods: Benefits Package An important part of employee
compensation is a benefits package, which might include health insurance, life
insurance, child care, vacation days, retirement plan, parental leave, bonuses, etc.
Suppose you want to conduct a survey of benefits packages available in private
businesses in Hawaii. You want a sample size of 100. Some sampling techniques
are described below. Categorize each technique as simple random sample, strati-
fied sample, systematic sample, cluster sample, or convenience sample.
(a) Assign each business in the Island Business Directory a number, and then
use a random-number table to select the businesses to be included in the
sample.
(b) Use postal ZIP Codes to divide the state into regions. Pick a random
sample of 10 ZIP Code areas and then include all the businesses in each
selected ZIP Code area.
(c) Send a team of five research assistants to Bishop Street in downtown
Honolulu. Let each assistant select a block or building and interview an
employee from each business found. Each researcher can have the rest of
the day off after getting responses from 20 different businesses.
(d) Use the Island Business Directory. Number all the businesses. Select a
starting place at random, and then use every 50th business listed until you
have 100 businesses.
(e) Group the businesses according to type: medical, shipping, retail, manu-
facturing, financial, construction, restaurant, hotel, tourism, other. Then
select a random sample of 10 businesses from each business type.
20. Sampling Methods: Health Care Modern Managed Hospitals (MMH) is a
national for-profit chain of hospitals. Management wants to survey patients
discharged this past year to obtain patient satisfaction profiles. They wish
to use a sample of such patients. Several sampling techniques are described
below. Categorize each technique as simple random sample, stratified sample,
systematic sample, cluster sample, or convenience sample.
(a) Obtain a list of patients discharged from all MMH facilities. Divide the patients
according to length of hospital stay (2 days or less, 3–7 days, 8–14 days, more
than 14 days). Draw simple random samples from each group.
(b) Obtain lists of patients discharged from all MMH facilities. Number these
patients, and then use a random-number table to obtain the sample.
(c) Randomly select some MMH facilities from each of five geographic
regions, and then include all the patients on the discharge lists of the
selected hospitals.
(d) At the beginning of the year, instruct each MMH facility to survey every
500th patient discharged.
(e) Instruct each MMH facility to survey 10 discharged patients this week
and send in the results.
Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images
SECTION 1.3 Introduction to Experimental Design

FOCUS POINTS
t Discuss what it means to take a census.
t Describe simulations, observational studies, and experiments.
t Identify control groups, placebo effects, completely randomized experiments,
and randomized block experiments.
t Discuss potential pitfalls that might make your data unreliable.
Planning a Statistical Study

Planning a statistical study and gathering data are essential components of obtaining
reliable information. Depending on the nature of the statistical study, a great deal of
expertise and resources may be required during the planning stage. In this section, we
look at some of the basics of planning a statistical study.
PROCEDURE
Basic guidelines for planning a statistical study
1. First, identify the individuals or objects of interest.
2. Specify the variables as well as the protocols for taking measurements
or making observations.
3. Determine if you will use an entire population or a representative
sample. If using a sample, decide on a viable sampling method.
4. In your data collection plan, address issues of ethics, subject confi-
dentiality, and privacy. If you are collecting data at a business, store,
college, or other institution, be sure to be courteous and to obtain
permission as necessary.
5. Collect the data.
6. Use appropriate descriptive statistics methods (Chapters 2, 3, and 9)
and make decisions using appropriate inferential statistics methods
(Chapters 7–11).
7. Finally, note any concerns you might have about your data collection
methods and list any recommendations for future studies.
One issue to consider is whether to use the entire population in a study or a repre-
Census sentative sample. If we use data from the entire population, we have a census.
In a census, measurements or observations from the entire population are used.
When the population is small and easily accessible, a census is very useful
because it gives complete information about the population. However, obtaining a
census can be both expensive and difficult. Every 10 years, the U.S. Department
of Commerce Census Bureau is required to conduct a census of the United States.
However, contacting some members of the population—such as the homeless—is
almost impossible. Sometimes members of the population will not respond. In such
cases, statistical estimates for the missing responses are often supplied.
Overcounting, that is, counting the same person more than once, is also a prob-
lem the Census Bureau is addressing. In fact, in 2000, slightly more people were
counted twice than the estimated number of people missed. For instance, a college
student living on campus might be counted on a parent’s census form as well as on
his or her own census form.
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Again he raised his impassioned voice. Lepraylya, however, turned
upon him fiercely.
"Peace!" she cried. "I bid you, peace—yes, even you, O
Brendaldoombro, High Priest of Drome though you are!
"What! You would still make of this room a shambles, stain the very
throne of your queen with human blood!"
"They are not human!" he shrieked. "They are demons that have
assumed the bodies of men!"
A murmur of superstitious horror arose.
"Ho, guard!" cried the queen. "Guard, ho!"
It is my belief that some cool-headed gentleman had bethought
himself of the guard before ever the queen, for it was only a few
moments before a score or so of armed men had entered the room
and taken a position, in the form of a semicircle, before the throne.
The eyes of Lathendra Lepraylya were blazing like that great jewel
on her brow. Those eyes were fixed upon Brendaldoombro, and I
actually thought that the old raptor quailed a little under that look of
outraged majesty. If this was indeed so, it was for an instant or two
only. His look, one of baffled fury, then became fixed and defiant.
"So!" said Lathendra Lepraylya. "What madness is this that I see?
What blood-howl is this that I hear? No woman or man in Drome
may be deprived of liberty or life without a fair trial; and yet you, yes,
even you, O Brendaldoombro, are here striving to make a shambles
of the very throne itself."
She raised her hand and pointed toward us.
"If these men are indeed—"
"They are not men!" the old villain shouted. "They are demons who
have taken the human shape, to attain here in Drome some fell
purpose. Death, I say! Death to these masqueraded devils! Let death
be swift and—"
"Peace, I say!" exclaimed Lepraylya, stamping her sandaled foot.
"And, if these men from the World Above are indeed but devils
counterfeit, could we kill them, O Brendaldoombro? Since when can
mere man kill a devil?"
"When they are in the human shape, he can! Death! Death to these
fiends who—"
"One can kill their bodies only," interrupted the queen, "and it may be
that he can not do even that much."
"Their bodies only? What more," demanded Brendaldoombro, "can
one do to any woman or man? Death! Death to these demons!"
"Their spirits would be but loosed from the body, O Brendaldoombro,
to move unseen in the air about us, and they could then—if, that is,
they really are devils—the more easily achieve their nefarious
designs."
"They would be harmless then!" came the ready answer. "They are
helpless save when they are in the human form."
"Since when?" queried Lepraylya, her eyes widening in surprise.
"Since when did the minions of the Evil One become helpless unless
in human shape?"
"You misapprehend, O Lathendra Lepraylya. These belong to a most
peculiar order, to a most rare species of bad angel. And," cried
Brendaldoombro, "they are the worst devils of all! Death to them
before it is too late! Let us—"
"Have justice," said Lepraylya, "as we hope for mercy and justice in
that dread day when every human soul—even yours, O
Brendaldoombro—must stand and be judged for the sins it has done
in the flesh. No human being may be condemned in Drome without
trial; and I believe that Lord Milton and Lord Bill are true men, O
Brendaldoombro, and no demons. And you would slay them, murder
them, these the first men from the World Above, as you would slay a
gogrugron—if you did not fear it, O Brendaldoombro. Who knows
what message they bring to us? Now they stand silent; but, when
they will have learned our language, then we shall learn that which is
now so dark and so mysterious."
"Dark and mysterious indeed!" cried the high priest. "Signs and
portents have been given us, warning us of what is to follow if we
harbor these demons amongst us. And I tell you, O Lathendra
Lepraylya, you and all Drome shall rue this day if you heed not the
dread warnings of the wrath Divine. Darkness I see! Yes, I see,
darkness! And earth-shocks! The roof of our world crashing down!
Calamities that will overwhelm all Drome and—"
"Silence!" Lepraylya commanded. "Silence, croaker of evil! One
would almost think, O Brendaldoombro, that you know more about
the angels of the Evil One than you do about God's own. Hear now
my word:
"When Lord Bill and Lord Milton can answer the charge that they are
demons masquerading in the shapes of men, then, O
Brendaldoombro, and not before, shall they be brought to trial—if,
indeed, you will prefer that charge against them then.
"Such is my word to you, O Brendaldoombro, and to you, ladies and
lords all, and on the majesty of the Droman law and of the dread law
of God it stands."
Chapter 43
DRORATHUSA
And so it was that we reached, there in the palace of the Droman
queen, our journey's and—certainly a stranger journey than any I
ever have heard of and one that ought to prove of even greater
interest to scientists than to the world in general.
If, however, what they tell of the region is true, an expedition to the
mysterious land that the Dromans call Grawngrograr would make our
journey to Drome look like a promenade to fairyland.
But our journey ended there in the palace, and now it is that my story
rapidly draws to a close.
Probably you will think that, there under the aegis of Lathendra
Lepraylya, we found ourselves in clover. And, in a way, this was
undoubtedly so. We were given each a splendid suite of rooms in the
palace itself, and our lives were as the lives of princes, save that the
close protective guard always kept over us was a reminder that there
was such a personage in the world as one Brendaldoombro.
If it had not been for that vulture-shadow, how wonderful those days
would have been!
But that shadow was there, and it never lifted. And the worst of it
was that everything was involved in the deepest gloom and mystery,
what with our ignorance of the Droman language. Forsooth,
however, had we been masters of that language, we could not have
known the plots that were hatching in the dark skull of
Brendaldoombro.
As for the language, we were studying it with diligence, and we really
had cause to be astonished at the rapidity of our progress.
As to the high priest, crafty and consummate villain though he was,
that worthy found that Lathendra Lepraylya was quite his match and
more than his match, as, indeed, was Drorathusa. Against the queen
he was, of course, powerless to take any repressive measure; but
the case was very different with regard to Drorathusa. He could act
in this way, and he did.
She was sent to a distant, lonely, forsaken place on the very
outskirts of the kingdom, or, to be precise, queendom. According to
all accounts, that spot is really a terrible one. Drorathusa was, in fact,
in exile, though Brendaldoombro did not like to hear any one call it
that. But almost everybody did or regarded it as such, and there
were murmurs, not only amongst the Droman people, but even
amongst those priestesses and priests whom the old villain had
counted upon to applaud his every word and act.
Nor did time still those murmurs. On the contrary, they grew louder,
more persistent. Brendaldoombro was learning that it is one thing to
send a person into exile and quite another to banish that person from
the popular esteem. Nor did he stop at banishment; he had recourse
to the assassin's dagger and the arts of the poisoner. But, in all
these attempts upon the life of Drorathusa, he was thwarted by the
agents of the queen. Lepraylya knew her opponent, and had at once
taken measures to safeguard the life of the exiled priestess, who
held as high a place in the esteem of her sovereign as she did in the
hearts of the people.
How strange it seems to be writing of things like these in this the
Twentieth Century, the Golden Age of Science! But, as I believe I
have already remarked, Science hasn't discovered everything yet.
This is a stranger, a more wonderful, a more mysterious old globe
than even Science herself dreams it to be.
When our acquisition of the language became a real one, we began
to learn something of the science of Drome and to impart a
knowledge of the wonderful science of our own world. Never shall I
forget the amazement of the queen and those learned men of Drome
when Rhodes brought his mathematics into play. Problems that only
a Droman Archimedes could solve and that only after much labor
(what with their awful notation) Rhodes solved, presto—just like that!
So unwieldly was the system of notation employed by these
Hypogeans that even their greatest mathematicians had been able
to do no more than roughly approximate pi.
When Rhodes proceed to the solution of trigonometrical problems,
their amazement knew no bounds. And, when he explained to them
that all they had to do to become masters of such problems was to
discard their cumbersome notation and adopt the simple numerals
used by ourselves—well, I do actually believe that that was the straw
that broke the back of Brendaldoombro's power! For (strange though
it may seem to a world that is more interested in any kind of
abracahokum, and especially any kind of political jiggumbob, than it
is in science) that brought over to our side virtually every learned
man in Drome and a majority of the people themselves. Nor should I
forget the priestesses and the priests. Your average Droman is much
interested in all things of a scientific nature, and no one more so than
the true priestess or priest, though there are, of course, some
lamentable exceptions.
Yes, clearly we were men and not demons, else never would we
have brought such wonders as these to offer them as gifts to the
Dromans.
But old Brendaldoombro had his answer ready.
"Instead," said he, "that proves that they are not men; only devils
could be such wizards!"
I have often wondered what dark thoughts would have passed
through that dark brain of his had he been there the day that Milton
Rhodes showed Lathendra Lepraylya, all those learned men and all
those grand lords and ladies (ladies and lords, a Droman would say)
the marvels of a steam-engine. Yes, there the little thing was, only
two feet or so high but perfect in all its parts, puffing away merrily,
and puffing and puffing, and all those Dromans looking on in wonder
and delight.
Even as we sat there, came word that Brendaldoombro was dead.
He had died suddenly and painlessly just after placing his hand in
blessing on the head of a little child.
Well, they gave him a magnificent funeral.
Peace to his soul.
On the death of the Droman high priest (or priestess) a successor is
chosen, in the great temple in the Golden City, by a synod composed
of exactly five hundred, the majority of whom are usually priestesses.
On the very first ballot, Drorathusa (who was already on her way
back from her lonely place of exile) was chosen.
Priestesses and priests, I should perhaps remark, are free to marry,
unless they have taken the vow of celibacy. This (voluntarily, of
course) many of them do. Drorathusa, by the way, had not done so.
Came, at last, the day when Milton Rhodes told me that he was
going to be married—to Lathendra Lepraylya herself. The news,
however, was not wholly unexpected.
Well, every man of us can't marry a queen—though of queans there
are plenty.
I take the following from my journal:
"They were married today, about ten o'clock, in the great temple; and
a very grand wedding it was, too. Drorathusa herself spoke the
words that made them man and wife, for the sovereign of Drome can
be married by the high priestess or priest only.
"Now, as she proceeded with the ceremony, which was a very long
one, I thought that that pale face of Drorathusa's grew paler still and
that a distraught look was coming into her eyes. Then I told myself
that it was only a fancy. But it was not fancy. For of a sudden her lip
began to tremble, her voice faltered, the look in her eyes suddenly
became wild and helpless—and she broke down.
"A moment or two, however, and that extraordinary woman had got
control over herself again.
"She motioned the attendant priestesses and priests aside; a wan
smile touched her lips as she pressed a hand to her side and said:
"'It was just my heart—but I am better now.'
"She at once proceeded with the ceremony, voice and features
under absolute control. Again she was Drorathusa the Sibylline.
"And so they were married. And may they live happy and very
happily ever after!"
And then, after the great nuptial banquet in the palace, off went the
happy pair in the queen's barge for Lella Nuramanistherom, a lovely
royal seat some thirty miles down the river; whilst I betook myself to
the solitude of my rooms, there to ponder on the glad-sad lot of man,
to hear over and over, and over again, those low tragic words:
"It was just my heart—but I am better now."
"Amor," says Saint Jerome, "ordinem nescit."
Beautiful, Sibylline, noble, poor Drorathusa!
Chapter 44
WE SEE THE STARS
When facing the dangers, mysteries, horrors (and other things) of our
descent to this strange and wonderful subterranean land of Drome, how
often did I say to myself:
"If ever I get out of this, never anything like it again!"
And I truly believed it at the time, though I should have known better. I
should have known—I did know that adventure and mystery have
inexplicable and most dreadful charms. Indeed, the more fearful the
Unknown, the more eager a man (one who has heard the Siren song which
adventure and mystery sing) is to penetrate to its secret places—unless,
indeed, the charms of some Lepraylya or Drorathusa entwine themselves
about the heart. In my case—well, Amor ordinem nescit.
Here was I in the Golden City; here was everything, it would seem to
another, that could conduce to contentment, to that peace of mind which is
dearer that all. And yet I was restless and very unhappy.
And the Unknown was calling, calling and calling for me to come. To what?
Perhaps to wonders the like of which Science never has dreamed. Perhaps
to horrors and mysteries from which the imagination of even a Dante or a
Doré would shrink, would flee in mad terror—things nameless, worse than
any seen in a horrible dream.
But I wanted to go. Yes, I would go. I would go into that fearful land of
Grawngrograr—discover its mysteries or perish in the attempt.
And I am going, too. That journey has not been abandoned, only delayed.
It was like this.
I was drawing up, in my mind, tentative plans (my purpose was yet a secret)
when one day Milton Rhodes came in, and, after smiling in somewhat
enigmatic fashion for some moments, he suddenly asked:
"I say, Bill, how would you like to see the stars, the sun again?"
"The sun? Milton, what do you mean?"
"That I am going back to the surface, out onto the snow and ice of Rainier,
back to Seattle. I thought that you would want to go along."
"What in the world," I exclaimed, "are you going back for?"
"There are many things that we ought to have here in Drome; a book of
logarithms, the best that I can get, is one of them. We'll get those things, or
as many as we can, for it would, of course, be impossible to bring them all.
We'll wind up our sublunary affairs, and, hurrah, then back to Drome! What
do you say to that, old tillicum?"
"What does Lepraylya say?"
"That I may go; otherwise, of course, there would be no going. At first she
wouldn't even hear of it. She feared that it might be impossible for us to
maintain secrecy—that some of our precious politicians might get down into
Drome. I am sure she believes that the kingdom would have more to fear
from half a dozen of those sons of Proteus than from an army of sixty
thousand men. And, bless her heart, when I think of some of their blunders,
asininity, hypocrisy, lying, stupidity, coat-turning and sheer insanity, I am of
opinion that there is not much exaggeration, if any, in that idea of hers.
"But I have at last gained her consent. With our large party, there can not be
any danger."
I was not sure of that, but I kept those thoughts to myself.
"Of course, I want to go," I told him. "But I want to come back to Drome."
"Most assuredly, Bill, we'll come back to Drome."
"But," said I, "there is something that I don't understand."
"Which is what?"
"We can't keep our great discovery a secret. And, as soon as our world has
it, adventurers, spoilers, crooks, thieves and worse will come swarming
down that passage. We'll loose upon our poor Dromans a horde of Pizarros."
"Did I think for one single moment that what you say, or anything like it,
would follow, never one step would I take towards the sun. You say that we
can not keep the discovery of Drome a secret; we can, and we will—until
such time as it will not matter. We will come out onto the glacier in the
nighttime. Our ways of egress—I suppose we'll have to tunnel our way out
through the ice, that there will not be any accommodating crevasse—will be
most carefully concealed. No one will see us come out. No one will know of
our journeys to and from the Tamahnowis Rocks, for they will be made
under cover of darkness. No one will know.
"Fortunately, by the way, as it now turns out," he added, "when we adopted
the Droman dress, we did not throw away our pants et cetera, and so,
though those clothes are somewhat the worse for wear, our appearance up
there on Mount Rainier will cause no remark."
"But our showing up at home," I said, "after so long an absence will cause
plenty of remarks and more than remarks. How will we answer all the
questions that they will surely ask us?"
"Tut, tut!" smiled Milton. "If all our difficulties could be so easily resolved as
that!"
"But how will we do it?"
"We won't answer them, Bill; we'll keep them guessing."
"But suppose we find that Scranton has let out something that will give them
a pretty good idea as to what has happened?"
"That might be bad," answered Rhodes. "But I have every confidence in
Scranton's discretion. He will, I feel sure, maintain that utter silence which I
requested, until the period designated expires. Possibly he may never tell
what he knows.
"I believe, however," he went on, "that we ought to leave the world, our
world, a record of the discovery. I will set down to the extent that time
permits those things which, in my opinion, will interest the scientific world. As
for the discovery itself, the journey and our adventures, yours, Bill, is the
hand to record that."
"A record?" I exclaimed. "Then why all this secrecy, this moving under cover
of darkness and pussy-footing around if you are going to broadcast the
discovery of Drome to the whole world?"
"Because we will then have left that world and the way to this will have been
blasted up and otherwise closed."
"That," I told him, "will never keep them out."
"I believe that it will. And, if any one ever does find his way down, he'll never
return to the surface; he'll spend the rest of his days here in Drome, even if
he lives to be as old as Methuselah. Be sure that you put that into the
record! The Dromans are human, and so they are not quite saints. But their
land is never going to be infested with plunderers or any of our sons of
Proteus if I can prevent it, and I feel confident that I can.
"This closing of the way will not mean complete isolation. At any rate, I hope
that it will not. For I feel confident that ere very long the two worlds will
communicate with each other by radio. There is a possibility, too, though that
possibility is indeed a very remote one, that each will even see, by means of
television, the inhabitants and the marvels of the other."
One or two weird things befell us during our return journey, but time presses
and I can not pause to record them here.
The party was composed of picked men, one of whom was Ondonarkus. We
had one ape-bat.
This going up was a more difficult business, I want to tell you, than our going
down had been. There was one consolation: we did not get lost.
Onward and upward we toiled, and at last, on the 28th of June, we reached
the Tamahnowis Rocks. Thanks to Rhodes' chronometer-watch and the very
careful record which he had kept, we knew the very hour.
This was about ten o'clock in the morning. The way out was completely
blocked by the ice. Cool air, however, was flowing in through fissures and
clefts in the walls and the roof of the tunnel.
We waited until along towards midnight, for fear some one might be about,
that some sound might reveal the secret of the rock.
It was about ten o'clock when we began to dig our way out through the ice.
The tunnel was not driven out into the glacier but up alongside the rock wall,
through the edge of the ice-stream.
Hurrah! At last our passage was through!
And, as old Dante has it,
"Thence issuing we again beheld the stars."
[1] Zandara by John Martin Leahy, Fantasy Publishing Company, Inc.,

1953.
[2] This surmise of Mr. Carter's is correct. The above quotation is taken
from a modernized Anatomy of Melancholy. Burton, though from what
Latin writer he took the words I can not say, wrote:
"Animis haec scribo, non auribus."—Darwin Frontenac.
[3] Sick Moon: Old Moon in the Chinook jargon.—Darwin Frontenac.
[4] "At this time (November, 1843) two of the great snowy cones, Mount
Regnier and St. Helens, were in action. On the 23rd of the preceding
November, St. Helens had scattered its ashes, like a white fall of snow,
over the Dalles of the Columbia, 50 miles distant. A specimen of these
ashes was given to me by Mr. Brewer, one of the clergymen at the
Dalles."—Fremont.
[5] "When the bridge at Colebrook Dale (the first iron bridge in the world)
was building, a fiddler came along and said to the workmen that he could
fiddle their bridge down. The builders thought this boast a fiddle-de-dee,
and invited the itinerant musician to fiddle away to his heart's content.
One note after another was struck upon the strings until one was found
with which the bridge was in sympathy. When the bridge began to shake
violently, the incredulous workmen were alarmed at the unexpected
result, and ordered the fiddler to stop."—Prof. J. Lovering.
[6] "It has been calculated that at the depth of 35 miles, air, subjected to
the pressure of a column of matter of the mean density of that at the
surface of the earth, would acquire the density of water; that at the depth
of 173 miles, water itself, which is eminently incompressible, would
acquire the density of marble; and at the centre, marble would have a
density 119 times greater than at the surface. But the comparatively small
mean density of the mass [of the earth] proves that none of these effects
take place."—Brande.
[7] "The cases are certainly not numerous where marine currents are
known to pour continuously into cavities beneath the surface of the earth,
but there is at least one well-authenticated instance of this sort—that of
the mill streams at Argostoli in the island of Cephalonia. It has been long
observed that the sea water flowed into several rifts and cavities in the
limestone rocks of the coast, but the phenomenon has excited little
attention until very recently. In 1833, three of the entrances were closed,
and a regular channel, sixteen feet long and three feet wide, with a fall of
three feet, was cut into the mouth of a larger cavity. The sea water flowed
into this canal, and could be followed eighteen or twenty feet beyond its
inner terminus, when it disappeared in holes and clefts in the rock."—
George P. Marsh: Man and Nature.
[8] "Considering that the mean density of the whole earth is only about
five and a half times that of water, and that the materials of which the
crust of the earth is composed are all compressible in a greater or less
degree, so that even at no very great depth the density of the different
substances must be greatly increased by the mere pressure of the
superincumbent materials, some philosophers have supposed that the
effects of pressure must be counterbalanced by the expansive force of a
great heat subsisting in the interior of the earth; and others that the earth
is not solid, but merely a hollow shell of inconsiderable thickness."—
Brande.
[9] "One dark night, about the beginning of December, while passing
along the streets of the Villa de Natividada, I observed some boys
amusing themselves with some luminous object, which I at first supposed
to be a kind of large fire-fly; but on making inquiry, I found it to be a
beautiful phosphorescent Fungus, belonging to the genus Agaricus....
The whole plant gives out at night a bright phosphorescent light, of a pale
greenish hue, similar to that emitted by the larger fire-flies, or by those
curious soft-bodied marine animals, the Pyrosomae. From this
circumstance, and from growing on a palm, it is called by the inhabitants
'Flor de Coco.' The light given out by a few of these Fungi in a dark room
was sufficient to read by."—George Gardner.
[10] "The Chevalier d'Angos, a learned astronomer, carefully observed,
for several days, a lizard with two heads, and assured himself that this
lizard had two wills independent of each other, and possessing nearly
equal power over the body, which was in one. When a piece of bread was
presented to the animal, in such a manner that it could see it with one
head only, that head wished to go towards the bread, while the other
head wished the body to remain still."—Voltaire.
[11] See In Amundsen's Tent, by John Martin Leahy, in August Derleth's
anthology called The Sleeping and the Dead, page 386.—Darwin
Frontenac.
[12] "A very decided luminosity has been observed to proceed from
dissecting-room subjects, the light thus evolved being sufficient to render
the forms of the parts (which are peculiarly bright), almost as distinct as in
the daylight.... Three cases are recorded by Sir H. Marsh, in which an
evolution of light took place from the living body.... The light in each case
is described as playing around the face, but not as directly proceeding
from the surface; and in one of these instances, which was recorded by
Dr. D. Donovan, not only was the luminous appearance perceptible over
the head of the patient's bed, but luminous vapours passed in streams
through the apartment."—Dr. Carpenter.
[13] "The very children, it is said, pointed to their foreheads as he passed,
being taught to regard him as a kind of madman."—Irving.
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Understandable Statistics: Concepts and © 2018, 2015, 2012 Cengage Learning

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3 Averages and Variation 88

USING TECHNOLOGY 138

Cumulative Review Problems: Chapters 1-3 139

4 Elementary Probability Theory 142

USING TECHNOLOGY 194

5 The Binomial Probability

6 Normal Curves and Sampling Distributions 270

7.2 Estimating m When s Is Unknown 374

USING TECHNOLOGY 432

8 Hypothesis Testing 436

USING TECHNOLOGY 529

9 Correlation and Regression 532

USING TECHNOLOGY 616

10 Chi-Square and F Distributions 622

10.2 Chi-Square: Goodness of Fit 640

USING TECHNOLOGY 707

11 Nonparametric Statistics 710

Cumulative Review Problems: Chapters 10-11 752

Appendix I: Additional Topics A1

Appendix II: Tables A9

Answers and Key Steps to Odd-Numbered Problems A39

We can use this indicator to determine whether a speciﬁed number of successes

What Does (concept, method,

Statistical Literacy Problems

box-and-whisker plot. Box-and-whisker plots provide another useful technique

SECTION 4.2 SECTION 4.3

magazines, and government reports; and the half-lives of

i. Test the claim that p is more than 0.301. Use a 5 0.01.

The Preview Questions in each chapter are followed by a

REVISED! Tech Notes > Tech Notes Box-and-Whisker Plot

> USING TECHNOLOGY

11. Pain Management: Laser Therapy “Effect of Helium-Neon Laser

Source: Advantage Business Research for Mattel Compatibility

(b) Find P111 6 x 6 132. We convert the interval

to a standard z interval and use the standard normal

r Just-in-time and side-by-side assignment help –provide students with scaffolded

Major Changes in the Twelfth Edition

Additional Flexibility Provided by Dividing Chapters into Parts

Revised Examples and New Section Problems

Updates in Technology Including Mindtab Express

Introduction of Hypothesis Testing Using P-Values

Use of Student’s t Distribution in Conﬁdence Intervals and

Conﬁdence Intervals and Hypothesis Tests of Difference

Features in the Twelfth Edition

Carefully Developed Pedagogy

Technology Within the Text

Expand Your Knowledge Problems and Quick Overview Topics

calculating odds in favor and odds against; extension of conditional probability to

Most Recent Operating System for the