Jr.
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GET
60
MARKS
60 PAGES
60 QUESTIONS
BY
SUNIL VODELA
M.Sc CHEMISTRY B.Ed
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1. Write the Postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom? Discus the importance of this model to
explain various series of line spectra in hydrogen atom.
Ans. Postulates of Bohr’s atomic model:
i) The electron in hydrogen atom revolves around the nucleus in a fixed circular paths called orbits
ii) Each orbit is associated with definite energy. So these are called energy levels or energy shells.
iii) These energy levels are designated as 1,2,3,4..... or K,L,M,N.... from the side of nucleus.
iv) The electron revolves in a particular orbit the energy of an electron remains constant, Hence these
orbits are called stationary orbits.
h
v) The angular momentum of an electron is always integral multiple of .
2
nh
It is given by mvr .
2
vi) If an electron jumps from one level to another level it may emit or absorb energy.
E E 2 E1 h
If electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit it absorbs energy.
If electron jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit then it emits energy.
Bohr’s Explanation to Hydrogen Spectrum :
i) Hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron in the ground state.
ii) By the absorption of 13.56 e.V. energy, electron jumps to the higher energy level which is
unstable. Hence it comes back to ground state by emiting the energy.
iii) The emission of energy may occur in one step or in several steps. Since a sample of hydrogen
contains many atoms several spectral lines are formed.
They are Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and pfund series.
Name of the series n1 n2 Spectral region
Lyman series 1 2,3,4,5... UV region
Balmer series 2 3,4,5,6... Visible region
Paschen series 3 4,5,6,7... Near IR
Brackett series 4 5,6,7.... Middle IR
Pfund series 5 6,7,8,9... Far IR
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n=7
n=6
P fund series (Far IR region)
n=5
Brackett Series(Middle IR region)
n=4
Paschen Series (Near I.R region)
n=3
Balmer Series(Visible region)
n=2
Lyman series(U.V. region)
n=1
The wave number and wave length of these spectral lines can be caluculated by using Rydberg’s
equation.
1 1 1
R ,
n12 n 22
R = Rydberg’s constant = 109677 cm–1
n1 = lower orbit
n2 = higher orbit
2. How are the quantum numbers n, l , m, s arrived and explain the significance of these quantum
numbers?
Ans. Quantum numbers are introduced to explain the main shell, subshell, orientation and spin of the electrons.
The four quantum numbers are
i) Principal quantum number (n)
ii) Azimuthal quantum number (l )
iii) Magnetic quantum number (m)
iv) Spin quantum number (s)
i) Principal quantum number (n) :
p It was proposed by Neil’s Bohr. It is denoted by ‘n’.
p The values of n are 1,2,3,4 .... (or) K,L,M,N..... respectively
p The total number of orbitals = n2
p The maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2n2
Significance: It indicates the size and energy of the orbit.
ii) Azimuthal quantum number (l) :
p It was proposed by Sommer feld. It is denoted by ‘l’
p The value of l depends on ‘n’. The value of l are from 0 to (n – 1)
p When l values are 0,1,2,3... the sub shells are called s,p,d,f..... respectively.
The number of subshells in an energy level = ‘n’ value
Significance: It indicates the shape of orbital.
iii) Magnetic quantum number (m) :
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p It was proposed by Lande. It is denoted by ‘m’.
p The values of ‘m’ depends on ‘l’. The values of m are from –l to +l including 0.
p The total m values or orbitals in subshell = 2l + 1.
p The number of orbitals in s,p,d and f sub shells are 1,3,5 and 7 respectively.
p The number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l + 1).
p The total number of electrons in s,p,d and f sub shells are 2,6,10 and 14 respectively.
Significance: It indicates the orientation of orbital in space.
iv) Spin quantum number(s or ms) :
p It was proposed by Goudsmith and Uhlenbeck. It is denoted by ‘s’.
1 1
p It is independent. The values of s are and
2 2
If the electron revolves in clock wise direction - spin is given as
1
p
2
If the electron revolves in anti clock wise direction - spin is given as
1
p
2
p The maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2.
p The maximum number of electrons present in s,p,d and f shells are 2,6,10 and 14 respectively
Significance: It indicates the direction of the spin of the electron.
Periodic Classification
3. Write an essay on the division of elements into s, p, d and f-blocks .
Ans. Differentiating electron : The last electron entering into atomic orbital is called differentiating electron.
Based on differentiating electron the elements are classified into four blocks.
They are i) s-Block ii) p-Block iii) d-Block iv) f-Block
s d p
f
i) s-block elements :
p The elements in which differtiating electrons enters into s-orbital are called s-block elements.
p These are placed on the left portion of the periodic table.
p The maximum number of electrons that can be accomadated in s subshell is 2.
p It contains two groups namely alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (IA and IIA).
p The general electronic configration is ns1 – 2.
ii) p-block elements :
p The elements in which differtiating electrons enters into p-orbital are called p-block elements.
p These are placed on the right portion of the periodic table.
p The maximum number of electrons that can be accomadated in p sub shell is 6.
p It contains ‘6’ groups from 13 to 18.
p The general electronic configuration is ns2 np1 – 6
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iii) d-block elements :
p The elements in which the differentiating electron enters into penultimate shell or (n – 1)d sub shell
are called d-block elements.
p These are placed in between s- and p-block elements (Middle portion).
p The maximum number of electrons that can be accomadated in d subshell is 10.
p The groups are designated from 3 to 12.
p The general electronic configuration of these elements is (n – 1) d 1 – 10 ns1 – 2
iv) f-block elements :
p The elements in which the differentiating electron enters into anti penultimate shell or (n-2)f subshell
are called f-block elements.
p The maximum number of electrons that can be accomadated in f sub shell is 14.
p It contains two series namely lanthanides and actinides with 14 elements each.
p These are placed in lanthanum and actinium elements of IIIB group. So these are also called inner
transition elements.
p The general electronic configuration is (n – 2) f 1 – 14 (n – 1) d0 – 1 ns2
p They commonly show +2 and +3 oxidation states.
4. What is a periodic property? How the following properties vary in a group and in a period?
Explain.
a) Atomic Radius b) IE c) EN d) EA e) Nature of oxides of elements
Ans: Periodicity :
p The repetition of properties of elements at certain regular intervals of electronic configuaraion is called
periodicity and the properties are called periodic properties.
Eg. : Atomic radius, ionization potential, electro negativity, electron affinity etc.
a) Atomic radius :
p The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outer most shell of an atom is called as
atomic radius.
i) Variation of atomic radii in IA group: In a group, from top to bottom the atomic radius
increases as the atomic number increases.
Reason : It is due to the differentiating electron enters into a new sub shell and increase of
screening effect.
ii) Variation of atomic radii in third period: In a period, from left to right the atomic radius
decreases as the atomic number increases.
Reason : In period the differentiating electron is added to same subshell. As the atomic number
increases nuclear charge over outermost electrons increases.Hence the atomic radius decreases
gradually.
The atomic radius of argon is more since it is measured in Vandarwaals radius.
b) Ionizat ion enthalpy :
p The minimum amount of energy required to remove the mostly loosely bound electron from an
isolated atom in the gaseous state of an element. It is also called ionization potential.
M g electron
M g IE1
i) Variation of ionisation energy in IA group: In a group from top to bottom ionisation enthalpy
gradually decreases.
Reason : It is due to increase of atomic radius, increase of screening effect and decrease of
nuclear attraction.
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ii) Variation of ionisation enthalpy in third period: In a period from left to right, the ionisation
enthalpy gradually increases with some exceptions.
Reason : In a period as atomic size decreases, nuclear attraction on valency electrons increases.
As a result I.E increases.
c) Electro negativity :
p The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared electron pair towards itself in a hetero
diatomic molecule is called electronegativity.
i) Variation in a group : In a group from top to bottom, electronegativity decreaes.
Reason : It is due to increase in atomic size and screening effect.
ii) Variation in a period: In a period from left to right, electronegativity increases.
Reason : It is due to decrease in atomic size, increase of nuclear charge.
d) Electron gain enthalpy (Electron affinity):
p The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the valence shell of neutral gaseous
atom is called as electron gain enthalpy or electron affinity.
A g electron A g ; EA H
i) Variation in IA group: In a group from top to bottom, electron affinity decreases.
Reason : It is due to increase in atomic size and screening effect.
ii) Variation in third period: In a period from left to right, electron affinity increases.
Reason : It is due to decrease in atomic size, increase of nuclear attraction.
e) Nature of oxides of elements :
i) Variation in IA group :IA group posses active metals.So they forms strong basic oxides. In a
group from top to bottom, the basic nature of the oxides increases. It is due to increase of metallic
character.
ii) Variation in third period:Third period contains metals and non metals.While moving accross a
period the basic nature of the oxides decreases and the acidic nature of oxides gradually increases.
It is due to increase of non metallic character in a period.
S.No. Property Group Periods
1. Atomic radius Increases Decreases
2. Ionization enthalpy Decreases Increases
3. Electro negativity Decreases Increases
4. Electron gain enthalpy (Electron affinity) Decreases Increases
5. Nature of oxides of elements Increases Decreases
5. Define IE1 and IE2. Why is IE2 > IE1 for a given atom? Discuss the factors that effect IE of an
element?
Ans. Ionization enthalpy : The minimum amount of energy required to remove the mostly loosely bound
electron from a neutral, isolated gaseous atom is called ionization enthalpy.
M Electron
M g Ionization Enthalpy
g
p It is measured in electron volts per atom or kJ/mole or k.cal/mole
p It is possible to remove first, second, third and successive electrons from atoms.
p First Ionization potential :The energy required to remove an electron from a neutral , isolated gaseous
atom is called first ionization potential.
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M g IE1 M electron
g
p Second ionization potential : The energy required to remove an electron from unipositive gaseous
ion is called second ionization potential.
M IE 2 M 2 electron
g g
p Second ionization enthalpy is always more than first ionization enthalpy (IE2 > IE1) : It is due to increase
of effective nuclear charge from neutral atom to unipositive ion.
p As the electrons are removing, the effective nuclear charge increases. Hence removal of electrons
become more difficult and requires high ionization enthalpy.
In successive ionization enthalpy values the order is IE1 < IE2 < IE3 ...... IEn
Factors influencing Ionization Enthalpy :
i) Atomic radius or Atomic Size : Larger is the atomic size smaller is the ionization enthalpy. As the
atomic radius increases, the nuclear force of attraction over the valecncy electrons decreases. The
relation is
1
Ionization enthalpy
Atomic size
ii) Nuclear charge : As the nuclear charge increases, ionization enthalpy values also increases. It is
because the force of attraction on the valence electrons increases.
Ionization Enthalpy Nuclear charge
iii) Screening effect or Sheilding effect : Higher the screening effect, the lesser is the value of ionization
enthalpy. It reduces the force of attraction towards nucleus. Hence outer most electrons can be easily
removed.
p Definition : The electrons present in inner orbitals decrease the nuclear attraction on the valency
electrons. This is called Screening or Sheilding effect.
1
Ionization Enthalpy
Screening effect
iv) Extent of penetration of orbitals of valence electrons : More is the penetration of orbital more will
be the ionization enthalpy.The s-orbital is more close to nucleus than the p-orbital of the same orbit.
p So it is difficult to remove electron from s-orbital.
p So the order of penetration power or ionization enthalpies is s > p > d > f.
Ionization Enthalpy Penetration power
v) Half filled or completely filled subshells :
p Atoms with half filled (or) completely filled subshells are more stable. So ionization enthalpy values
of these atoms are high.
Eg.: In second period, the I.E. of Be > B. Due to stable ns2 configuration of Be.
p In second period, the I.E. of N > O. Due to stable ns2 np3configuration of N.
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Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
6. What do you understand by Hybridization? Explain different types of hybridization involving
S and p orbitals.
Ans. Hybridisation : The inter mixing of atomic orbitals of nearly same energy of the same atom to produce
equal number of identical hybrid orbitals of same energy is called hybridisation.
or
The inter mixing of atomic orbitals to form new, same number of equavalent orbitals is called Hybridisation
and the formed orbitals are called hybrid orbitals.
Types of Hybridisation :
a) SP hybridisation :
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and one P orbital to give two SP hybrid orbitals is called SP hybrdization.
ii) Shape is linear and bond angle is 180°
iii) S character is 50% and P character is 50%
Eg: Formation of BeCl2
i) The central atom BeCl2 is Be
ii) Ground state electronic configuration of “ Be “ 1s 2 2s2
The first excited state electronic configuration of “ Be” 1S2 2S
1
2Px1
SP
iii) In first excited state the central “ Be “ atom undergoes ‘SP’ hybridisation to give two SP hybrid
orbitals
iv) These two orbitals overlap with P orbitals of Cl atoms and form two bonds
v) Shape is linear and bond angle is 180°
b) SP2 hybridisation
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and two P orbitals to give three SP 2 hydrid orbitals is called
SP 2 hybridization
ii) Shape is trigonal planar and bond angle is 120°
iii) S character is 33.3% and P character is 66.6 %
Eg: formation of BCl3
i) The central atom in BCl3 is B
ii) Ground state electronic configuration of ‘B’ 1s 2 2s2 2p1
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2 1 2P 1 2P 1
The first excited state electronic configuration of ‘B’ 1s 2s
x
y
SP 2
iii) In first excited state the central ‘B ‘ atom undergoes sp hybridisation to give three sp2 hybrid
2
orbitals
iv) These three orbitals overlap with P orbitals of Cl atoms and form three bonds
v) Shape is trigonal planar and bond angle is 120°
c) sp3 hybridisation
i) Inter mixing of one S orbital and three P orbitals to give four SP 3 hybrid orbitals is called sp3
hybrdization
ii) Shape is tetrahedral and bond angle is 1090 28|
iii) S character is 25% and P character is 75%
Eg: Formation of CH4
i) The central atom in CH4 molecule is C
ii) Ground state electronic configuration of ‘C’is 1s 2 2s2 2p2
The first excited state electronic configuration of ‘C’is 1S2 2S1 2Px1 2P1y 2Pz1
sp3
iii) In first excited state the central ‘C’ atom undergoes SP 3 hybridisation to give four SP3 hybrid
orbitals
iv) These four orbitals overlap with S orbitals of hydrogen atoms and form four bonds
v) Shape is tetrahedral and bond angle is 10928|
7. Give the Molecular Orbital Energy diagram of a) N2 and b) O2. Calculate the respective bond
order. Write the magnetic nature of N2 and O2molecules.
Ans. a) N2
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* 2 pz 0
* 2 px0 * 2 p y 0
2p3 2p3
2 pz 2
2 px 2 2 p y
2
Energy
*2s2
2s2 2s2
2s2
*1s2
1s2 1s2
1s2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
Ec of N2 = 1s , *1s , 2s , * 2s , 2p x 2p y , 2p z
1
Bond order = (No. of electrons of bonding orbtials - no. of electrons in anti bonding orbitals)
2
10 4 6
BO 3
2 2
Since there are no unpaired electrons in N2 it is diamagnetic in nature.
b) O2
* 2 pz 0
* 2 p x1 * 2 p y 1
2p4 2p4
2 px 2 2 p y
2
2 pz 2
Energy
*2s2
2s2 2s2
2s2
*1s2
1s2 1s2
1s2
EC of O2 = (Is) 2 ( *1s) 2 (2s) 2 ( * 2s) 2 2p z 2 ( 2p x 2 2p y 2 )(* 2p x1 * 2p y1 )
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1
Bond order = (No. of electrons of bonding orbitals - no. of electrons in anti bonding orbitals)
2
10 6 4
BO 2
2 2
Since there are unpaired electrons in O2 molecule it is para magnetic in nature.
. i) Give an account of VSEPR Theory and its applications.
Ans. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell. Later it was developed
by Nyholm and Gillespie.
POSTULATES
i) The shape of the molecule depends upon number of electron pairs in valency shell of central atom.
ii) The shape of the molecule also depends upon repulsion between electron pairs.
iii) The bond angle of the molecule is depends upon repulsion between electron pairs and electro negativity
difference between central atom and bonding atom.
iv) A lone pair of electrons occupies more space around the central atom than bond pair of electrons
v) The repulsions among electron pairs decrease in the order.
l. p l. p l. p b. p b. p b. p
vi) Repulsion among triple,double,single bonds decrease in the order
triple bond > double bond > single bond
vii) Repulsion forces decreases sharply with increase in angle between electron pairs.
viii) Shape and bond angle of the molecule basing on bond pairs and lone pairs around central atom
as follows.
Formula Example Bond pairs Lone pairs Shape Bond angle
AB 2 BeCl2 2 0 Linear 180°
AB 3 BCl3 3 0 Trigonal Planar 120°
AB 4 CH4 4 0 Tetrahedral 10928'
AB 5 PCl5 5 0 Trigonal bi pyramidal 90°, 120°
AB 6 SF6 6 0 Octahedral 90°, 180°
AB2E2 H2 O 2 2 Angular 104.5°
AB3E NH3 3 1 Pyramidal 107°
Note : E = lone pair of electrons ; B = bond pair of electron ; A = central atom
1) Eg: structure of NH3 molecule
i) The central atom in NH3 molecule is N, it contains one lone pair and three bond pairs of electrons.
ii) Nitrogen in NH3 undergoes SP3 hybridisation, so shape is tetrahedral and bond angle 109° 28’
iii) According to VSEPR theory the repulsion between lone pair and bond pair of electrons bond angle
decreases to 107° and shape is changes to pyramidal
2) Eg: Structure of H2O molecule
i) The central atom in H2O is O, it contains two lone pairs and two bond pairs of electrons.
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3
ii) Oxygen in H2O undergoes SP hybridisation, so shape is tetrahedral and bond angle 1090 28'
iii) According to VSEPR theory the repulsion between lone pair and bond pair of electrons bond
angle decreases to 104.5º and shape is changes to angular.
H H
ii) What is Hydrogen bond ? Explain the different types of Hydrogen bonds with example.
Ans. The weak electrostatic force of attraction between a partially positively charged hydrogen atom and a
highly electro negative atoms like F, O, N of the same (or) different molecule is known as hydrogen
bond.Hydrogen bonding is of two types
a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : The hydrogen bond is formed between two different polar
molecules is called inter molecular
hydrogen bonding
Eg : (i)H – F ..... H – F
b) Intramolecular hydrogen bonding : The hydrogen bond is formed between two atoms of same
molecule is called intra molecular hydrogen bonding.
Example:
9. i) Define Dipole moment. Write its applications
Ans. Definition : The product of magnitude of charge on the poles and the distance between the two
poles is called dipole moment.It is represented by
=q×d
q = charge; d = bond length
Applications :
i) Geometry of the molecule can be determined
ii) Percentage of ionic character of a bond can be calculated
% of ionic character obs 100
cal
iii) cis and trans isomers can be separated
iv) Bond angle can be determined
ii) Even though both NH3 and NF3 are pyramidal. NH3 has a higher dipole moment compared to
NF3. Why ?
Ans. Dipole moment of NH3 molecule is greater than that of NF3 because
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i) In case of NH3 the oribital dipolemoment due to lonepair on N is in the same direction
as the resultant dipolemoment of N-H bonds.
ii) Where as NF3 the orbital dipolemoment is in the direction opposite to the resultant dipolemoment of
three N-F bonds.
10. i) Explain the hybridization involved in PCl5 molecule.
Ans. i) In PCl5 molecule Phosphorus is the central atom
ii) Ground state E.C of ‘ P ‘ is Ne 3S2 3Px13Py13Pz13d z 2 0
The first excited state E.C of ‘ P ‘ is a Ne 3S1 3Px1 3Py1 3Pz1 3d z 21
iii) In first excited state Inter mixing of one ‘s’ three ‘p’ and one ‘d’ orbitals of ‘P’ atom forms five
SP3d hybrid orbitals
iv) These five orbitals overlap with 3Pz orbitals of Cl atoms and form five bonds
v) Shape of the molecule is trigonal bi pyramidal and bond angles are 90° and 120°
ii) Explain the hybridization involved in SF6 molecule.
Ans. i) In SF6 molecule sulphur is the central atom
ii) Ground state E.C of ‘S’ is Ne 3s 2 3p x 2 3p y13p z13d 0
2nd excited state E.C of ‘S’ is Ne 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z 3d x 2 y2 3d z 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
iii) In second excited state inter mixing of one ‘s’ three ‘p’ and two ‘d’ orbitals of ‘S’ atom forms
six SP3 d2 hybrid orbitals
iv) These six orbitals overlap with 2Pz orbitals of flourine atoms and form six bonds
v) Shape of the molecule is octahedral and bond angles are 90° and 180°
6. i) Explain the formation of ionic bond with a suitable example.
Ans. i) Ionic Bond : The strong electro static force of attraction formed between two oppositely charged ions
is known as ionic bond.
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ii) It takes place due to transfer of valency electors from one atom to another atom
iii) Ionic bond is formed between a metal of low ionisation potential and a non-metal of high electron
affinity.
iv) The electronegativity difference between two atoms/ions should be greater than 1.7
v) Ionic bond is non directional since it is formed by attractions.
Eg : Formation NaCl
Formation of Na+ ion
i) Na belongs to IA group
ii) So it losses one electron and readily froms Na ion.
iii) By loosing one electron sodium attains octet configuration in valency shell.
Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 ; Na+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6
Formation of Cl – ion :
i) Cl belongs to VII A group
ii) So it gains one electron and readily forms Cl– ion.
iii) By gaining one electron chlorine attains octet configuration in valency shell.
Cl : 1S2 2S2 2P 6 3S2 3P5
Cl 1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p6
Ionic bond formation
These oppisitely charged Na+ and Cl– ion combines together form NaCl
Na Cl
NaCl
ii) Explain the formation of coordinate Covalent bond with one example.
Ans. i) The bond formed by sharing of electron pair is contributed by one of the two bonded atoms is known
as coordinate covalent bond (or) dative bond.
ii) The bond is represented by an arrow ( ) pointing from the donar to the acceptor
iii) The atom which donates electron pair is called donar while the atom which accepts the electron pair is
called acceptor
iv) Ex : Ammonium ion formation : A dative bond formed between NH3 and H+ where NH3 acts as
donar due to Nitrogen contains a lone pair electrons and H+ acts as acceptor due to it has vacant
orbital
+
NH3 +H +
H3N H
11. i) State Fajan’s rules, and give suitable examples.
Ans. Fajan’s rules explain the partial covalent character of ionic bonds.
i) For a given cation covalent character increases with increase in size of anion.
Ex: KI is more covalent than KF
ii) Covalent character increases with increasing charges either on cation or anion.
Ex: SnCl4 is more covalent than SnCl2.
iii) For a given anion covalent character increases with decrease in size of cation.
Ex: LiF is more covalent than KF.
iv) Covalent character is higher for compounds with cations with pseudo inert gas configurations than with
inert gas configurations.
Ex: CuCl is more covalent than NaCl.
ii) What is Octet rule ? Briefly explain its significance and limitations.
Ans. The phenomenon of having eight electrons in valency shell is called octet rule.The atom or molecule with
octet configuration is more stable.
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The octet configuration is attained by losing or gaining or sharing of electrons between two atoms.
Significance:
i) It is the basis of electronic theory of valency.
ii) It explains the chemical inactivity of zero group elements.
iii) It is useful for understanding the structure of most of organic compounds.
Limitations :
i) In some compounds the no.of electrons surrounding the central atom is less than eight these compounds
said to have incomplete octet.
Eg : i) LiCl (2) ii) BeH2 (4) iii) BCl3 (6)
ii) Octet rule is not satisfied for molecules having odd number of electrons
Eg : NO, NO2 etc.
iii) In elements beyond third period there are ns, np and (n – 1) d orbitals available and in such elements
outer most shell have expanded octet.
Eg : i) PCl5(10) ii) SF6 (12) iii) H2SO4 (12)
iv) This theory does not give any information about the shape of molecules.
Stoichiometry
12.Phosphrous when heated with NaOH solution gives phosphine (PH 3) and H 2PO2– . Give the
Balanced equation ? (or) Balance the following equations in basic medium by ion electron
method P4(s) + OH (aq) PH3(g) + H2PO2– (aq)
–
Ans. The Skeleton equation is
Reduction
0 –3 +1
P4 PH3 + H2PO2–
Oxidation
Oxidation Half Reaction Reduction Half Reaction
P4 H 2 PO 2 P4 PH 3
1) Balancing other than oxygen & 1) P4 4PH3
Hydrogen
P4 4H 2 PO 2
2) Balancing oxygen atoms 2) P4 4PH3
P4 8H 2 O 4H 2 PO 2
3) Balancing hydrogen atoms 3) P4 12H 2 O 4PH 3 12OH
P4 8H 2 O 4H 2 PO 2
4) Balancing Charges 4) P4 12H 2 O 12e 4PH 3 12OH
P4 8OH 4H 2 PO 2 4e
5)
3 P4 8OH 4H 2 PO 2 4e 5) 3P4 24OH 12H 2 PO 2 12e
P4 12H 2 O 12e 4PH 3 12OH
By adding we get 4P4 12H 2 O 12OH 4PH3 12H 2 PO 2
P4 3H 2 O 3OH PH 3 3H 2 PO 2
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13. Balance the following redox reactions by ion electron method
a) MnO4(aq) +I(aq)
MnO2(s) + I 2(s) (in basic medium)
b) MnO4(aq) +SO2(g) Mn +2(aq) +HSO4 (in acidic medium) (Mar - 09)
c) H 2 O2(aq) +Fe 2+(aq) Fe 3+(aq) +H 2 O(l ) ( in acidic medium)
d) Cr2 O72 (aq) +SO2(g) Cr(aq)
3+ +SO 2
4 (aq) (in acidic medium)
Ans. a) The Skeleton equation MnO4 + I– I2 + MnO2(s)
–
is wirten as +7 –1 0 +4
Oxidation
Reduction
The oxidation half reaction is I I2
–
The Reduction half reaction is MNO 4 MnO2
O.H.R R.H.R
I– I2 MnO4– MnO2
i) Balancing other than oxygen &
Hydrogen atoms. 2I– I2 MnO4– MnO2
ii) Balancing atoms. 2I – I2 MnO4– MnO2 + 2H2O
iii) Balancing hydrogen atoms 2I– I2 MnO4– + 4H2O MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH–
iv) Balancing the charges 2I– I2 MnO4– + 4H2O + 3e– MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH–
Multiplying the equations with cris-cross method and adding we get balanced equation.
2MnO4– + 8H2O + 6e– 2MnO2 + 4H2O + 8OH–
6I– 3I2 + 6e–
2MnO4– + 6I– + 4H2O 2MnO2 + 3I2 + 8OH –
b) MnO4– (aq) + SO2 (g) Mn2+ (aq) + HSO4– (aq) (in acidic solution)
MnO4– + SO2
+ 2+
H
Mn + HSO4–
Oxidation
Reduction
Oxidation half reaction Reduction half reaction
i) SO2 HSO–4 i) MnO4 Mn2+
ii) Balancing other than oxygen ii) MnO4 Mn2+
& hydrogen atoms SO2 HSO 4
iii) Balancing oxygen atoms iii) MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
SO2+2H2O HSO 4
+
iv) Balancing hydrogen atoms iv) MnO4 + 8H Mn2+ + 4H2O
SO2 + 2H2O HSO 4 + 3H+
v) Balancing charges v) MnO 4 + 8H++ 5e– Mn+2 + 4H2O
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SO2 + 2H2O HSO + 3H 4
+
vi) 5(SO2 + 2H2O HSO 4 + 3H+ + 2e–) vi) 2 ( MnO 4 + 8H+ 5e– Mn+2 + 4H2O)
5SO2 + 10H2O 5 HSO 4 + 15H+ + 10e– 2 MnO 4 + 16H+ 10e– 2Mn+2 + 8H2O
By adding these two equations we get
5SO2 + 2 MnO 4 + H+ + 2H2O 5 HSO 4 + 2Mn2+
c) H2O2 (aq) + Fe2+ (aq) Fe3+ (aq) + H2O (l)
Oxidation half reaction Fe+2 Fe+3 Reduction half reaction H2O2 H2O
i) Balancing otherthan O & H atoms i) H2O2 H2O
Fe2+ Fe+3
ii) Balancing oxygen atom Fe+2 Fe3+ ii) H2O2 H2O + H2O
iii) Balancing hydrogen atoms Fe2+ Fe3+ iii) H2O2 + 2H+ 2H2O
iv) Balancing charge Fe2+ Fe3+ + e– iv) H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– 2H2O
v) 2(Fe2+ Fe3+ + e–) v) 1(H2O2 + 2H+ 2H2O)
2Fe2+ 2Fe3+ + 2e– H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– 2H2O
Adding these two equations 2Fe2+ + H2O2 + 2H+ 2Fe3+ + 2H2O
d) Cr2O72– + SO2 (g) Cr3+ (aq) + SO42– (aq) (in acidic solution)
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidation half reaction SO2 SO42 Reduction half reaction Cr2O72 Cr3+
i) Balancing otherthan Oxygen and i) Cr2 O72 2Cr3+
hydrogen atom SO2 SO 24
ii) Balancing oxygen atoms ii) Cr2 O72 SO 24 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
SO2 + 2H2O SO 24
iii) Balancing hydrogen atoms iii) Cr2 O72 + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
SO2 + 2H2O SO 24 + 4H+
iv) Balancing charges iv) Cr2 O72 + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
SO2 + 2H2O SO 24 + 4H+ + 2e–
v) 3(SO2 + 2H2O SO 24 + 4H+ + 2e–) v) Cr2 O72 + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
6) 3SO2 + 6H2O 3 SO 24 + 12H+ + 6e
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By adding we get 3SO2 + Cr2 O72 + 2H+ 3 SO 24 + 2Cr3+ + H2O
14. Assign oxidation Number to the underlined elements in each of the following species
a) NaH 2 PO4 b) NaHSO4 c) H 4 P2 O7 d) K 2 Mn O4 e) CaO 2 f) NaBH 4
g) H 2 S2 O7 h) KAl (SO4 )2 .12 H 2 O
Ans. a) Na H 2 PO 4 b) Na HSO4
1 2 x 4(2) 0 1 1 x 4(2) 0
x–5=0 x–6=0
x=+5 x = +6
c) H 4 P2 O7 d) K 2 MnO4
4( 1) 2x 7( 2) 0 2( 1) x 4(2) 0
4 2x 14 0 x6 0
2x 10 , x 5 x 6
e) CaO2 f) NaBH4
2 2x 0 1(+1)+x+4(–1) = 0
2x 2 x = +3
x 1
g) H2S2O7 h) K Al(SO4 )2 .12 H2 O
2( 1) 2x 7( 2) 0 1 3 2(x 4( 2)) 0
2 2x 14 0 4 2x 16 0
2x = 12 2x = 12
x = +6 x = +6
15. Chemical analysis of a carbon compound gave the following percentage composition by weight
of the elements present. carbon=10.06% hydrogen=0.84%. Chlorine=89.10%.
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound?
Ans.
Symbol % of Atomic Atomic ratio Simple whole
of the composition weight = % / At.Wt. Ratio number
element
10.06 0.84
C 10.06 12.00 0.84 1 1
12.00 0.84
0.84 0.84
H 0.84 1.00 0.84 1 1
1.00 0.84
89.1 2.50
Cl 89.1 35.5 2.50 3 3
35.5 0.84
Empirical formula = CHCl3
5. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound having percentage composition “potassium
(K)=26.57 chromium (Cr)=35.36 oxygen (O)=38.07 (Given the atomic weights of K. Cr, O as
39, 52 and 16 respectively)
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Ans. Symbol % of Atomic Atomic ratio Simple whole
of the composition weight = % / At.Wt. Ratio number
element
26.57 0.68
K 26.57 39 0.68 1 2
39 0.68
35.36 0.68
Cr 35.36 52 0.68 1 2
52 0.68
38.07 2.38
O 38.07 16 2.38 3.5 7
16 0.68
Empirical formula = K2Cr2O7
16. A carbon compound contains 12.8% “C” 2.1 % H, 85.1% (Br). The molecular weight of the
compound is 187.9 calculate the molecular formula? (Jun - 09, May - 12)
Ans. Symbol % of Atomic Atomic ratio Simple whole
of the composition weight = % / At.Wt. Ratio number
element
12.8 1.06
C 12.8 12 1.06 1 1
12 1.06
2.1 2.10
H 2.1 1 2.1 2 2
1 1.06
85.1 1.06
Br 85.1 80 1.06 1 1
80 1.06
Empirical formula = CH2Br
Empirical formula Wt. 12 + 2 + 80 = 94
M wt 187.9
n 2
EFwt 94
Molecular formula = (EF)n = (CH2Br)2 = C2H4Br2
17. To 50 ml of 0.1N Na2CO3 solution 150 ml of H2O is added. Then calculate normality of resultant
solution.
Ans. Volume of Na2CO3 Solution (v1) = 50 ml
Normality of Na2CO3 solution (N1) = 0.1 N
Final volume of Na2CO3 solution (V2) = V1 + 150 ml = 50 + 150 = 200 ml
Final Na2CO3 solution normality N2 = ?
N1V1 = N2V2
0.1 50
0.1 50 N 2 200 N2 N 2 0.025 N .
200
18. Calculate the volume of 0.1 N H2SO4 required to neutralise 200 ml of 0.2 N NaOH solution .
Hint : It is an acid base neutralisation reaction. Hence at the neutralisation point, the number of equivalents
of acid and number of equivalents of a base are equal.
Ans. Volume of H2SO4 Solution (V1) = ?
Normality of H2SO4 Solution (N1) = 0.1 N
Volume of NaOH solution (V2) = 200 ml
Normality of NaOH solution (N2) = 0.2 N
N1V1 = N2V2
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0.1 × V1 = 0.2 × 200
0.2 200
V1 = 400 ml
0.1
19. Calculate normality of H2SO4 solution if 50 ml of it completely neutralises 250 ml. of 0.1 N
Ba(OH)2 solution.
Ans. Normality of H2SO4 = N1
Volume of H2SO4 = 50 ml
Normality of Ba(OH)2 = 250 ml
N1V1 = N2V2
N1 50 0.1 250
0.1 250
N1
50
N1 = 0.5 N
20. Calculate the volume of 0.1 M KMnO4 required to react with 100ml of 0.1M H2C2O4 . 2H2O
solution in presence of H2SO4.
n=5
7 3 2 4
Ans. 2 K Mn O4 3H 3 SO4 5H 2 C2 O4 K 2 SO4 2 Mn SO4 10 C O2 8H 2O
n=2
Molarity of KMnO4(M1) = 0.1 Molarity of H2C2O4 . 2H2O (M2) = 01
n-factor (n1) = 2 n factor (n2) = 5
Volume of KMnO4 (V1) = ? Volume of H2C2O4 . 2H2O (V2) = 100 ml
M1V1 M 2 V2
n1 n2
M 2 V2 n1 0.1 100 2
V1 40
M1 n 2 0.1 5
Volume of KMnO4 (V1) = 40 ml
Thermodynamics
21.State and explain the Hess’s law of constant Heat summation (May 2011, March 2012, 2013)
Ans. Hess law of constant heat summation states that “The total heat change in a reaction is the same whether
the chemical reaction takes place in a single step or in several steps”.
Qf
A D
q1 q3
q2
B C
a) In path I, ‘A’ changes to D directly i.e single step
A D Q (or) H Q
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b) In path II, A changes to D in three consequtive steps
A B +q1 or H = –q1
B C +q2 or H = –q2
C D +q3 or H = –q3
c) The total heat change in the path is –Q
Q = q1 + q2 + q3
Example : CO2(g) is obtanined from C(graphite) and O2(g) in two different ways
a) C graphite O 2(g) CO 2 g ; H 393.52KJ
b) C graphite 1 / 2O 2(g) CO g ; H 110.5KJ
CO g 1 / 2O 2(g) CO 2 g ; H 283.02KJ
Total H 110.5 283.2 393.52KJ
The two H values are same.
22. Explain Gibbs energy?
Ans. Gibbs introduced a thermodynamic function which involves both enthalpy ( H) and entropy (S) function this
is known as gibbs energy (or) gibbs function (G).
(OR)
The amount of energy available from a system which can be put to useful work at constant temperature
and pressure is called gibbs free energy.
(OR)
The differences between the enthalpy and the product of entropy & temperature is called Gibbs
energy.
It is represented mathermatically as G = H – TS
Where G = Gibbs Energy ( or) Gibbs function
The change in Gibbs energy for the system
But T = 0 for isothermal change (T = Constant)
G H T S
Usually the subscript ‘system’ is dropped and we simply write this equation as
G H T S
We known
Stotal Ssys Ssurr
If the system is in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding, then the temparature of the surrounding is
same as that of the system. Also increase in enthalpy of the surrounding is equal to decreasing enthalphy
of the system.
Hsys
Ssurr
T
Multplying by T, we have;
TStotal TSsys Hsys
TStotal TSsys Hsys
Gsys TStotal
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23. Explain “ Entropy” concept ?
Ans. Entropy : The thermodynamical quantity which measures “ disorder” of molecules or randomness of the
system is called “Entropy”
It is a state function & extensive property
It is denoted by “S” & Change in entropy is denoted by S
Example : Ice water vapour
Sice Swater Svapour
q H rev
Thermodynamical representation : S rev
T T
q = Quantity of heat
T = Absolute temparature
Units of S J mol1K 1
24. What is entropy? Explain with examples.
Ans. Entropy : The thermodynamical quantity which measures “ disorder” of molecules or randomness of the
system is called “Entropy”.
It is a state function & extensive property
It is denoted by “S” & Change in entropy is denoted by S
Example : Ice water vapour
Sice Swater Svapour
q H rev
Thermodynamical representation : S rev
T T
q = Quantity of heat
T = Absolute temparature
Units of S J mol 1K 1
25. State the second law of thermodynamics. What do you understand by it ?
Ans. Second law of thermodynamics is stated in different forms.
i) It is impossible to construct a machine working in cycles which transforms heat from a lower temperature
region to higher temparature region without the intervention of any external agency. Such a machine is
called perpetual motion machine of second kind (This is not possible)
ii) All spontaneous processes are thermodynamically irreversible and entropy of the system increases in
all spontaneous processes.
Ex : All natural processes are spontaneous.
A volatile liquid placed in an open vessel vapouries at any temperature without the intervention of any
external agency. Therefore vapourisation of a volatile liquid is spontaneous as per second law of
thermodynamics.
26. State the third law of thermodynamics. What do you understand by it?
Ans. The entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline substance is zero at the absolute zero of temparature
(– 273°C)
lt
T 0 S 0
This is known as the third law of thermodynamics.
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27. Define heat capacity. What are Cp and Cv ? Show that Cp– Cv= R
Ans. Cp is the molar heat capacity at constant pressure, Cv is the molar heat capacity at constant volume. Heat
Capacity of a substance (C) : Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to
raise its temperature through one degree
C = q/dT; q is heat absorbed; dT rise in temperature
But from first law of thermodynamics
q= dU + PdV;
We can write equation for heat q
a t c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e a s
q p Cp T H ,
(1)
at constant volume as q V CV .T U
(2)
the difference between Cp and Cv can be derived for an ideal gas as:
for a mole of an ideal gas H U pV = U RT U RT
H U RT
(3)
On putting (1) and (2) in (3) we get
We have Cp T Cv T RT
Cp C v R
Cp Cv R
28. What is enthalpy of a reaction ? Explain the standard enthalpy of a reaction ?
Ans. Enthalpy of a reaction : During a chemical change heat is either liberated or absorbed the heat change
involved in a chemical reaction is called Enthalpy of the reaction.
The chemical reactions which takeplace with the liberation of heat are called exothermic reactions
Ex : N 2(g) 3H 2(g) 2NH3(g) ; H 92kJ
The chemical reactions which takeplace with the absorption of heat are called endothermic reactions
Ex : C(graphite) H 2O(g) CO(g) H 2(g) ; H 131.4kJ
29. What is the standard enthalpy of formation ? Explain it with exmaple.
Ans. Standard enthalpy of formation : The amount of heat absorbed or evolved when 1 mole of a substance
is obtained from its constituent elements is called Enthalpy of formation. The elements should be in their
standard state for the formation reaction.
Examples :
1
H 2(g) O 2(g) H 2 O(l ) ; H 286K.J / mol
2
1 3
N 2(g) H 2(g) NH3(g) ; H 46K.J / mol
2 2
C(graphite) O2(g) CO2(g) ; H 393.5K.J / mol
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Chemical Equilibrum and Acids-Bases
30.What is a conjugate acid - bases pair ? Illustrate with examples.
Ans. A pair of substance which differ structurally by a single proton is called a conjugate acid base pair.
Every protonic acid has its conjugate base and every Lowry’s base has a conjugate protonic acid.
Acid Proton + Conjugate base
Base + Proton Conjugate acid
Example : NH3 H 2 O NH 4 OH
Here NH3 and NH 4 is a conjugate acid base pair because they are differ by single proton,
H2O and OH– is a conjugate acid base pair because they are differ by single proton
Example : HCl H 2 O H 3O Cl
–
Here HCl and Cl is a conjuagate acid base pair because they are differ by single proton
H2O and H3O+ is a conjugate acid base pair because they are differ by single proton.
31. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc for the equilibrium reaction
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
2
PNH
NH3 2 3
A. Kc = & Kp = 3
N2 H2 3 PN2 PH
2
Partial pressures of PN2 , PH2 and PNH3 can be written as
n N2 RT
PN2 = = CN2 RT
V
n H2 RT
PH2 = = CH2 RT
V
n NH3 RT
PNH3 = = CNH3 RT
V
Substituting these values in Kp equation
2
CNH3 RT 2
Kp = 3
CN2 CH2
C2NH
3
2 Kc
Kp Kc RT 3
CN2 CH2
32. The species H2O, HCO 3 , HSO 4 and NH3 can act both as Bronsted acids and bases.
Give the corresponding conjugate acid and base for each of them.
Ans. Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
CA = Base + H+ CB = Acid-H+
H 2O H 3O OH
HCO3 H 2 CO3 CO 3 2
HSO 4 H 2SO 4 SO 4 2
NH3 NH 4 NH 2
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33. Write the conjugate acid and conjugate base of each of the following.
a) OH– b) H2O c) HCO 3 d) H2O2
Ans. Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
CA = Base + H+ CB=Acid - H+
a) OH– H2 O O2–
b) H2 O H3O + OH–
c) HCO3 H2CO3 CO32
d) H2O2 H 3O 2 HO 2
34. Discuss the application of Lechatelier’s principle for the industrial synthesis of Ammonia and
sulphur trioxide.
(Mar 2010, 12, 2013)
Ans. Application of Le Chatelier’s principle to synthesis of Ammonia by Haber’s process:
N 2 g 3H 2 g 2NH 3 g ; H 92kJ
4 volumes 2 volumes
Nitrogen and Hydrogen combine to form ammonia. The formation of ammonia is reversible and
exothermic reaction. It is accompanied by decrease in volume
Effect of concentration : If N2 and H2 are increased the equlibrium shifts in forward direction and more
ammonia is produced.
By continusous removal of ammonia the equlibrium shifts in the forward direction.
If the concentration of the ammonia is increased the equlibrium shifts in the backward direction i.e.
more dissociation of ammonia takes place.
Effect of Pressure : 1volume of N2 combines with 3 volumes of H2 to from 2 volumes of NH3. There
is decrease in volume in the forward reaction (4 volumes to 2 volumes). According to Le chatelier’s
principle increase of pressure favours the forward reaction where there is decrease in volume. So higher
the pressure greater is the yeild of ammonia by Haber’s process.
Low pressures favour the reverse reaction i.e., decomposition of NH3 already formed.
Effect of Temperature : Formation of ammonia is Exothermic reaction hence low temperature is
favorable but at low temperature the reaction is slow.Therefore and optimum temperature (725 K–775K)
is chosen in Haber’s process. To speed up the reaction, a catalyst, finely divided iron is used. To increase
the activity of the catalyst molybdenum or a mixture of oxides of K and Al is used as promoter
The reverse reaction (i.e) decomposition of NH3 is an endothermic reaction High temperatures favour
the decomposition of NH3. Therefore high temperatures are avoided in Haber’s process.
Thus the optimum conditions are
Pressure : 200 atm
Temperature : 725 – 775K
Catalyst : Fe (Powdered)
Promoter : Mo (or) (K2O+Al2O3)
Application of Le chatelier’s principle to the synthesis of SO 3
2SO 2 g O 2 g 2SO3 g H 189kJ
3volumes (2+1) 2 volumes
The formation of SO3 is reversible and exothermic reaction. It is accompanied by decrease in volume.
i) Effect of concentration : If SO2 and O2 are increased the equlibrium shifts in forward direction and
more and more SO3 is produced.
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By continusous removal of SO3 the equlibrium shifts in the forward direction.
If the concentration of the SO3 is increased the equlibrium shifts in the backward direction i.e.
more dissociation of SO3 takes place.
ii) Effect of pressure : 2 volumes of SO2 and one volumeof O2 combine to give 2 volumes of
SO3According to Le chatelier’s principle high pressure favours the reaction where there is decrease
in volume. The formation of SO3 is accompanied by decrease in volume (3 volumes to 2 volumes )
Higher the pressure greater is the yield of SO3 but in contact process high pressures are not used
because towers used in the manufacture are corroded by the acid at these high pressures.
Low pressures favour the decomposition of SO3 as there is increase in volume. ( 2 volumes to
3 volumes) Therefore optimum pressures are used (1.5 to 1.7 atmosphere)
iii) Effect of Temperature : The formation of SO3 is exothermic i.e., 189 kJ of heat is evolved High
temperatures favour the reverse reaction which is endothermic and do not favour the forward reaction
which is exothermic. Low temperatures are favourable for the formation of SO3 At low temperature
the reaction is too slow. Therefore an optimum temperature 673 K is used. To speed up the reaction
V2O5 is used as catalyst optimum conditions:
Pressure : 1.5 to 1.7 atm
Temperature : 673K
Catalyst : V2O5 (or) Platinised asbestos
35. What is ionic product of water? What is its value at room temperature?
Ans. Kw is defined as “the product of the concentrations of H + and OH– ions in water (or) in aqueous solutions
at a given temperature”.
The concentration of H+ ion was found experimentally as 1.0 107 M at 25C
At room temperature (25°C or 298 K) value of Kw for water = 1.0 × 10 –14 mol2 / lit2
36. What is Common ion effect? Illustrate.
Ans. The phenomenon of the suppression of the solubility of an electrolyte, in water by the addition of
another electrolyte which has a common ion with the original electrolyte is called common ion effect.
Ex : Ionisation of acetic acid is decreased in the presence of CH3COONa.
CH 3COOH CH 3COO H
Weak acid
CH 3COONa CH 3COO Na
Common ion
Due to common ion effect ionisation of CH 3COOH is suppressed.
Acetic acid is a weak acid it ionises in equilibrium giving H+ and CH3COO– ions
Sodium acetate is a strong salt it ionises completely giving CH3COO– and Na+ ions
Now in the solution there are more number of acetate ions. Due to common ion effect and
Lechatelier’s principle, the dissociation of acetic acid is suppressed due to common ion effect.
37. What is Le Chatelier’s principle ? discuss briefly the factors which can influence the equilibrium
Ans. Le Chatelier’s principle : “If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature
or pressure then the equilibrium will shift in that direction to nullify the effect of change”.
Factors which influence equlibrium are
i) Concentration : Increase of reactant concentrations pushes the equilibrium state to the products side
(forward direction)
Increase of the products concentrations pushes the equilibrium to the reactants side (backward
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direction).
For example in the chemical equilibrium
H 2 g I 2 g 2HI g
Increase of H2 or I2 concentrations pushes the equilibrium in favour of HI (forward direction) and
similarly the increase of HI concentrations pushes the equilibrium in favour of H2 and I2 (backward
direction).
Removal of HI continuously shifts the equlibrium in the forward direction.
ii) Pressure : Pressure will have no effect when no.of moles of reactants is equal to no.of moles of
products i.e. n = 0.
H 2 g I 2 g 2HI g equilibrium
N 2 g O 2 g 2NO g equilibrium
But in the case of reactions in which there is a change in the number of moles of the reactants
and the products i.e. n = positive (or) negative..
Increase of pressure pushes the reaction equilibrium in the direction in which there is a decrease
in the number of moles
For example in the reaction PCl5 g PCl3 g Cl2 g ; n = 1
Increase of pressure favours the backward reaction (towards less number of moles) i.e. formation
of more PCl5 takes place.
The decrease of pressure favour the forward reaction (towards more number of moles) i.e.
dissociation of PCl5 takes place.
iii) Temperature: Increase of temperature favour the endothermic reaction and decrease of temperature
favours exothermic reactions (or)
Increase of temperature shifts the equlibrium, in that direction where there is absorption of heat
(endothermic reaction).
Decrease of temperature shifts the equlibrium, in that direction where there is liberation of heat
(exothermic reaction).
N 2 g O 2 g 2NO g 180.8kJ
Forward reaction is endothermic while backward reaction is exothermic.
Increase of temperature favours the forward reaction and more and more NO is formed.
Decrease of temperature favours the backward reaction i.e. the dissociation of NO into N 2 and O2 .
38. Explain the concept of Bronsted acids and Bronsted bases, Illustrate the answer with suitable
example.
Ans. Lowry - Bronsted theory (proton theory)
p Acid : A chemical species which shows a tendency to lose or donate a proton or protons to other
substance is called an acid. A bronsted acid is proton donor.
Eg : HCl, H3PO4, CH3COOH.
p Base : A chemical species which shows a tendency to gain a proton or protons from other substance.
A Bronsted base is proton acceptor.
Ex : H 2 O, HSO 4 , HCO3
p Neutralisation : The transfer of proton from acid to base is called neutralization.
Ex-1 : When hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water, HCl donates proton and H2O accepts proton.
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HCl is acid and H 2 O is base. The Bronsted-Lowry reaction is represented as:
HCl H 2 O H 3O Cl
Ex-2 : When ammonia is dissolved in water, NH3 accepts proton and H2O donates proton. NH3 is
base and H 2 O is acid. The Bronsted -Lowry reaction is represented as :
H 2 O NH 3 NH 4 OH
Conjugate acid -base pair: A pair of species which differ in a single proton is called conjugate acid-base
pair. Ex: HCl & Cl–
HCl looses a proton to H2O and forms a conjugate base Cl–.
H2O accepts proton from HCl and forms H3O+.
Here HCl and Cl– ion are conjugate acid-base pair.
Similarly, H2O and H3O+ are conjugate acid-base pair.
39. Explain Lewis acid-base theory with suitable examples. Classify the following into Lewis
acids , Lewis bases and show these act as Lewis acid/base.
a) OH– b) F– c) H+ d) BCl3
Ans. Lewis acid : A substance that can accept an electron pair from other substance to form co-ordinate
covalent bond is called Lewis acid. It is electron pair acceptor.
Type of Lewis acids : Lewis acids are of five types. They are
i) Simple cations Ag+, Co+3, Cu+2, Fe+3, Al+3 act as Lewis acids.
ii) Compounds in which the central atom has an incomplete octet and possessing an empty p-orbital can
act as a lewis acid.
Ex : BF3, BCl3, AlCl3
iii) Compounds in which the central atom has vacant d-orbitals and may expand its octet can act as Lewis
acids.
Ex : SiF4 , SF4 , SnCl4 , FeCl3
iv) Molecules having multiple bonds between atoms of dissimilar electronegativities can be have
like Lewis acids.
Ex : CO 2 , SO 2 , SO3 , NO 2 .
v) Elements with six electrons in the valence shell or electron sextet can act as Lewis acids.
Ex : O, S .
p Lewis base : A base is a substance which can donate an electron pair to other substance to form
co-ordinate covalent bond. It is electron pair donor.
Type of Lewis bases:
i) All simple anions like Cl , OH , CN , F can act as Lewis bases.
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ii) Molecules with one or two lone pairs on the central atom can act as Lewis bases.
Ex : H 2 O, NH 3 , R OH, R OR
iii) Molecules containing multiple bonds can act as Lewis bases.
Ex : C2 H 2 , C2 H 4
p Neutralisation : The formation of a co-ordinate covalent bond, between a base and an acid is called
neutralisation.
Ex: 1. Formation of NH3 BF3 : In a reaction between BF3 and NH3 , boron of BF3 accepts a
lone pair from nitrogen of NH3 and forms a coordinate covalent bond.
NH 3 BF3 [H 3 N BF3 ]
2. Formation of hydronium ion : In this H combines with H 2 O . Oxygen of water donates
a pair of electrons to H+ ion.
H [H O H]
H 2O 2
Lewis Lewis Hydronium ion
base acid
3. Formation of NH 4+ ion : H+ ion accepts a pair of electrons from nitrogen of NH3 and
forms NH +4 ion.
NH 3 H [H 3 N H]
Lewis Lewis Ammonium ion
base acid
Limitations of Lewis theory :
i) One of the serious defects in the theory is that it cannot explain the strengths of acids and bases.
ii) Acids like HCl, H2SO4 react with bases such as NaOH or KOH but do not form coordinate
covalent bond.
iii) Generally acid-base interactions i.e. neutralisation reactions are instantaneous reactions but some
in Lewis acid-base reactions go on very slowly.
iv) All the acid-base reactions do not involve coordinate bond formation.
v) H+ ion as catalyst, cannot be explained by this theory.
Lewis bases : Lewis acids:
– –
OH , F H+, BF3
40. Show by suitable equations that each of the following species can act as Bronsted acid.
a) H3O+ b) HCl c) NH3 d) HPO42
Ans. Proton donor is Bronsted acid
adds pr oton
i) H 3O + OH - H 2 O + H 2 O H3O Acid, OH base
loses proton
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adds pr oton
ii) HCl H 2 O H 3O + + Cl- HCl Acid, H 2 O base
loses proton
adds pr oton
iii) NH3 OH - NH2 + H 2 O NH 3 Acid, OH base
loses proton
addsproton
iv) HPO 4 2 HCl H 2 PO 4 Cl HCl Acid, HPO 2 base
4
loses proton
41. Show by suitable equations that each of the following species can act as a Bronsted base.
a) H2O b) OH– c) C2H5OH d) C2H5OH e) HSO41
Ans. Proton acceptor is Bronsted base
adds proton
H 2O HCl H3O Cl
i) B A
loses proton
H2O accepts protons from HCl hence H2O acts as Bronsted Base.
adds pr oton
HCl OH - H 2 O + Cl
-
ii)
loses proton
OH ion accepts H+ ion from HCl hence it acts as Bronsted Base
–
iii)
C2H5OH accepts H+ ion from HCl hence it acts as Bronsted Base
iv) HSO 4 H 2 O H3O H 2SO 4
Here HSO 4 accepts H+ ion from HCl hence it acts as Bronsted Base.
Hydroden and Its Compounds
42. Write a few lines on the utility of hydrogen as a fuel.
A. i) Hydrogen is major constituent in fuel gases like coal gas and water gas.
ii) Hydrogen releases large quantity of heat energy on combustion. Hence it is widely used as industrial
fuel.
iii) The pollutants released in the combustion of hydrogen will be less.
iv) The energy released by the combustion of dihydrogen is more than the petrol. Atomic hydrogen and
oxyhydrogen torches are used for welding and cutting metals.
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v) Hydrogen is also used as rocket fuel.
vi) It is also used in fuel cells for generating electric energy. On combination with carbon monoxide (water
gas) it is used as industrial fuel.
43. Explain with suitables, the following
a) electron - deficient b) electron - precise and c) electron - rich hybrides
A. a) electron - deficient hydrides : electron - deficient hydrides have few electrons to write lewis structure.
These are formed by 13th group elements. There are acts as Lewis Acids.
Eg : B2H6, AlH3 etc.
b) electron - precise hydrides : electron - precise hydrides have the required number of electrons to
write lewis structures. These are formed by 14th group elements. These are Tetrahedral in Geometry.
Eg : CH4, SiH4.
c) electron - rich hydrides :
electron - rich hydrides have excess electrons as lone pairs. Elements of group 15 to 17 form this type
of hydrides. These are acts as Lewis Bases.
Eg : NH3, H2O, HF etc...
44. Explain the terms hard water and soft water. Write a note on the
i) Ion - exchange method and
ii) Calgon method for the removal of hardness of water.
A. Soft water : Water which gives ready and permanent lather with soap is called soft water.
Hard water : Water which do not give ready and permanent lather with soap is called hard water.
i) Ion exchange method :
Principle :
p Formation of de-ionized water (or) de-mineralized water by passing the water successively through
cation exchange and anion exchange resins.
p The water which is free from all the dissolved mineral salts is called deionised water.
Process : The de-ionization of water can be done in two steps by this process.
Deionised water can be prepared in two steps.
a) Cation exchange process :
i) The hard water is first passed through a bed of cation exchange which removes the cations like
Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+.
ii) Then the Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions present in the water are replaced by H+ ions from the resin.
2R COOH + Ca+2 (RCOO))2 Ca + 2H
+
Resin
2RSO3H + Mg2+ (RSO3)2 Mg + 2H
+
b) Anion exchange process :
i) The water coming from cation exchanger is acidic on account of free H+ ions.
ii) This water is then passed through anion exchange which removed anions like Cl–, SO 24 , NO 3 ,
etc. and OH– ions are released.
R – NH3 OH + Cl– R – NH3Cl + OH
–
– +
The OH ions combined with H ions.
H+ and OH– H2O
This process gives distilled water. This water is also called demineralised water.
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ii) Calgons process :
p Sodium hexametaphosphate is commercially called calgon
p Its chemical formula is (NaPO3)6 (or) Na2 [Na4(PO3)6]
p When calgon is dissolved in hard water, it reacts with calcium and magnesium ions to forms complex
ions.
Na 6 P6 O18 ® 2Na + + Na 4 P6 O18
-2
Na 4 P6 O - 2 + Ca (aq)
+2 ® -2 +
[CaNa 2 P6 O18 ] + 2Na(aq)
18
- 2 + Mg +2 ® -2 +
Na 4 P6 O18 (aq) [MgNa 2 P6 O18 ] + 2Na (aq)
p The complex ions keeps the Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions in the solution.
45. Write in brief on
a) ionic hydrides b) interstitial hydrides.
A. a) ionic hydrides (or) salt like hydrides (or) saline hydrides :
i) These are stochiometric compounds of dihydrogen. These are formed with hydrogen and most
electropositive S-block elements.
Eg : NaH, KH etc ...
ii) The lighter metal hydrides such as LiH, BeH2 and MgH2 are having significant covalent character.
iii) BeH2 and MgH2 are polymeric in structure
iv) These are colour less, crystalline, non-volatile and non-conducting in solid state.
v) These hydrides conduct electricity in molten state and on electrolysis liberate H2 at anode, which
confirms the existance of H– ion.
2H - ® H 2 + 2e -
vi) These hydrides violenty react with H2O2 liberating H2.
NaH + H 2 O ® NaOH + H 2
vii) The stability of hydrides is
LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH
viii) LiH is useful in the synthesis of other useful hydrides.
8LiH + Al2 Cl6 ® 2LiAlH 4 + 6LiCl
2LiH + B2 H 6 ® 2LiBH 4
b) Interstitial hydrides (or) Metallic hydrides (or) Non-Stoichiometric hydrides :
i) These are stochiometric compounds of dihydrogen. These are formed with hydrogen and most
electropositive S-block elements.
ii) When hydrogen occupies interstices in the metal lattice then the obtained metal hydrides are called
as interstitial hydrides.
iii) Many d and f-block elements form interstitial hydrides.
iv) Metals of 7, 8 and 9th groups do not form metalic hydrides and it is called hydride gap
v) In group 6th only chromium form metallic hydride CrH.
vi) These hydrides conduct heat and electricity but less efficient than parant metal.
vii) Some metals like pd, pt can accomodate a very large volume of H2. This property has high potential
for hydrogen storage and as a source of energy.
Eg : LaH2.87, YbH2.55, TiH1.5-1.8 etc ...
46. Write the chemical reaction to justify that hydrogen peroxide can function as an oxidizing as
well as reducing agent.
A. p Hydrogen peroxide can act as both oxidising and reducing agent in both acid and basic medium.
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a) Oxidising properties :
i) It is a powerful oxidising agent. It is an electron acceptor in acidic and alkaline solutions.
Acid
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– E°= + 1.77V
2H2O ;
H2O2 + 2e– Base –
E°= + 087V
2OH ;
ii) The potential equations for its oxidising nature is
H2O2 H O + (O)
2
Eg :
i) It oxidises black lead sulphide (PbS) to white lead sulphate (PbSO4).
PbS + 4H2O2 PbSO + 4H O.
4 2
ii) It oxides acidified ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate.
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + H2O Fe (SO ) + 2H O
2 4 3 2
iii) In alkaline medium it oxidises manganous ions to manganese dioxide.
Mn2+ + 2OH– + H2O2 MnO + 2H O
2 2
b) Reducting properties :
i) It can also act as a reducing agent towards powerful oxidising agents.
H2O2 2H+ + O + 2e–
2
Base
H2O2 + 2OH– 2H2O + O2
ii) The potential equation when H2O2 acts as a reducing agent can be expressed as.
H2O2 2H+ + O + 2e–
2
iii) It reduces BaO2 to BaO
BaO2 + H2O2 BaO + H O + O
2 2 2
Eg :
i) It reduces HOCl into Cl–
HOCl + H2O2 H O+ + Cl– + O
3 2
ii) H2O2 reduces acidified potassium permanganate in acid medium.
2KMnO4 + 3H2 SO4 + 5H2O2 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2
iii) H2O2 reduces potassium ferrycyanide in basic medium.
2K3 [Fe (CN)6] + 2KOH + H2O2 2K4 [Fe (CN)6] + 2H2O + O2
Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
47.What is plaster of paris ? Write a short note on it.
æ 1 ö
A. a) Plaster of paris : Calcium sulphate hemi hydrate çç CaSO4 . H2 O ÷
÷ is called plaster of paris.
è 2 ø
b) Preparation : Gypsum on heating up to 390k temperature to gives plaster of paris.
120° C 1 3
CaSO 4 .2H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾® CaSO 4 . H 2 O + H 2 O
2 2
Gypsum Plaster of Paris
c) Properties :
i) It is a white amorphous powder
ii) It is heating to 473k, it gets completely dehydrated to form anhydrous CaSO4, also called dead burnt
plaster.
473K
CaSO4 .2H2 O ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾
® CaSO 4
(dead burnt)
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iii) It is mixed with water it set to a hard mass.
1 3 Setting
CaSO 4 . H 2 O + H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾ ® CaSO 4 .H 2 O
2 2
(Orthorhombic Crystal)
hardening stage
CaSO 4 .2H 2 O ¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾¾
® CaSO 4 .2H 2 O
(Orthorhombic Crystal) (Monoclinic crystal)
d) Uses of plaster of paris :
i) It is used for setting fractured bones as bandage.
ii) It is used to making roofs, toys, casts for statues.
iii) It is used for making white chalks.
iv) It is used in dentistry.
48. Explain the significance of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium in biological fluids.
A. Biological importance of :
a) Sodium (Na) : Sodium ions are found primarly in the blood plasma. They are also found in the
interstitial fluids surrounding the cells.
i) Sodium ions help in the transmission of nerve signals.
ii) They help in regulating the flow of water across the cell membranes.
iii) They also help in transporting sugars and amino acids into the cells.
b) Postassium (K) : Potassium ions are found in the highest quantity within the cell fluids.
i) K+ ions help in activating many enzymes.
ii) They also participate in oxidising glucose to produce ATP.
iii) They also help in transmitting nerve signals.
c) Magnesium (Mg) :
i) All enzymes that utilize ATP in phosphate transfer require magnesium as the cofactor.
ii) The main pigment for the absorption of light in plants is chlorophyll which contains magnesium.
d) Calcium(Ca) :
i) about 99% of the body calcium is present in bones and teeth.
ii) It is also plays important roles in neuromuscular function, intemeuronal transmission, cell
membrane integrity and blood coagulation.
iii) The calcium concentration in plasma is regulated at about 100 mg / –1 .
iv) It is maintained by two hormones: calcitonin and parathyroid hormone.
49. Discuss the preparation and properties of sodium carbonate.
A. Sodium carbonate is prepared by Solvay process.
a) Raw materials : The raw materials required are
i) Brine solution (saturated) ii) Ammonia and iii) Lime stone.
b) Principle :
i) Brine solution is saturated with Ammonia and CO2 gas is passed through it. Then sodium
bicarbonate is formed.
NH3 + H2O + CO2 NH HCO
4 3
NH4HCO3 + NaCl NaHCO + NH Cl
3 4
ii) The sodium bicarbonate thus formed on heating decomposes to give sodium carbonate.
2NaHCO3 Na CO + H O + CO
2 3 2 2
c) Process :
Step-1 : Saturation of Brine with ammonia :
i) Ammonia absorber is filled with brine solution and saturated with ammonia gas containing a little
amount of CO2.
ii) Then the calcium and magnesium impurities present in the brine, precipitate as their carbonates and
hydroxides.
2NH3 + H2O + CO2 (NH ) CO
4 2 3
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MgCl2 + (NH4)2CO3 MgCO + 2NH Cl
3 4
The precipitates are filtered in "Filter press" and the filtrate is cooled and sent to Carbonation
Tower.
Step-2 : Carbonation of ammoniacal Brine :
i) This process is carried out in Carbonation tower. It is a tall cylindrical tower containing perforated
plates arranged one above the other.
ii) Ammonical brine solution is dropped from upper half and CO2 gas is passed from the lower part.
Then both of them react together forming sodium bicarbonate.
NH3 + H2O + CO2 NH HCO
4 3
NaCl + NH4HCO3 NaHCO + NH Cl
3 4
Step-3 : Filtration :
The dense liquid from the carbonation tower is sent into rotary vacuum filter and filtered.
Step-4 : Fusion of sodium bicarbonate :
The NaHCO3 obtained in the Rotary filter is heated to high temperatures. Then NaHCO3 decomposes
to give Na2CO3.
2NaHCO3 Na CO + H O + CO
2 3 2 2
Step-5 : Recovery of Ammonia :
i) The filtrate from the Vacuum filter is pumped into ammonia recovery tower, mixed with Ca (OH)2
and heated with steam. Then NH3 gas is liberated which is sent back to saturation tower.
NH4HCO3 NH + H O + CO
3 2 2
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl + 2NH + 2H O
2 3 2
Chemical properties of Na2CO3 :
i) Reaction with acids : Acids liberate CO2 from Na2CO3.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H O + CO
2 2
ii) Reaction with non-metals and their oxides : Sodium carbonate reacts with a mixture of S and
SO2 and forms Hypo.
Na2CO3 + SO2 + S Na S O + CO
2 2 3 2
iii) Reaction with CO2 : An aq. solution of sodium carbonate when saturated with CO2 gives ppt. of
sodium bicarbonate.
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 2NaHCO
3
iv) Reaction with silica : When fused with SiO2, water glass is formed.
Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na SiO + CO
2 3 2
v) Reaction with compounds : Insoluble metal carbonates are formed.
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 MgCO + 2NaCl
3
ZnSO4 + Na2CO3 ZnCO + Na SO
3 2 4
Aqueous Na2CO3 solution is basic in nature. So methyl orange produces yellow colour in that
solution.
13th Group Elements
50.Explain the structure of diborane.
A. Structure of diborane :
i) The molecular formula of diborane is B2H6. It is an electron deficient molecule.
ii) When compare with same molecular formula ethane (C2H6) has 14 electrons, diborane is an electron
deficient molecule, because it has only 12 electrons.
iii) The 12 electrons of Diborane molecule are not sufficient to form all the seven bonds like ethane.
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HH H H
| | | |
H–C–C–H H – B 0 0B – H
| | | |
H H H H
ethane Diborane
(14 electrons) (12 electrons)
iv) The structure of diborance can be explained by molecular Orbital theory.
B – 1S2 2S2 2P1 (Ground State)
B – 1S2 2S1 2Px1 2Py1 2Pz0
vi) In diborane Central atom boron undergoes Sp3 - hybridisation to form four SP3 - hybrid Orbitals.
Among the four Orbitals three SP3 - hybrid Orbitals posses unpaired electrons and one sp3 Orbital is
Vaccant.
vii) The four SP3 - hybrid Orbitals having unpaired electrons of two boron atoms overlap with 1S - orbital
of four hydrogen atoms to forms 4 B - H bonds. These four hydrogens are called Terminal hydrogens.
viii) The Vaccant SP3 - hybrid Orbital of one born overlap with 1S - orbital of hydrogen and SP 3 - hybrid
Orbital of other boron having unpaired electron to form B–H–B bridged bonds.
ix) The B-H-B bridged bonds are also called three centered two electron bond (or) Tau bond (or) Banana
bond.
x) In diborane, the four Terminal hydrogens are lies in same plane and the two bridged hydrogens are lies
in above and below the plane of Terminal hydrogens.
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51. Give two methods of preparation of diborane. How does diborane react with
a) H2O b) CO c) N(CH3)3 d) Ammonia
A. i) Industrial preparation :
Diborane can be prepared by treating boron trifluoride with LiAlH4 in diethyl ether.
4 BF3 + 3 LiAlH4 2 B2H6 + 3 LiF + 3 AlF3
ii) Laboratory preparation :
a) In the laboratory it is conveniently prepared by the oxidation of sodium borohydride with iodine.
2 Na BH4 + I2 B2H6 + 2NaI + H2
b) On large scale it is prepared by reaction of BF3 with sodium hydride.
450 K
2 BF3 + 6 NaH
B2H6 + 6NaF.
a) Reaction with H2O : Diborane hydrolyses in water liberating hydrogen gas with the formation of boric
acid
B2H6 (g) + 6H2O (l) 2 B(OH)3 (aq) + 6H2 (g)
b) Reaction with CO : Diborane forms an addition product with CO. In this reaction diborane undergoes
symmetric cleavage.
B2H6 + 2 CO 2 BH3 . CO
c) Reaction with N(CH3)3 : While reacting with N(CH3)3 also diborane undergoes symmetric cleavage
forming the addition compound.
B2H6 + 2 N (CH3)3 2 BH3 . N (CH3)3
d) Ammonia : With ammonia it forms an addition product with asymmetric cleavage which on heating
forms borazine which is known as isnorganic benzene.
heat
3 B2H6 + 6 NH3 3 [BH2 (NH3)2]+ [BH4]– 2 B3N3H6 + 12 H2
52. Explain borax bead test with a suitable example.
A. Borax Bead Test :
i) This test is useful for the identification of coloured metal radicals in qualitative analysis.
ii) On heating, borax swells into a white, opaque mass of anhydrous sodium tetraborate.
iii) When it is fused, borax glass is obtained. This contains sodium metaborate and B2O3.
iv) The boric anhydride combines with metal oxides to form metal metaborates as coloured beads. The
reactions are as follows.
Na2B4O7. 10H2O Na2B4O7 2NaBO2 + B2O3 + CoO Co (BO2)2
fused
White,
Borax glass Cobalt Metaborate
opaque mass
(Blue bead)
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Organic Chemistry
53.Name the products A, B and C formed in the following reactions. Give the equations for the
reactions.
Br2 Alc.KOH Br
Ethylene A B
2
C
CCl4
Br Br
| |
CCl4 Alc.KOH
A. CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2 – CH2
CH CH
(A) (B)
Br Br Br Br
| | | |
CH CH + Br2
CH = CH Br2
CH – CH
(B) 1,2-dibromo ethene | |
Br Br
1, 1, 2, 2, -tetra bromo ethane
(C)
54. Complete the following reaction and name the products A, B and C.
H O Al Cl + CH Cl
C a C 2
2
A
Hot metal tube 3 3
B C
A. i) CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
(A) A = Acetylene;
H2O
ii) 3C2H2 C2H2
Hot metal tube
C6H6
(B) B = Benzene;
Al Cl3 + CH3Cl
iii) C6H6 C6H5CH3 + HCl
(C) C = Methyl benzene (or) Toluence
55. Describe two methods of preparation of ethane. Give any three reactions of ethane.
A. a) Methods of preparation of ethane :
i) Decarboxylation of sodium propionate : Ethane is prepared by heating sodium propionate with
soda lime. (Soda lime = NaOH + CaO)
CaO C H + Na CO
CH3 – CH2 – COONa + NaOH 2 6
2 3
ii) Wurtz reaction : Ethane is prepared by heating methyl iodide with sodium metal in dry ether.
Dry
CH3I + 2Na + ICH3 CH3 – CH3 + 2NaI
ether
b) Properties of ethane :
i) Substitution reactions : Reactions in which an atom or group present in a compound is replaced
by another atom or group are known as substitution reactions.
p Halogenation : In the presence of sunlight or UV radiation ethane undergoes halogenation. The
H atoms of alkane are successively replaced by the halogen atoms.
h h h h h h
C2H6 C2H5Cl C2H4Cl2 C2H3Cl3 C2H2Cl4 C2HCl5 C2Cl6
Cl2 Cl2 Cl2 Cl2 Cl2 Cl2
o
p Nitration : Ethane reacts with vapours of HNO3 at 400 C and forms nitroethane.
400C C H NO + H O
C2H6 + HNO3 2 5 2 2
ii) Combustion : Complete oxidation of the compound in air is called 'combustion'. It gives CO2 and
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H2O along with liberation of heat.
C2H6 + 7 O2
2 CO2 + 3 H2O+ energy
2
56. Describe two methods of preparation of ethylene. Give equation for the reactions of ethylene
with the following.
i) Ozone ii) Hypohalous acid iii) Cold and dil. alk KMnO4
iv) Heated with O2 at high pressure v) Hyderogen halide vi) Hydrogen
vii) Bromine viii) Water
ix) Oxygen in presence of Ag at 200°C
A. a) Methods of preparation :
i) Decarboxylation of ethyl alcohol : When ethyl alcohol is heated with conc. H2SO4 at 170°C,
ethylenece is formed.
Conc H SO
CH3CH2OH
2 4
170C
H2C = CH2 + H2O
Ethyl alcohol Ethylene
ii) Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides : When ethyl bromide is heated with alc. KOH, eethylene
is formed.
CH3CH2Br + KOH(alc) H2C = CH2 + KBr + H2O
Ethyl bromide Ethylene
b) Properties :
i) Action with ozone : Ethylene reacts with ozone forming ethylene ozonides. The ozonide undergoes
hydrolysis in the presence of zine dust to give formal dehyde.
O
Zn
H2C = CH2 + O3
H C
2
CH2
H O
2HCHO + H O
2 2
2
O O
Ethylene ozonide
ii) Action with HOCl : Ethylene reacts with hypochlorous acid to give ethylene chlorohydrin.
OH Cl
| |
H2C = CH2 + HOCl
CH – CH
2 2
iii) Action with cold and dilute alk. KMnO4 : Cold dilute alkaline KMnO4 solution is called
Baeyer’s reagent.
Ethylene gives ethylene glycol with Baeyer’s reagent.
OH OH
Baeyer 's
H2C = CH2 + H2O + (O)
reagent
CH – CH
2 2
Ethylene Ethylenge glycol
In this reaction Baeryer’s reagent loses its pink colour. Thus the reaction is used to deetect
carbon-carbon double bond. This is called Baeyer’s test.
iv) Heating with O2 at high pressures : The process in which simple molecules join together to
form a large molecule is known as polymerization.
Ethylene when heated with O2 at high pressure gives polythene.
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15002000atm
nH2C = CH2
O ,200C
–CH
( 2 – CH2–)n
2
Ethylene Polythene
v) Action with hyderogen halide : Ethylene reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ethyl chloride.
H2C = CH2 + HCl CH3 – CH2Cl
Ethyl chloride
vi) Action with hydrogen : In the presence of catalyst like ni, Pt or Pd, hydrogen adds on ethylene to
form ethane.
Ni
H2C = CH2 + H2
CH – CH
3 120C
3
Ethane
vii) Action with bromine : Ethylene reacts with bromine in the presence of CCl4 and decolourises it
forming 1, 2-dibromoethane.
Br Br
H2C = CH2 + Br2 CH2 – CH2
1, 2-dibromo ethane
viii) Action with water : Ethylene reacts with dil. H2SO4 to give ethyl alcohol.
dil H 2SO 4
H2C = CH2 + H2O CH3 – CH2 – OH
Ethyl alcohol
ix) Action with O2 in the presence of Ag at 200°C : O2 adds on ethylene in the presence of Ag
catalyst at 200 – 400°C to form ethylene oxide.
1 Ag
H2C = CH2 + O CH – CH
2 2 200 400C 2 2
O
Ethylene oxide
57. Give two methods of preparation of acetylene. How does it react with
i) Water ii) ozone iii) Acetic acid iv)Hydrogen
v) Halogens vi) Hydrogen halide viii) Ammonia AgNO3 viii) Ammonia Cu2Cl2
A. Methods of preparation :
i) Acetylene is prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide.
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Acetylene
ii) Acetylene is preapred by heating iodoform with silver powder.
CHI3 + 6Ag + I3CH CH CH + 6Agl
Acetylene
Properties :
i) Action with water : In the presence of mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid, acetylene reacts with
water to give vinyl alcohol which rearranges to acetaldehyde.
30% HgSO4 Rearrangement
HC CH + H2O [H2C = CH] CH3 – CHO
Acetaldehyde
ii) Action with ozone : Acetylene reacts with ozone to form acetylene ozonide, which undergoes
hydrolysis in the presence of zinc dust and gives glyoxal.
O
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HC CH + O3 HC – CH Zn H 2O + H2O2
O–O CHO
Acetylene ozonide Glyoxal
+2
iii) Action with acetic acid : In the presence of Hg ion, acetylene reacts with acetic acid to give first
vinyl acetate and then ethylidene acetate.
Hg 2 CH COOH
HC CH CH 3COOH
H 2 C CH OCO CH 3
3
2
CH 3 CH(OCOCH 3 ) 2
Hg
iv) Action with hydrogen : Acetylene reacts with hydrogen in the presence of Ni to form first ethene and
then ethane.
Ni H
HC CH H 2 H 2 C CH 2
2 CH CH
3 3
Ni
v) Action with halogens : Acetylene reacts with Cl2 in the presence of CCl4 to give first 1,2-
dichloroethene and finally 1, 1, 2, 2-tetrachloroethane.
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl
HC CH + Cl2 HC = CH
CCl4 2
CCl4 HC – CH
vi) Action with hydrogen halides : Acetylene reacts with HCl to give first vinyl chloride and then
ethylidene chloride.
HC CH + HCl H2C = CHCl
HCl
H3C – CHCl2
vii) Action with ammonical AgNO3 solutions : When acetylene gas is passed through ammonical
AgNO3 solution, a white ppt of silver acetylide is formed.
H – C C – H + 2NH4OH + 2Ag Ag – C C – Ag + 2NH4 NO3 + 2H2O
Silver acetylide
viii) Action with ammonical Cu2Cl2 solution : When acetylene gas is passed through ammonical Cu2Cl2
solution, a red ppt of copper acetylide is formed.
H – C C – H + 2NH4OH + Cu2Cl2 Cu – C = C – Cu + 2NH4Cl + 2H2O
Copper acetylide
58. Describe any two preparation methods of benzene ? Give the corresponding equation. Explain
the halogenation, alkylation, acylation, nitration and sulphonation of benzene.
A. Preparation of benzene from acetylene : When acetylene gas is passed through red hot copper tube, it
undergoes polymerisation forming benzene.
i) Laboratory Method : Sodium benzoate on distillation with soda lime gives benzene.
CaO
C6H5COONa + NaOH C6H6 + Na2CO3
Sodium benzoate Benzene
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p A mixture of NaOH and CaO is called soda lime.
ii) Polymerisation of acetylene : When acetylene gas is passed through red hot copper tube, it
undergoes polymerisation forming benzene.
Red hot Cu
3 C2H2 C6H6
600C
Acetylene Benzene
Properties :
i) Halogenation : In presence of anhydrous AlCl3, benzene reacts with Cl2 and gives chloro- benzene.
ii) Friedel - Craft's alkylation : In presence of anhydrous AlCl3, benzene reacts with alkyl halides and
gives alkyl benzene. This is known as Friedel Craft's alkylation.
iii) Friedel - Craft's acylation : In presence of anhydrous AlCl3 , benzene reacts with acetyl chloride
and gives acetophenone.
o
iv) Nitration : Benzene reacts with nitration mixture below 60 C and gives nitro- benzene.
A mixture of conc. H2SO4 and conc. HNO3 in 1 : 1 ratio (by volume) is called nitration
mixture.
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v) Sulphonation : Benzene reacts with fuming H2SO4 and gives benzenesulphonic acid.
Very Short Answer Questions
Environmental Chemistry
1. What is Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ?
A. The amount of Oxygen required to Oxidise Organic Substances present in polluted water is called COD.
2. What is Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) ?
A. The amount of Oxygen used by living micro organisms present in water during 5 days period at 20°C is
called B.O.D.
3. Name two adverse effects caused by acid rains.
A. Adverse effects :
i) Acid rains damages the old buildings and historical monuments like Tajmahal.
ii) Acid rains are harmful for agriculture, trees and plants.
iii) Acid rains are effect the aquatic life.
iv) Acid rains decrease the quality of drinking water.
4. What are smoke and mist ?
A. i) Smoke : It consists of solid or mixture of solid and liquid particles formed during combustion of organic
matter.
Eg : Cigarette smoke.
ii) Mist : It is formed by the particles of spray liquids and by condensation of vapours in air.
Eg : Sulphuric acid, herbicides, insecticides etc., which miss their targets and go into air forming
mist.
5. Define the terms Sink, TLV and receptor.
A. i) Sink : The medium which reacts with pollutants is called sink.
Eg : Sea water is a big sink for CO2.
ii) TLV : The minimum level of the toxic substances or pollutants present in the atmosphere which affects
a person adversely when he is exposed to this for 7 – 8 hrs. in a day is called Threshold Limit Value
(TLV).
iii) Receptor : The medium which is affected by a pollutant is called receptor.
Eg : Eyes of drivers of two wheelers (or) four wheelers when they are stopped at signal centres.
6. Green house effect is caused by ......... and .......... gases.
A. Green house effect is caused by gases such as CO2 , CH4, O3, CFC’s and water vapour in the atmosphere.
7. Which Oxides cause acid rain and what is its pH value.
A. Oxides of nitrogen andsulphur are caused to acid rains. Acid rain has pH value less than 5.6.
8. What is Ozone hole ? Where was it first observed.
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A. Ozone hole : The depletion of Ozone layer is known as ozone hole.
It was first observed in Antartica region of north pole.
9. What is the value of dissolved oxygen in pure cooled, water ?
A. The value of dissolved oxygen in pure cooled, water is 4 – 6 mg L –1
10. Give the possible BOD values of clean water and the polluted water.
A. i) For pure water BOD value is 1 ppm.
ii) For polluted water BOD value is greater than 17 ppm.
ii) For municipal sewage BOD values ranges from 100 – 4000 ppm.
11. What is greenhouse effect ? and how is it caused ?
A. Greenhouse effect :
i) Gases like CO2, CFCs, O3, NO and water vapour covers at earth’s surface like a blanket. These gases
absorb I.R. radiations coming to the earth and reflect them back to the earth's surface.
ii) Due to this, the surface of the earth gets heated. This is called greenhouse effect. The gases which are
responsible for this effect are called greenhouse gases.
Effect of global warming :
i) Due to global warming, the rate of evaporation of water from the seas, rivers, ponds will increase.
This leads to unwanted rains, cyclones and hurricanes.
ii) Due to global warming, ice at poles melt, sea level increases and coastal cities submerged.
12. Name the common components of photochemical smog.
A. The main components of photochemical smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein formaldehyde and peroxy
acetyl nitrate. It is oxidising in nature.
13. What is PAN ? What effect is cause by it ?
A. PAN :
i) Peroxy acetyl nitrate is called PAN.
ii) It is a powerful eye irritating agent and it causes photo chemical smog.
14. Give the chemical equations involved in the ozone depletion by CF2 Cl2.
A. i) Chlorofluro carbons released into atmosphere and mix with atmosphere gases and reach the stratosphere.
There, they broken down into chlorine free radical by powerful. U.V. radiations.
UV
CF2Cl2 C l CF2 Cl
ii) The chlorine radical reacts with O3 to form chlorine monoxide radicals and oxygen.
C l O 3 Cl O O2
iii) Chlorine monoxide radical reacts with atomic oxygen produces more chlorine radicals.
Cl O O C l +O2
iv) The chlorine radicals are continuously regenerated and cause ozone depletion.
15. “Acid rains harmful”. Why ?
A. The rain having the pH 4-5 is called Acir rains.
Effects :
i) pH of soil changes, affecting its fertility.
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ii) The life of buildings considerably reduced.
States of Matter
1.State Boyle’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
Ans. At constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
1
V at constant T, n
P
k
V PV = k (k = constant)
P
2. State Charle’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
Ans. At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
V T (at constant P, n)
V
V = kT = k k = constant
T
3. State Graham’s law of diffusion.
Ans. The rate of diffusion of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density
This is called Graham’s law of diffusion
1
r
d
4. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
Ans. At constant temperature and volume the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reacting gases is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of all individual gases. This is called Dalton’s law of partial
pressures
Ptotal P1 P2 P3 (at constant T, V)
5. What is Boltzmann’s constant? Give its value.
Ans. The gas constant per molecule of the gas is called Boltzmann’s constant (K).
R
K where K 1.38 1016 ergs.k 1molecule 1 (or) 1.38 1023 J.k 1molecule1
N
6. Why the gas constant ‘R’ is called Universal gas constant? Give its values ?
Ans. Gas constant (R) is same for all the gases. Hence it is called Universal gas constant
PV
R
nT
The value of gas constant in different units.
p R = 8.314 pa m3k–1 mole–1
p R = 8.314 J . mole–1 k–1
p R = 8.314 × 107 ergs. mole–1 k–1
p R = 1.987 cal. mole–1 k–1.
7. Which of the gases diffuses faster among N2, O2, CH4. Why ? (March 2002, May 2009)
Ans. CH4 diffuses faster among N2, O2 and CH4 due to lower molecular mass according to Graham’s law.
8. What is the effect of temperature on the kinetic energy of the gas molecules?
Ans. Kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature
EK T
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9. What is Compressibility factor?
Ans. It measures the deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour
It is the ratio of (PV) and (nRT) and its represented by Z
PV
Z (or)
nRT
It is the ratio of actual molar volume of gas (real) to the molar volume (ideal) of it
V
Z Re al
Videal
10. What is Critical temperature? Give its value for CO2.
Ans. The temperature above it any gas cannot be liquefied even by applying high pressure is called critical
temperature (Tc) of the gas.
Tc of CO2 is 30.98°C.
11. Why pressure cooker is used for cooking food on hills?
Ans. At high altitudes atmospheric pressure is low. Therefore liquids at high altitudes boil at lower temperatures
in comparison to that at sea level. Hence the pressure cooker is used for cooking food in which boiling point
of water is increased by increasing the pressure above the atmospheric pressure.
Stoichiometry
1.The empirical formula of a compound is CH2O. Its molecular weight is 90 . Calculate the molecular
formula of the compound. (March-2013)
Ans. Empirical formula = CH2O
Empirical formula weight 12 2 16 30
mole cular weight 90
molecular wt 90
n 3 moles
empirical formula wt 30
molecular formula = (epirical formula)n = (CH2O)3 = C3H6O3
2. How many number of moles of glucose are present in 540 gms of glucose? (June 10)
Ans. Glucose gram molecular weight C6 H12 O6 12 6 1 12 16 6 = 72 12 96 = 180 gm
w 540
number of moles of glucose = 3 moles
G.M.wt 180
3. What do you mean by significant figures?
Ans. Every experimental measurement has some uncertainity associated with it. This uncertainity in the
experimental or calculated values is indicated by mentioning the number of significant figures.
Significant figures are meaningful digits which are known with certainity .
4. What is a redox concept ? Give an Example.
Ans. Chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is called redox-reaction.
Reduction
0 0 +4 -2
Ex : C O2 CO2
Oxidation
5. What are disproportionate reactions? Give example.
A. Disproportionate reactions : Chemical reactions in which the same element undergoes both oxidation
and reduction simultaneously are known as disproportionation reactions.
Eg : (0) (+5) (–1)
3Cl2(g) + 6OH–(aq) ClO– 3(aq)+ 5Cl – (aq) + 3H2O(l)
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Thermodynamics
1. State the first law of the thermodynamics ?
Ans. Ist law : It states that " The energy in a process may be transformed from one form into the other but is
neither created nor destroyed". (or)
"The impossibility of construction of a perpetual motion machine of first kind"
U = q + w
p It is also known as law of conservation of energy
2. What are intensive and extensive properties ?
Ans. Intensive properties : The Properties which are independent on the amount of substance are called
intensive properties.
Ex: Density, Pressure, Temperature
Extensive properties : The properties which are dependent on the amount of substance are called
extensive properties
Ex : Mass, volume, heat capacity, Internal energy, Enthalpy.
3. What is the relationship between Cp and Cv?
Ans. CP – CV = R
C P = molar heat capacity at constant pressure
CV = molar heat capacity at constant volume
R = Universal gas constant
4. State the third law of thermodynamics.
Ans. Third law of thermodynamics was suggested by Max plank. It states “ the entropy of a pure and perfectly
crystalline substance is zero at the absolute zero of temperature (–273° C)”
T Cp
lt ST dT
T 0 S 0
(or)
0 T
Chemical Equilibrum and Acids-
Bases
1. What is homogenous equilibrium ? Write two homogeneous reactions.
Ans. If the physical state of reactants and products are same in an equilibrium reaction then the equilibrium is
called homogenous equilibrium.
e.g. : H 2(g) I2(g) 2HI(g)
N 2(g) 3H 2(g) 2NH3(g)
2. What is heterogeneous equilibrium? Write two heterogeneous reactions.
Ans. If the physical state of reactants and products are different in an equilibrium reaction then the equilibrium
is called heterogeneous equilibrium.
e.g. : CaCO3(s) CaO(s) CO2(g)
Ni s 4CO g Ni CO
4 g
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3. Write the relation between Kp and Kc.
Ans. Kp = Kc (RT)n
n = No. of moles of gaseous products – No.of moles of gaseous reactants
R = Universal gas constant
4. Write the equations for the conversion of Kc to Kp for each of the following reactions ?
a) CO(g) +H 2O(g) CO 2 g +H 2 g
b) C3 H 8(g) +5O 2(g) 3CO 2 g +4H 2O g
Ans. a) CO(g) H 2 O(g) CO 2 g H 2 g
n 2 2 0
n
K P K C RT K C RT K C
0
KP KC
b) C3H8(g) 5O 2(g) 3CO 2 g 4H 2 O g
n 7 6 1
n
K P K C RT K C RT
1
KP KC
5. What is meant by ionic product of water?
Ans. The product of the molar concentrations of H and OH ions in water at a given temparature is
called ionic product of water. Kw H OH
6. What is a Bronsted base ? Give one example.
A. The substance which can accept a proton is said to be Bronsted base.
Ex : Cl– , HCO3--
7. What is Lewis acid ? Give one example.
A. Lewis acid is the substance which can accept a pair of electrons and form a coordinate covalent bond.
Ex : BF3 , H+
Hydroden and Its Compounds
1.Explain the term "Syngas".
A. Water gas is called syn gas. Because it is used for synthesis of methanol and a number of hydrocarbons.
Cr O - ZnO
CO + 2H2 ¾¾¾¾¾2¾¾¾3¾¾¾¾¾¾¾® CH3OH
2. What is meant by coal gasification ? Explain with relevant, balanced equation.
A. The process of producing “water gas” from coal and hydroarbons is called coal gasification.
C(s) + H2 O(s) ® CO + H2
3. What do you mean by autoprotolysis ? Give the equation to represent the autoprotolysis of
water.
A. Self-ionisation of water is known as auto protolysis of water.
H 2 O + H 2 O ® H 3 O + + OH -
p From the above reaction, we know that water is an amphoteric substance.
4. Why is dihydrogen used in welding of high melting metals ?
A. Atomic hydrogen and oxy-hydrogen torches generate very high temperature of 4000K. So dihydrogen is
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used in welding of high melting metals.
Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
1. Give reasons for the diagonal relationship observed in the periodic table.
A. p The diagonal relationship is due to the similarity in ionic sizes or similar polarising power.
ionic charge
p Polarising power
(ionic radius)2
2. Why are alkali metals not found in the free state in nature ?
A. Alkali metals are highly reactive. So they do not occur in free state. They always occur in combined state.
3. Describe the important uses of caustic soda.
A. Uses :
i) It is used in petrol refining.
ii) It is used as laboratory reagent in qualitative and quantitative analysis.
iii) It is used in purification of bauxite.
iv) It is used in manufacturing of soap, paper.
v) It is used in manufacturing of artificial silk.
4. Write the average composition of Portland cement.
A. The average composition of portland cement is
Element Composition
CaO 50 – 60%
SiO2 20 – 25%
Al2O3 5 – 10%
MgO 2 – 3%
Fe2O3 1 – 2%
SO2 1 – 2%
5. Describe the important uses of quick lime.
A. Uses :
i) It is used in purification of sugar.
ii) It is used in manufacture of dyestuffs.
iii) It is used in manufacture of Na2CO3 from NaOH.
iv) It is used in manufacture of cement.
v) It is used in softening of water.
6. Describe the important uses of sodium carbonate.
A. Uses :
i) Na2CO3 is used in laundries.
ii) Na2CO3 is used as laboratory reagent in qualitative and quantitative analysis.
iii) It is used in manufacturing of borax, caustic soda.
iv) It is used in paper, paints and textile industries.
v) It is used in softening of water.
7. Lithium salts are mostly hydrated. Why ?
A. Li+ ion has small size and more charge density. So it has maximum degree of hydration.
Due to this reason lithium salts are mostly hydrated.
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Eg : LiCl . 2H2O
8. Why is gypsum added to cement ?
A. Gypsum is added to cement to slow down the setting process.
9. What happens when magnesium metal is burnt in air ?
A. Mg metal burns with dazzling light in air to gives MgO and Mg3N2
2Mg + O2 ® 2MgO
3Mg + N 2 ® Mg3 N 2
10. Describe the importance of Plaster of Paris.
A. i) It has a remarkable property of setting with water. So it is used in the building industry.
ii) It is used in plastering the fractured bones.
iii) It is also used in dentistry and in making casts of statues and busts.
11. Which of the alkaline earth metal carbonates is thermally the most stable ? Why ?
A. BaCO3 is thermally more stable because the large anion CO3–2 is combined with large cation Ba+2 to
gives stable compound BaCO3.
12. Potassium carbonate cannot be prepared by Solvay process. Why ?
A. K2CO3 cannot be prepared by solvay’s process because KHCO 3 is too soluble in water. hydrogen
carbonate formed during Solvay process. So it cannot be prepared by Solvay process.
13th Group Elements
1.What is the hybridization of B in diborane and borazine ?
A. i) In diborane boron is involved in sp3 hybridisation
2
ii) In borazine boron is involved in sp hybridisation.
2. Give the formula of borazine. What is its common name ?
A. i) The formula of borazine is - B3N3H6.
ii) It’s common name is inorganic Benzene. Because it has similar structure with Benzene (cyclo
hexagon)
3. Give the formulae of i) Borax ii) Colemanite.
A. Uses :
i) Formula of Borax is Na2B4O7. 10H2O
ii) Formula of Colemanite is Ca2B6O11.5H2O
4. Explain inert pair effect.
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A. The reluctance of ‘ns’ pairing of electrons to take part in bond formation is called inert pair effect.
5. Describe the shapes of BF3 and BH 4 . Assign the hybridization of boron in these species.
A. i) In BF3 molecule, boron undergoes SP2 – hybridisation. Hence BF3 is a trigonal planar molecule
ii) In BH 4 ion, boron undergoes sp3 - hybridisation. Hence BH 4 has tetrahedral shape.
6. Why does BF3 behave as a Lewis acid ?
A. BF3 is an electron deficient compound, because it contains six electrons in the valency shell. Due to
presence of vacant orbital BF3 behaves as lewis acid.
14th Group Elements
1.Graphite is good conductor. Explain.
A. i) In Graphite, each carbon atom is in sp2 hybridised state.
ii) Each carbon atom has one unpaired electron in its pure P - orbital. Due to presence of these free
electrons, graphite acts as a good conductor of electricity.
2. How does graphite function as lubricant.
A. Graphite has two dimensional layer structure and these layers can easily slide over each other. Because
the layers are held together by weak vander Waal’s forces. Hence graphite is used as lubricant.
3. Give the hybridization of carbon in
a) CO32– b) diamond c) graphite d) fullerene e) CO2
2
A. a) Hybridisation of ‘C’ in CO 3 – sp2
b) Hybridisation of ‘C’ in diamond – sp3
c) Hybridisation of ‘C’ in graphite – sp2
d) Hybridisation of ‘C’ in fullerence – sp2
e) Hybridisation of ‘C’ in CO2 – sp
4. What is allotropy ? Give the crystalline allotropes of carbon.
A. Allotropy : The existence of an element in different physical forms but possessing similar chemical
properties is known as allotropy.
p The three crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerenes.
5. SiF6–2 is known while SiCl6–2 is not. Explain.
A. The main reasons are
p Six large chloride ions cannot be accommodated around Si +4 due to small size of Si+4.
p Interactions between lone pair of chloride ion and Si +4 is not very strong.
6. Why is carbon monoxide poisonous ?
A. i) 'CO' gas is highly poisonous because it has the ability to form a stable complex with haemoglobin.
Hb + CO Hb – CO
Haemoglobin Carboxy haemoglobin (stable complex)
ii) Carboxy haemoglobin is 300 times more stable than oxyhaemoglobin.
7. What is water gas (or) Syn gas ? How is water gas prepared.
A. i) The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas.
ii) Water gas is prepared by passing steam over red hot coke.
C(s) H2 O(g) CO(g) H2(g)
Water gas
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8. What is producer gas ? How is producer gas prepared.
A. i) The mixture of CO and N2 is called producer gas.
ii) Producer gas is prepared by passing airover red hot coke.
2C(s) O2(g) 4N2(g) 2CO(g) 4N2(g)
Producer gas
9. How does CO2 increase the greenhouse effect ?
A. i) Green plants absorb CO2 gas for photosyntheis and relase O2 gas.
ii) Due to deforestation, decomposition of lime stone and burnng of fossil fuels CO 2 concentration is
increased in atmosphere.
iii) The blanket of CO2 gas in the atmosphere traps and reflects the infra red radiations so atmosphere gets
heated up. This is called green house effect or global warming.
10. Name any two man–made silicates.
A. Two important man–made silicates are i) Glass ii) Cement
11. What is the use of dry ice ?
A. Solid CO2 is called "Dry ice". Dry ice is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream and frozen food.
12. Write the use of ZSM - 5.
A. ZSM - 5 is one type of Zeolite. It is used to convert alcohols directly into gasoline.
13. SiO2 is solid while CO2 is a gas explain.
A. i) CO2 is gas because it is made up of decrete linear O = C = O molecules.
ii) SiO2 is a solid because it has gaint molecule structure with Si – O single bonds.
14. What are Silicones ?
A. Silicones :
i) Silicones are organo-silicon compounds. In silicones, silicon is strongly linked to oxygen and carbon.
Silicones are polymers.
ii) They are formed by the hydrolysis and condensation of chlorosilanes.
15. Give the use of CO2 in Photosynthesis.
A. Plants absorb CO2 from air, water from soil and convert them into carbohydrates in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll.
h
6CO2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll
C H O + 6O
6 12 6 2
This is known as photosynthesis.
16. SiO2 is solid while CO2 is a gas explain.
A. i) CO2 is gas because it is made up of decrete linear O = C = O molecules.
ii) SiO2 is a solid because it has gaint molecule structure with Si – O single bonds.
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17. What is the use of dry ice ?
A. Solid CO2 is called "Dry ice". Dry ice is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream and frozen food.
18. What is Carborandum ? How it is prepared ?
Ans. Sic is known as carborundum. It is prepared by Achson’s process by heating coke with SiO 2 in electric
furnance.
3C + SiO2 SiC + 2CO
SiC Si + C
Organic Chemistry
A) GENERAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
3. Explain the following :
a) Crystallisation b) Distillation.
A. a) Crystallisation : It is based on the difference in the solubilities of the compound and impurities. Cooling
of saturated solution of the compound the solid compound crystallises out of the solution while the
impurities being unsaturated remain in solution.
b) Distillation : Liquids having different boiling points vapourise at different temperatures. The vapours
are cooled and the liquids so formed are collected separately.
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B) ALIPHATIC AND AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
1. Write the conformations of ethane.
A. Conformational isomerism : As a result of rotation about C - C single bond, the atoms or groups of a
molecule assume different spatial orientations. These different atomic arrangements are called
'conformational isomers'.
Eg : Eclipsed (E) and staggered (S) conformers of Ethane (C2H6)
2. Explain Wurtz’s synthesis ?
A. Alkyl halides treatment with sodium metal in dry Ethereal solution give higher alkanes. This reaction is
known as Wrutz reaction.
dry ether
CH3 – Br + 2Na + Br – CH3 CH3 – CH3 + 2NaBr
Methyl Bromide
3. How do you prepare ethyl chloride from ethylene ?
A. Ethylene reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ethyl chloride.
CH2 = CH2 + HCl CH3 – CH2Cl
4. Write the reagents required for conversion of benzene to methyl benzene.
A. The reagents required for conversion of benzene to methyl benzene are Benzene, methy chloride and
anhydrous AlCl3.
AlCl
C6H6 + CH3Cl
3
C6H5 CH3 + HCl
Toluene
5. How is nitrobenzene prepared ?
A. When benzene is heated with a mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4 at 60oC form nitro benzene one
H-atom of benzene is substituted by NO2 groups and forms nitrobenzene.
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