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HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA
ELSEVIER SERIES IN MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS ELSEVIER SERIES IN MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS
HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA HETEROGENEOUS

LOCAL FIELDS, EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES, AND WAVE PROPAGATION
SERGEY KANAUN
MEDIA
LOCAL FIELDS, EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES,
This book outlines new computational methods for solving volume
integral equation problems in heterogeneous media. It starts by surveying AND WAVE PROPAGATION
the various numerical methods of analysis of static and dynamic fields
in heterogeneous media, listing their strengths and weaknesses, before
moving on to an introduction of static and dynamic Green functions for
homogeneous media. Volume and surface integral equations for fields
in heterogeneous media are discussed next, followed by an overview
of explicit formulas for numerical calculations of volume and surface
potentials. The book then covers Gaussian functions for the discretization
of volume integral equations for fields in heterogeneous media, static
problems for a homogeneous host medium with heterogeneous inclusions,
and volume integral equations for scattering problems, and concludes
with a chapter outlining solutions to homogenization problems and
calculations of effective properties of heterogeneous media. The book
also features multiple appendices detailing the code of basic programs for
solving volume integral equations, written in Mathematica.
About the author
Dr. Sergey Kanaun is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the
Technological Institute of Higher Education of Monterrey, State Mexico
Campus, Mexico. His core areas of research are continuum mechanics,
KANAUN
mechanics of composites, micromechanics, elasticity, plasticity, and fracture
mechanics. Prior to his current teaching post, he was a Professor at the
Technical University of Novosibirsk in Russia and also Chief Researcher at
the Institute of Engineering Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Saint Petersburg, also in Russia. He has published over 140 articles in peer-
reviewed journals and two books.
ISBN 978-0-12-819880-3
9 780128 198803
SERGEY KANAUN
Heterogeneous Media
This page intentionally left blank
Heterogeneous Media
Local Fields, Effective Properties, and
Wave Propagation
Sergey Kanaun
Elsevier
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TO MY WIFE
Araceli
Contents
Preface xi
Notations xiii
1 Introduction 1
References 5
2 Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 7

2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous media 7
2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics 10
2.3 Elastic media with external and internal stress sources 11
2.4 Temperature fields in a homogeneous medium with heat sources 14
2.5 Quasistatic fields in poroelastic media 16
2.6 Acoustic waves in fluids 19
2.7 The Green function of time-harmonic electromagnetics 21
2.8 The Green function of time-harmonic elasticity 22
2.9 The Green function of time-harmonic poroelasticity 24
2.10 Volume potentials of electrostatics 27
2.11 Volume potentials of static elasticity 31
2.12 Surface potentials of electrostatics 33
2.13 Surface potentials of static elasticity 41
2.14 Volume and surface potentials of quasistatic poroelasticity 43
2.15 Time-harmonic potentials 46
2.16 Notes 48
References 49
3 Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in

heterogeneous media 51
3.1 Integral equations for steady electric fields in heterogeneous media 51
3.2 Thin heterogeneities of small or large electroconductivity in
homogeneous host media 55
3.3 Volume integral equations of static elasticity for heterogeneous
media 62
3.4 Surface integral equations for thin inclusions in homogeneous
elastic media 65
3.5 A crack in a poroelastic medium subjected to surface pressure 68
3.6 Approximate equations of the crack problem of quasistatic
poroelasticity 73
viii Contents
3.7 A cavity subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a poroelastic

medium 75
3.8 Integro-differential equations for time-harmonic fields in
heterogeneous fluids 82
3.9 Acoustic wave scattering from a rigid screen 85
3.10 Volume and surface integral equations of time-harmonic
electromagnetics for heterogeneous media 87
3.11 Integro-differential equations of time-harmonic elasticity for
3.12 Integro-differential equations of time-harmonic poroelasticity for
3.13 Notes 101
References 101
4 Numerical calculation of volume and surface potentials 103

4.1 Gaussian approximating functions 103
4.2 Fast Fourier transform algorithms for calculation of Gaussian
quasiinterpolants and related sums 108
4.3 Numerical calculation of volume potentials of electrostatics 117
4.4 Far field asymptotics of static potentials and multipole expansions
of the potential densities 122
4.5 Volume potential of time-harmonic acoustics 124
4.6 Surface potentials of electrostatics 126
4.7 Surface potentials of time-harmonic acoustics 132
4.8 Notes 135
Appendix 4.A Computational programs for fast calculation of sums of
identical functions shifted at the nodes of regular grids 135
Appendix 4.B The computational program for numerical calculation of a
3D potential of electrostatics 140
References 143
5 Numerical solution of volume integral equations for static fields in

5.1 Discretization of the volume integral equations of electrostatics for
5.2 Iterative solutions of the systems of linear algebraic equations of
large dimensions 151
5.3 Numerical solution of the volume integral equations of
electrostatics 153
5.4 Numerical solutions of the volume integral equations of static
elasticity for heterogeneous media 156
5.5 Thermo-elastic deformation of heterogeneous media 169
5.6 Elasto-plastic deformation of heterogeneous media 172
5.7 Notes 187
Contents ix
Appendix 5.A The computational program for numerical solution of

volume integral equations of electrostatics for heterogeneous media 187
References 190
6 Cracks in heterogeneous media 193

6.1 A planar crack of arbitrary shape in a homogeneous elastic medium 193
6.2 Cracks with curvilinear surfaces 199
6.3 Stress intensity factors at the crack edge 207
6.4 Elastic bodies containing cracks 211
6.5 A homogeneous elastic medium containing cracks and inclusions 224
6.6 A planar crack subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a
poroelastic medium 231
6.7 Notes 237
Appendix 6.A The computational program for numerical solution of the
crack problem of elasticity 237
References 242
7 Time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media 245

7.1 Scattering of acoustic waves from heterogeneities in fluids 245
7.2 Acoustic wave scattering from a rigid screen; direct and inverse
problems 256
7.3 Electromagnetic wave scattering from a heterogeneity of arbitrary
shape in dielectric media 275
7.4 Scattering of elastic waves from heterogeneities of arbitrary shapes 281
7.5 Scattering of elastic waves from a planar crack 293
7.6 Scattering from heterogeneous inclusions in poroelastic media 310
7.7 Notes 321
Appendix 7.A The computational program for solution of the problem
of acoustic wave scattering from heterogeneities in fluid 321
Appendix 7.B The computational program for solution of the acoustic
wave scattering problem for a rigid screen 327
Appendix 7.C Integrals Fm (ρ, q) associated with the scattering problem
of elasticity for a crack 330
References 333
8 Quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media 335

8.1 Crack growth under prescribed pressure applied to the crack surface 335
8.2 Governing equations of the hydraulic fracture theory 347
8.3 Hydraulic fracture crack propagation in a homogeneous elastic
medium with varying fracture toughness 356
8.4 The three-parameter model of hydraulic fracture crack growth in
heterogeneous elastic media 371
8.5 Notes 376
x Contents
Appendix 8.A The computational program for construction of

equilibrium crack contours in a homogeneous elastic medium with
varying fracture toughness 377
Appendix 8.B Approximating functions for simulation of hydraulic
fracture crack propagation in homogeneous elastic media 382
Appendix 8.C Computer simulation of hydraulic fracture crack
propagation by the three-parameter model 383
References 384
9 The homogenization problem 387

9.1 Effective property tensors of heterogeneous media 387
9.2 The representative volume elements of heterogeneous media 393
9.3 The effective field method 401
9.4 The homogenization problem for elastic heterogeneous media 416
9.5 Homogenization of elastic media with multiple cracks 432
9.6 Homogenization of elasto-plastic composites 447
9.7 The homogenization problem for time-harmonic fields in
9.8 Notes 471
Appendix 9.A Averaging of rank four tensors over orientations 471
References 472
Index 475
Preface
Heterogeneous media have been the object of intense theoretical and experimental
studies for more than a century. This interest is caused by the importance of hetero-
geneous materials in engineering applications. Strictly speaking, all materials used in
human practice are heterogeneous at some scale, and specific features of their mi-
crostructures affect a wide spectrum of the macroscopic properties. Composites and
nanomaterials, geological structures, metal alloys, and polymer blends form an inex-
haustive list of heterogeneous materials.
In the theory of heterogeneous media, two principal trends can be indicated. The
first one comprises approximate analytical methods for the evaluation of the effective
properties of heterogeneous materials. This trend has been extensively developed in a
large part of the 20th century. The emergence and development of the second trend is
related to the exponential growth of computer capacity from the second half of the 20th
century. Powerful computers and commercial software for the numerical analysis of
linear and nonlinear problems of physics and continuum mechanics provide efficient
tools for the solution of various problems of heterogeneous media. The background
of these programs is mainly the finite element method. This method allows evaluating
effective static properties as well as local physical fields in heterogeneous materials,
but its application to the analysis of wave propagation problems encounters principal
and technical difficulties.
Another branch of computational mechanics and physics of heterogeneous media
is related to the numerical solution of volume integral equations. It is known that the
principal static and dynamic problems of heterogeneous media can be formulated in
terms of volume integral equations. In this book, a universal numerical method for the
solution of the volume integral equations for static and dynamic fields in heteroge-
neous media is systematically developed. The method is based on the “approximate
approximation” concept introduced by Vladimir Maz’ya. This concept provides ro-
bust algorithms for the solution of volume and surface integral equations for fields in
heterogeneous media. For static problems, efficiencies of these algorithms and of the
finite element method are comparable. But these algorithms can be successfully used
for the solution of wave propagation problems. In this book, the numerical method
is applied to the solution of various static and dynamic problems of heterogeneous
media. Electrostatic and electrodynamic fields, static and dynamic fields in elastic and
poroelastic media, quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media, and the homog-
enization problems for static and time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media are
considered. Computational programs for the numerical solution of the basic problems
are presented. This book is addressed to students, engineers, and researchers who use
numerical methods for the analysis of physical fields in heterogeneous materials.
xii Preface
The results presented in the book are based on the publications of the author
with his students and colleagues. The author thanks Professor Vladimir Maz’ya for
discussions, Professor Valery Levin for reading the manuscript and comments, and
Dr. Evgeny Pervago for the help in programming. The author thanks the Technologi-
cal Institute of Higher Education of Monterrey, State Mexico Campus, for the support
in the research activities.
S. Kanaun
Mexico
May 2020
Notations
ui , εij , Cij kl , ... Lower case latin indices are tensorial.

3
σij = Cij kl εkl = Cij kl εkl Summation with respect to repeated indices is
k,l=1
implied.
T(ij )kl = 12 (Tij kl + Tj ikl ) Parentheses in indices mean symmetrization.
x, x Point and vector of a point in 3D space.
x, x Point and vector of a point in 2D space.
a · b ⇒ ai b i Scalar product of vectors and tensors.
a × b ⇒ ij k aj bk Vector product of vectors and tensors.
A ⊗ B ⇒ Aij...k Blm...n Tensor product of vectors and tensors.
a⊕b⇒
⇒ (a1 , a2 , .., an , b1 , b2 , ..., bm ) Direct sum of vectors.
δij The Kronecker symbol.
ij k The Levi-Civita symbol.
E 1 , E 2 , ..., E 6 The basic rank four tensors in Eqs. (2.210)–(2.211).
P 1 , P 2 , ..., P 6 The basic rank four tensors in Eqs. (2.212)–(2.213).
∇i = ∂x∂ i = ∂i The Nabla operator.
divT ⇒ ∂i Tij k... Divergence of a tensor field T(x).
rotT = × T ⇒
⇒ ij k ∂j Tklm... Rotor of a tensor field T(x).
2 2 2
= ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 The Laplace operator.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
f ∗(k) = f (k) =
= f (x) exp(ik · x)dx The Fourier transform of a function f (x).
k, k Point and vector of a point in the 3D k-space.
k, k Point and vector of a point in the 2D k-space.
pv F (x)dx =
= limε→0 |x|>ε F (x)dx The Cauchy principal value of the integral.
δ(x) Dirac’s delta function.
(x) Delta function concentrated on the surface .
V Region in 3D (2D) space.
V (x) = 1 if x ∈ V
Characteristic function of the region V .
V (x) = 0 if x ∈ /V
f (x) Ensemble average of a random function f (x).
f (x)|x Average of a random function f (x) under the
condition that x ∈ V .
ϕ(x) = (πH1)3/2 exp − h|x|
2
2H The Gaussian approximating function in 3D space.

exp − h|x|
2
ϕ(x) = πH 1
2H The Gaussian approximating function in 2D space.
Introduction
1
In this book, the principal objects of study are physical fields in heterogeneous mate-
rials subjected to static or dynamic loading. In many important cases, such fields are
described by continuum models and satisfy systems of linear differential equations
(elliptic, parabolic, hyperbolic) with space-varying coefficients. Let a field u(x) in the
heterogeneous medium with the tensor of material properties C(x) satisfy the equation
L(C)u = −f, (1.1)
where L(C) is a linear differential operator, f(x) is an external field source, and x is a
point of the medium. We introduce a homogeneous reference medium with a constant
property tensor C0 and present the function C(x) in the form
C(x) = C0 + C1 (x), (1.2)
where C1 (x) is deviation of the heterogeneous medium properties from the properties
of the reference medium. In many important cases, the operator L is linear with respect
to tensor C, and we can rewrite Eq. (1.1) in the form
L(C0 )u = −f − L(C1 )u. (1.3)
The inverse operator G(C0 ) with respect to L(C0 ) is defined by the equation
G(C0 )L(C0 ) = −I, (1.4)
where I is the identity operator. Applying the operator G(C0 ) to both parts of Eq. (1.3),
we obtain the equation for the field u(x) in the form
u = u0 + G(C0 )L(C1 )u, u0 = G(C0 )f. (1.5)
If the operator G(C0 ) can be presented in the integral form

G(C0 )f(x) = g(C0 , x − x )f(x )dx , (1.6)
then Eq. (1.5) is the volume integral equation for the field u(x) in the heterogeneous
medium

u(x) = u0 (x) + g(C0 , x − x )L(C1 )u(x )dx . (1.7)
The kernel g(C0 , x) of the integral operator in this equation is the Green function of
the differential operator L(C0 ). The volume integral equation (1.7) is equivalent to the
original differential equation (1.1). In the literature, Eq. (1.7) is called the equation of
Lippmann–Schwinger type.
Heterogeneous Media. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819880-3.00008-1
2 Heterogeneous Media
The problem of calculation of fields in heterogeneous media with arbitrary varying

property tensors C(x) can be solved only numerically. The volume integral equation
method is preferable if a finite heterogeneous region V is embedded into an infinite
homogeneous host medium. In this case, the problem is reduced to calculation of the
field inside the region V only, and if this field is found, the field in the host medium
is reconstructed from the same integral equation. It should be noted that the field
u(x) in Eq. (1.7) satisfies automatically the conditions at infinity, which is important
for solution of the scattering problems. These are advantages of the volume integral
equation method over the methods based on the differential equations (e.g., the finite
element method, which is better suited for the numerical calculation of fields in finite
regions).
In this book, the calculation of various physical fields in heterogeneous media is
reduced to the solution of volume and surface integral equations. For deriving these
equations, the Green functions of the differential operators in the governing equations
for physical fields in homogeneous media should be constructed. Chapter 2 is devoted
to construction of the Green functions of electro and magnetostatics, thermodynamics,
electrodynamics, acoustics, static and dynamic elasticity, and poroelasticity. Volume
and surface potentials associated with the Green functions are introduced, and proper-
ties of these potentials are indicated.
Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in heterogeneous media
are derived in Chapter 3. Surface integral equations are used for the determination of
fields in homogeneous host media containing thin heterogeneous with sharp property
contrasts from the properties of the host medium.
Methods of numerical solution of volume integral equations have been discussed
in the literature for decades [1], [2], [3], [4]. In the conventional methods, the solu-
tion region V is divided into a finite number of subregions, and in each subregion, the
unknown functions are approximated by standard functions (e.g., polynomial splines,
wavelets, etc.). After application of the method of moments or the collocation method,
the problem is reduced to a finite system of linear algebraic equations for the co-
efficients of the approximation (the discretized problem) [2]. In the case of integral
equations for the fields in heterogeneous media, the matrices of the discretized prob-
lems are nonsparse and should have large dimensions for acceptable accuracy of the
solution. The elements of these matrices are integrals over the subregions calculated
in a number of points in the region V . These integrals can be singular, and complex-
ity of their calculations depends on types of approximating functions and geometry of
the subregions. For conventional approximating functions, a great portion of computer
time is spent on calculation of these integrals and iterative solution of the discretized
problem. In order to reduce considerable computational cost of the numerical solu-
tions, various techniques were proposed (e.g., fast multipole methods [5] and wavelet
expansions [6], [7]). The algorithms of these methods are cumbersome and difficult to
perform for the solution of static and dynamic problems of elasticity and poroelasticity
of heterogeneous media.
In Chapters 4 and 5, an efficient method for numerical solution of the volume inte-
gral equations for fields in heterogeneous media is presented. In the method, Gaussian
radial functions are used for approximation of the fields. The theory of approximation
Introduction 3
by Gaussian and other similar functions was developed in the works of V. Mas’ya,
V. Maz’ya, and G. Schmidt and presented in the book [8]. The principal result of this
theory can be formulated as follows. Any bounded together with the first derivatives
function u(x) can be approximated by the following series:

1 |x|2
u(x) ≈ u(h,H ) (x) = um ϕ(x − hm), ϕ(x) = exp − .
d
(πH )d/2 H h2
m∈Z
(1.8)
Here, m ∈ Z d is a vector with integer components in the space of the dimension d,

hm are coordinates of the nodes of the approximation (h is the distance between the
neighbor nodes), um = u(hm) is the value of function u(x) at the nodes, and H is a
dimensionless parameter of the order of 1. In [8], Eq. (1.8) is called the “approximate
approximation” because its error |u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| does not vanish when h → 0 and
can be assessed as follows:
|u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| ≤ C1 ||u||h + O(exp(−π 2 H )). (1.9)
Here, ||u|| is a norm of the function u(x) and the constant C1 does not depend on
h. The second term on the right hand side of this equation is the so-called saturation
error, which does not vanish when h → 0. But for H = O(1), this term is small and
can be neglected in practical calculations.
Gaussian approximating functions are an efficient tool for solution of volume inte-
gral equations for the following reasons.
• Actions of many integral operators of mathematical physics on Gaussian functions
are presented in closed analytical forms and do not require numerical integration.
Thus, for these functions, the time of calculation of the elements of the matrices of
the discretized problems is substantially reduced in comparison with the methods
that incorporate conventional approximating functions.
• For discretization of the volume integral equations by the Gaussian functions, the
only required information is the coordinates of approximating nodes and material
properties at the nodes, but not detailed geometry of the mesh cells (subregions).
Thus, the method is mesh-free.
• For regular grids of approximating nodes, the matrices of the discretized problems
have a Toeplitz structure. Hence, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms can
be used for the calculation of matrix-vector products in the process of iterative
solution of the discretized problems.
In this book, the numerical method of solution of volume integral equations based
on the “approximate approximation” concept of V. Maz’ya is systematically devel-
oped. Chapter 4 is devoted to numerical calculations of the volume and surface
potentials of the fields in homogeneous media. Basic points of the “approximate ap-
proximation” concept are formulated, and the results of action of various integral
operators of mathematical physics on the Gaussian functions are obtained. The com-
putational programs adopting the FFT algorithms for fast calculation of the 2D and
3D potentials are presented.
Chapter 5 is devoted to the numerical solution of the volume integral equations

for static fields in heterogeneous media. Electrostatic fields, static fields in elastic and
elasto-plastic media, and quasistatic fields in poroelastic media are considered. Dis-
cretization of the integral equations for these fields by the Gaussian approximating
functions is performed. Methods of iterative solution of the discretized problems are
discussed, and computational programs incorporating the FFT algorithms for the cal-
culation of matrix-vector products are presented.
In Chapter 6, the crack problems for elastic and poroelastic heterogeneous media
are considered. The problems are reduced to systems of surface and volume integral
equations for the crack opening vectors and the stress tensor in the medium. Then,
these equations are discretized by the Gaussian functions, and the numerical solutions
are compared with exact solutions and results of other numerical methods presented
in the literature.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the numerical solution of dynamic (time-harmonic) prob-
lems of heterogeneous media. The cases of acoustic, electromagnetic, elastic, and
poroelastic wave scattering from heterogeneous inclusions and groups of inclusions
are considered. The discretized equations of the problems are presented, and the nu-
merical solutions are compared with exact solutions of the scattering problems for
heterogeneities of canonical forms.
In Chapter 8, quasistatic crack growth in a heterogeneous elastic medium is con-
sidered. First, crack growth by a prescribed increasing pressure applied to the crack
surfaces is studied. The principles of linear fracture mechanics are used for the de-
termination of the crack configuration in the process of loading. The method of fast
solution of the crack problems developed in Chapter 6 provides efficient numerical
algorithms for the simulation of crack growth in heterogeneous elastic media. Then,
the crack growth caused by the pressure of a fluid injected inside the crack is studied
(hydraulic fracture). The governing equations of the hydraulic fracture theory are pre-
sented, and methods of efficient numerical solution of these equations are proposed.
Chapter 9 is devoted to solution of the homogenization problem. For a heteroge-
neous medium, this problem consists in the determination of material parameters of
a homogeneous medium with equivalent response to external loading. For solution
of this problem, the representative volume element of heterogeneous media is intro-
duced. The effective property tensors of heterogeneous media are expressed in terms
of the averages of the fields over the representative volume elements. A combination of
the self-consistent effective field method and the numerical methods developed in the
previous chapters is used for the calculation of the fields in the representative volume
elements. Comparisons of predictions of the method with the results of other numer-
ical and analytical methods are presented. For time-harmonic fields, self-consistent
effective medium and effective field methods in application to solution of the homog-
enization problem are considered. Predictions of both methods are compared for an
example of a model heterogeneous medium.
Notes for the reader. Chapter 2 presents a survey of Green functions of the differential
operators in the governing equations for physical fields in homogeneous media. Vol-
ume and surface integral equations for the fields in heterogeneous media are obtained
Introduction 5
in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 is independent and devoted to approximation by the Gaussian

radial functions and the FFT algorithms for the calculation of Gaussian quasiinter-
polants and related sums. In the first part of Chapter 5, iterative methods for solution
of the systems of linear algebraic equations of large dimensions are discussed, and
the algorithms of the methods that are appropriate for solution of the volume inte-
gral equations for the fields in heterogeneous media are presented. The second part of
Chapter 5 and Chapters 6, 7, and 8 are devoted to application of the method to solution
of specific problems of heterogeneous media. In Chapter 9, the principal points of the
homogenization problem are discussed, and the self-consistent effective field method
for solution of this problem is presented. This chapter can be also read independently,
and the numerical methods developed in the previous chapters are used as tools for
solution of the self-consistent equations for the representative volume elements of
heterogeneous media.
References
[1] W. Chew, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
[2] A. Peterson, S. Ray, R. Mittra, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics, IEEE Press,
New York, 1997.
[3] A. Samokhin, Integral Equations and Iterative Methods in Electromagnetic Scattering, VSP,
Utrecht, Boston, Köln, Tokyo, 2001.
[4] L. Tsang, J. Kong, K. Ding, Ch. Ao, Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves, Numerical Sim-
ulations, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.
[5] H. Chang, L. Greengard, V. Rokhlin, A fast adaptive multipole algorithm in three dimen-
sions, Journal of Computational Physics 155 (1999) 468–498.
[6] B. Alpert, G. Belkin, R. Coifman, V. Rokhlin, Wavelet bases for the fast solution of second
kind integral equations, SIAM Journal of Scientific and Statistical Computations 14 (1993)
159–184.
[7] W. Dahmen, S. Proessdorf, R. Schneider, Wavelet approximation methods for pseudodif-
ferential equations II: matrix compression and fast algorithms, Advances in Computational
Mathematics 1 (1993) 259–335.
[8] V. Maz’ya, G. Schmidt, Approximate Approximation, Mathematical Surveys and Mono-
graphs, vol. 141, American Mathematical Society, Providence, 2007.
Homogeneous media with external
and internal field sources 2
This chapter is devoted to integral presentations of physical fields in homogeneous
media caused by external and internal field sources distributed in finite volumes or
on surfaces. For point concentrated sources, these fields are the Green functions of
the differential operators of the governing equations for the fields. The Green func-
tions of electro- and magnetostatics, electrodynamics, thermo-conductivity, acoustics,
static and dynamic elasticity, and poroelasticity are considered. The volume and sur-
face potentials associated with the Green functions are introduced, and regularization
formulas for potentials with singular kernels are presented. Discontinuities of the po-
tentials on the boundaries of the regions containing field sources are determined.
2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous

media
We consider a homogeneous dielectric medium with the tensor of dielectric permit-

tivity Cij . The system of differential equations for the electric field Ei (x) and electric
displacement Di (x) in the medium with distributed electric charge q(x) has the form
[1]
∂i Di (x) = q(x), Di (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.1)
Here, rot is the differential operator
∂
rotij = ij k ∂k , ∂i = , (2.2)
∂xi
where ij k is the antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor. Thus, the electric field Ei (x) in di-
electric media subjected to electric charge is rotor-free. It is known that any rotor-free
vector function can be presented in the form of the gradient of a scalar function, and
in particular, the electric field Ei (x) can be presented in the form
Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.3)
where the scalar function u(x) is called the electric potential. For the field Ei (x) in
this equation, the third equation of the system (2.1) is automatically satisfied. After
substitution of Eq. (2.3) into the system (2.1), we obtain the equation for the potential
u(x) in the form
Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = −q(x). (2.4)

Heterogeneous Media. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819880-3.00009-3
The Green function of the operator Cij ∂i ∂j in this equation is a vanishing at infinity
solution of Eq. (2.4) with Dirac’s delta function δ(x) on the right hand side
Cij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.5)
If the function g(x) is known, a partial solution of Eq. (2.4) is presented in the form

u(x) = g(x − x )q(x )dx . (2.6)
Henceforth, we assume that q(x) is a piece-wise analytical function with a finite sup-
port or q(x) vanishes at infinity faster than any negative power of |x|. Such functions
will be called finite.
The electric field Ei (x) and electric displacement Di (x) in the medium with dis-
tributed electric charge are presented in the integral forms that follow from Eqs. (2.1),
(2.3), and (2.6)

Ei (x) = ∂i g(x − x )q(x )dx , Di (x) = Cij ∂j g(x − x )q(x )dx . (2.7)
The system of equations of magnetostatics of homogeneous media is formulated in

terms of the magnetic flux vector Bi and the magnetic field intensity Hi [1]
∂i Bi (x) = 0, Bi (x) = Mij Hj (x), rotij Hj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.8)
Here, Mij is the tensor of magnetic permittivity of the medium and ηi (x) is the
so-called free current, which can be considered as a source of magnetic field in the
medium. Because rotij Hj is not equal to zero, the field Hi (x) cannot be presented as
the gradient of a scalar function. Partial solutions of the system (2.8) can be presented
in the integral forms similar to Eq. (2.7)

Hi (x) = sij (x − x )ηj (x )dx , Bi (x) = Mij sj k (x − x )ηk (x )dx .
(2.9)
In order to determine the kernel sij (x) of the integral operator in these equations, we
consider the identity that holds for any vanishing at infinity vector function Ai (x) [2]
Mj k ∂j ∂k Ai = Mj k ∂i ∂j Ak − rotik rotkl Al , (2.10)

rotik = ij k Mj m ∂m . (2.11)
If Mij = δij , where δij is Kronecker’s symbol, this equation is the well-known formula
of vector analysis
A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)
Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space, = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

∇ = grad is the Nabla operator with the components (∂1 , ∂2 , ∂3 ), and div A = ∂i Ai .
Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 9
Let g(x) be the Green function of the differential operator on the left hand side of
Eq. (2.10)
Mij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.13)
Then, for a vanishing at infinity vector field Ai (x) we have the following equation,
which follows from Eq. (2.10):

Ai (x) = − g(x − x ) ∂i ∂j Mj k Ak (x ) − rotik rotkl Al (x ) dx . (2.14)
Changing Ai (x) in this equation to the magnetic field Hi (x) and taking into account
Eq. (2.8), we obtain

Hi (x) = − g(x − x )rotik ηk (x )dx = − rotik g(x − x )ηk (x )dx . (2.15)

Here, we overthrow the operator rotik from a finite function ηk (x) onto the kernel g(x)
using Gauss’ theorem and the equation ∂i g(x − x ) = −∂i g(x − x ). Overthrowing the
derivatives from a finite function on the kernels in the integrals similar to (2.14) and
(2.15) will be called integration by parts. Thus, the kernel sij (x) in Eq. (2.9) has the
form
sij (x) = −rotij g(x). (2.16)
Let us consider a generalized form of Eqs. (2.1) and (2.8) and introduce vectors
ui (x) and σi (x) that satisfy the equations
∂i σi (x) = −q(x), σi (x) = Mij uj (x), rotij uj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.17)
The functions q(x) and ηi (x) can be interpreted as sources of the fields ui (x) and
σi (x), q(x) is called the external source, and ηi (x) is the internal source. It follows
from Eq. (2.14) that a vanishing at infinity solution of the system (2.17) ui (x) is pre-
sented in the form

ui (x) = − g(x − x ) ∂i ∂j Mj k uk (x ) − rotik rotkl ul (x ) dx =

= ∂i g(x − x )q(x )dx − rotik g(x − x )ηk (x )dx , (2.18)
where g(x) is the Green function of the operator Mij ∂i ∂j . Here, integration by parts is
used. This equation defines the field ui (x) in terms of known distributions of external
and internal field sources in the medium.
The system of differential equations for steady electric current Ji (x) and electric
field Ei (x) in a conductive medium has the form [1]
∂i Ji (x) = 0, Ji (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.19)

Here, Cij is the tensor of electroconductivity. In this case, the sources of the fields are
on the region boundary or at infinity (for an infinite medium). Similar to the case of
electrostatics, the field Ej (x) is expressed in terms of the electric potential u(x),
Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.20)
and the equation for u(x) follows from the system (2.19) and has the form
Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = 0. (2.21)
2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics
For isotropic media, the tensor of electric permittivity Cij has the form
Cij = cδij , (2.22)
where c is a scalar. As a result, Eq. (2.5) for the Green function of electrostatics takes
the form
c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)
The 3D Fourier transform g ∗ (k) of the Green function g(x) is defined by the equation

∗
g (k) = g(x)eik·x dx, (2.24)
where k · x = ki xi is the scalar product of √

the vector xi of the point x and the vector
parameter ki of the Fourier transform, i = −1. The inverse 3D Fourier transform is
the following integral:

1
g(x) = g ∗ (k)e−ik·x dx. (2.25)
(2π)3
Applying the Fourier transform operator to both parts of Eq. (2.23) and taking into
account that in the Fourier transform space, the partial derivative ∂i is converted in the
multiplier (−iki ) and δ ∗ (k) = 1, we obtain
1
ck 2 g ∗ (k) = 1, g ∗ (k) = , k 2 = |k|2 = ki ki . (2.26)
ck 2
Application of the inverse Fourier transform to g ∗ (k) yields the explicit equation for
the Green function
−ik·x
1 e 1
g(x) = dk = . (2.27)
c(2π)3 k2 4πc|x|
In the case of an anisotropic medium, linear transformation of the Cartesian coor-

dinates xi
yi = Aij xj , xi = A−1
ij yj (2.28)
converts Eq. (2.5) into the following:
Cij Aik Aj l ∂k ∂l g(A−1 y) = −δ(A−1 y). (2.29)
If the tensor Aij satisfies the equation
Cij Aik Aj l = δkl , (2.30)
g (y) = g(A−1 y) the equation

we obtain for
∂i ∂i
g (y) = − det Aδ(y), (2.31)
where det A is the determinant of the tensor Aij . Here, the following property of the
delta function is used [3]:
δ(A−1 y) = det Aδ(y). (2.32)
Eq. (2.31) is similar to Eq. (2.23), and therefore,

g (y) has the form
det A

g (y) = . (2.33)
4π|y|
For a positive symmetric tensor Cij , the solution of Eq. (2.30) is

1
Aij = Cij−1 , det A = √ , (2.34)
det C
and as a result, we obtain the Green function g(x) of electrostatics for anisotropic
media in the form
1
g(x) = , r̄(x) = det C(Cij−1 xi xj ). (2.35)
4π r̄(x)
2.3 Elastic media with external and internal stress

sources
We consider a homogeneous elastic medium with stiffness tensor Cij kl subjected to

body forces of density qi (x). The stress σij (x) and strain εij (x) tensors in the medium
satisfy the system of differential equations [2]
∂j σij (x) = −qi (x), σij (x) = Cij kl εkl (x), Rotij kl εkl (x) = 0, (2.36)
where Rotij kl is the incompatibility operator
Rotij kl εkl (x) = ikl j mn ∂k ∂m εln (x). (2.37)
The tensor εij (x) can be presented as the symmetrized gradient of a vector potential
ui (x)
1
εij (x) = ∂(i uj ) (x) = ∂i uj (x) + ∂j ui (x) . (2.38)
2
For εij (x) in this equation, the third equation in the system (2.36) is automatically
satisfied [2]. The vector ui (x) is the displacement vector of a point x. The equation
for the field ui (x) follows from the system (2.36) in the form
Cij kl ∂j ∂k ul (x) = −qi (x). (2.39)
The Green function gij (x) of the operator Cij kl ∂j ∂k is a vanishing at infinity solu-
tion of the equation
Cij kl ∂j ∂k glm (x) = −δim δ(x). (2.40)
If the tensor gij (x) is known, the displacement vector and the strain and stress tensors
in the medium are presented in the integral forms

ui (x) = gij (x − x )qj (x )dx , (2.41)

εij (x) = ∂(i gj )m (x − x )qm (x )dx ,

σij (x) = Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )qm (x )dx . (2.42)
Application of the Fourier transform operator to Eq. (2.40) results in the equation
for the Fourier transform gij∗ (k) of the Green function of elasticity
gij∗ (k) = (Ciklj kk kl )−1 . (2.43)
It is known [4] that for an arbitrary anisotropic homogeneous medium, gij (x) is an
even homogeneous function of the order of −1
1 xi
gij (x) = gij (|x|n) = gij (n) , ni = . (2.44)
|x| |x|
Explicit forms of gij (x) can be obtained for isotropic, transverse isotropic media,
and for media with hexagonal symmetry [4]. For of an isotropic medium with Lame
constants λ and μ, the tensors gij∗ (k) and gij (x) have the forms
1 ki k j λ+μ
gij∗ (k) = δij − κ 2 , κ= , (2.45)
μk 2 k λ + 2μ
1 xi x j
gij (x) = (2 − κ)δij + κ 2 . (2.46)
8πμ|x| x
Stresses in elastic media can exist without external sources qi (x) (body forces).
Such stresses are called internal, and their origins can be inhomogeneous temperature
fields, plastic deformations, phase transitions accompanied by altering of crystalline
lattices, etc. Let a finite region V in a homogeneous elastic medium be plastically
deformed, and let mij (x) be the tensor of plastic deformations. Because the region V
is constrained by the surrounding material, there appear stresses σij in the medium.
The corresponding elastic strain tensor εij e is defined by Hooke’s law: ε e = C −1 σ .
ij ij kl kl
The sum of elastic εij e and inelastic m strains composes the total strain tensor ε ,
ij ij
which should satisfy the compatibility equation
Rotij kl εkl = Rotij kl (εkl
e
+ mkl ) = 0 . (2.47)
In the absence of body forces, the stress tensor satisfies the homogeneous equilibrium
equation ∂j σij = 0 . As a result, the system of equations for internal stresses takes
the form
∂j σij = 0, σij = Cij kl εkl
e
, e
Rotij kl εkl = −ηij , (2.48)
ηij = Rotij kl mkl . (2.49)

In this equation, ηij (x) is called the tensor of the dislocation density and mij (x) is
the tensor of the dislocation moments [2], [5]. If ηij (x) is a finite function, a partial
solution of the system (2.48) is presented in the integral form [2]

σij (x) = Zij kl (x − x )ηkl (x )dx , (2.50)
where Zij kl (x) is the Green tensor for internal stresses. The explicit form of this tensor
for isotropic media is presented in [2], [6]. After taking Eq. (2.49) into account and
integrating by parts, the stress tensor in Eq. (2.50) can be presented in the form

σij (x) = S ij kl (x − x )mkl (x )dx , (2.51)
Sij kl (x) = Rotij mn Zmnkl (x) . (2.52)

The kernel Sij kl (x) in this equation can be expressed in terms of the Green function
of static elasticity gij (x) in Eq. (2.40). Let a homogeneous medium be subjected to
external qi (x) and internal ηij (x) stress sources. It follows from Eqs. (2.36) and (2.48)
that the system of equations for the stress field σij can be written in the form
−1
∂j σij = −qi , Rotij kl Cklmn σmn = −ηij . (2.53)
Using the Green functions gij (x) and Zij kl (x), we can present the solution of this
system in the integral form

σij (x) = Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )qm (x )dx + Zij kl (x − x )ηkl (x )dx . (2.54)

Substituting in this equation the left hand sides of Eq. (2.53) for qi (x) and ηij (x) and
integrating by parts, we obtain

σij (x) = −Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )∂n σnm (x )dx −

− Zij kl (x − x )Rotklmn Cmnrs
−1
σrs (x )dx =

−1
=− Cij kl ∂k ∂m gln x − x +S ij kl x − x Cklmn σmn x dx .
(2.55)
Comparing the left and right parts of this equation, we obtain the identity
−1
Iij mn δ(x) = −Cij kl ∂k ∂m gln (x) − Sij kl (x)Cklmn , (2.56)
where Iij kl = δi(j δk)l is the unit four rank tensor. Thus, the equation for the function
Sij kl (x) takes the form
Sij kl (x) = Cij mn Kmnrs (x)Crskl − Cij kl δ(x) , (2.57)
where the function Kij kl (x) is defined by the equation

Kij kl (x) = − ∂i ∂k gj l (x) (ij )(kl) . (2.58)
2.4 Temperature fields in a homogeneous medium with

heat sources
The temperature field T (x, t) in a homogeneous medium with heat sources of the
density q(x, t) satisfies the system of differential equations [7]
∂T (x, t)
∂i Ji (x, t) + cρ = q(x, t), Ji (x, t) = −Cij ∂j T (x, t). (2.59)
∂t
Here, Ji (x, t) is the heat flux, Cij is the tensor of thermo-conductivity, c and ρ are
heat capacity and density of the medium, respectively, and t is time. The equation for
the temperature field follows from the system (2.59) in the form
∂T (x, t)
Cij ∂i ∂j T (x, t) − cρ = −q(x, t). (2.60)
∂t
The Green function g(x, t) of the operator Cij ∂i ∂j − cρ ∂t∂ is a vanishing at infinity
solution of the equation
∂g(x, t)
Cij ∂i ∂j g(x, t) − cρ = −δ(x)δ(t). (2.61)
∂t
If the function g(x, t) is known, a partial solution of Eq. (2.60) is presented in the
integral form

T (x, t) = g(x − x , t) ∗ q(x , t)dx , (2.62)
where the symbol (∗) means the convolution operator with respect to time
t
f (t) ∗ u(t) = f (t − t )u(t )dt . (2.63)
0
If the medium is isotropic, the tensor of thermo-conductivity has the form
Cij = κδij , (2.64)
where κ is a scalar. In this case, Eq. (2.61) takes the form

∂g(x, t) 1 κ
a 2 ∂i ∂i g(x, t) − = − δ(x)δ(t), a2 = . (2.65)
∂t cρ cρ
Application of the Fourier transform with respect to spatial variables xi yields the
equation
∂g ∗ (k, t) 1
a 2 k 2 g ∗ (k, t) + = δ(t), (2.66)
∂t cρ
the solution of which has the form
1
g ∗ (k, t) = H (t) exp −a 2 k 2 t . (2.67)
cρ
Here, H (t) is the Heaviside function: H (t) = 0, t < 0, H (t) = 1, t > 0. After appli-
cation of the inverse Fourier transform with respect to the ki -variables, we obtain the
equation for g(x, t)
√
cρH (t) cρ|x|2
g(x, t) = √ exp − . (2.68)
(2 πκt)3 4κt
In the case of an anisotropic medium, we introduce linear transformation of spatial
variables xi
yi = Aij xj , xi = A−1
ij yj (2.69)
with the tensor Aij taken from the condition
Cij Aik Aj l = δkl . (2.70)
In the y-variables, Eq. (2.61) is converted into (g̃(y, t) = g(A−1 y, t))

1 ∂ g̃(y, t) 1
∂i ∂i g̃(y, t) − = − (det A)δ(y)δ(t). (2.71)
cρ ∂t cρ
The solution of this equation is similar to (2.68),

√
cρH (t) det A cρ|y|2
g̃(y, t) = √ 3 exp − . (2.72)
(2 πt) 4t
For a symmetric positive tensor Cij , the tensor Aij in Eq. (2.70) is
−1/2 1
Aij = Cij , det A = √ . (2.73)
det C
Thus, for an anisotropic medium, the Green function g(x, t) of thermo-conductivity
in the (x, t)-presentation takes the form
√
cρH (t) cρ
g(x, t) = √ √ exp − Cij−1 xi xj . (2.74)
det C (2 πt)3 4t
2.5 Quasistatic fields in poroelastic media
The theory of fluid-saturated porous media of M. Biot [8], [9] is an adequate model of
mechanical behavior of many geologic structures. It is assumed in the model that the
medium consists of a solid skeleton and a porous space filled with fluid. The theory
provides a coupled system of differential equations for the vector of displacements
ui (x, t) of the solid skeleton and fluid pressure p(x, t) in the porous space. For an
isotropic homogeneous medium, the system of equations of quasistatic poroelasticity
has the form
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj + μ∂j ∂j ui − α∂i p = −Fi , (2.75)

∂ ∂
−α ∂j uj +κ∂j ∂j p − β p = −f, (2.76)
∂t ∂t
where λ and μ are the effective Lame constants of the solid skeleton with dry pores
and α and β are Biot’s parameters
K α−φ φ
α=1− , β= + . (2.77)
Ks Ks Kf
Here, Ks and Kf are the bulk moduli of the solid and fluid phases, K is the effective
bulk modulus of the skeleton with dry pores, and φ is the porosity of the medium. The
coefficient κ reflects mobility of the fluid in the porous space, and
κ
κ= , (2.78)
η
where κ is the permeability of the medium and η is the fluid viscosity. The right hand
sides Fi and f of Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76) are the field sources. The stress tensor σij (x, t)
in the solid skeleton is defined by the equation
σij = λ∂k uk δij + 2μ∂(i uj ) − αpδij . (2.79)
The system (2.75)–(2.76) follows from the complete system of equations of dynamic
poroelasicity (Section 2.9) by neglecting the inertial terms proportional to the densities
of the solid and fluid phases.
After application of the Laplace transform operator to Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76), we
obtain the system of equations of poroelasticity in the (x, ω)-presentation
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x, ω) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x, ω) − α∂i p(x, ω) = −Fi (x, ω), (2.80)
κ 1
−α∂j uj (x, ω) + ∂j ∂j (x, ω) − βp(x, ω) = − f (x, ω). (2.81)
ω ω
In these equations,
∞ ∞
−ωt
ui (x, ω) = ui (x, t)e dt, p(x, ω) = p(x, t)e−ωt dt, (2.82)
0 0
and Fi (x, ω), f (x, ω) are the Laplace transforms of the source functions. It is assumed
that at the initial moment t = 0, u(x, 0) = 0, and p(x, 0) = 0.
For finite functions Fi (x, ω) and f (x, ω), a partial solution of the system
(2.80)–(2.81) is presented in the integral form as follows:

1
ui (x, ω) = Gij (x − x , ω)Fj (x , ω)dx + i (x − x , ω)f (x , ω)dx ,
ω
(2.83)

1
p(x, ω) = i (x − x , ω)Fi (x , ω)dx + g(x − x , ω)f (x , ω)dx .
ω
(2.84)
Here, Gij (x, ω), i (x, ω), and g(x, ω) are the Green functions of poroelasticity in the
(x, ω)-presentation. Applying the Fourier transform operator with respect to spatial
variables xi to Eqs. (2.83) and (2.84) and using the convolution property, we obtain
algebraic equations for the Fourier transforms u∗i (k, ω) and p ∗ (k, ω) of the functions
ui (x, ω) and p(x, ω):
1 ∗
u∗i (k, ω) = G∗ij (k, ω)Fj∗ (k, ω) + (k, ω)f ∗ (k, ω), (2.85)
ω i
1
p ∗ (k, ω) = i∗ (k, ω)Fi∗ (k, ω) + g ∗ (k, ω)f ∗ (k, ω). (2.86)
ω
Here, G∗ij , i∗ , g ∗ , and Fi∗ , f ∗ are the Fourier transforms of the Green and source
functions with respect to spatial variables. Applying the Fourier transform operator
to Eqs. (2.80) and (2.81) and substituting u∗i (k, ω) and p ∗ (k, ω) from Eqs. (2.85) and
(2.86) into the transformed equations, we obtain the following system for the Fourier
transforms of the Green functions:
1 ∗ ∗ 1
(λ + μ)ki kj G∗j k Fk∗ + j f + μk 2 G∗ik Fk∗ + i∗ f ∗ −
ω ω
∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
− α(iki ) j Fj + g f = Fi , (2.87)
ω
1 κ 2 1 1
− α(iki ) G∗ik Fk∗ + i∗ f ∗ + k + β j∗ Fj∗ + g ∗ f ∗ = f ∗ .
ω ω ω ω
(2.88)
In this system, the functions G∗j k , j∗ , and g ∗ are unknowns. Equating expressions in
front of Fi∗ and f ∗ in the left and right hand sides of Eqs. (2.87) and (2.88), we obtain
the following system of equations for the Fourier transforms of the Green functions:

(λ + μ)ki kk + μk 2 δik G∗kj − α(iki )j∗ = δij , (2.89)

(λ + μ)ki kj + μk 2 δij j∗ − α(iki )g ∗ = 0, (2.90)
κ 2 κ 2
α(iki )G∗ij − k + β j∗ = 0, α(iki )i∗ − k + β g ∗ = −1. (2.91)
ω ω
Looking for G∗ij (k, ω) and i∗ (k, ω) in the forms

k i kj ki k j
G∗j k = A 2 + B δij − 2 , i∗ = (−iki )C, (2.92)
k k
where A, B, C are scalar functions of k and ω, we find explicit expressions for the
Green functions in the (k, ω)-presentation:
1 (λ + μ) ki kj q 2 ki kj
G∗ij (k, ω) = δ ij − − , (2.93)
μk 2 μ(λ + 2μ) k 4 (λ + 2μ) k 4 (k 2 + q 2 )
iki 1 ∗ 1
i∗ (k, ω) = 2 2 , g (k, ω) = , (2.94)
αk (k + q ) 2 ω κ(k + q 2 )
2
α 2 + β(λ + 2μ) α2
q 2 = Q2 ω, Q2 = , = 2 . (2.95)
κ(λ + 2μ) α + β(λ + 2μ)
Application of the inverse Fourier transform to G∗ij (k, ω), i∗ (k, ω), and ω1 g ∗ (k, ω)
yields the (x, ω)-presentations of the Green functions of quasistatic poroelasticity
1 (λ + μ) r
Gij (x, ω) = δij − ∂i ∂j −
4πμr μ(λ + 2μ) 8π

r 1 − e−qr
− ∂i ∂j + , (2.96)
(λ + 2μ) 8π 4πq 2 r
(1 − e−qr ) 1 e−qr
i (x, ω) = − ∂i , g(x, ω) = , r = |x|. (2.97)
α 4πr ω 4πrκ
After application of the inverse Laplace transforms to Eqs. (2.83) and (2.84), we ob-
tain the (x, t)-presentation of displacements and pressure in the medium with source
functions Fi (x, t) and f (x, t)

ui (x, t) = Gij (x − x , t) ∗ Fj (x , t)dx + i (x − x , t) ∗ f (x , t)dx ,
(2.98)

p(x, t) = i (x − x , t) ∗ Fi (x , t)dx + g (x − x , t) ∗ f (x , t)dx .

(2.99)
In these equations, the kernels Gij (x, t), i (x, t) are the originals (the inverse Laplace
transforms) of the Green functions Gij (x, ω), i (x, ω) in Eqs. (2.96) and (2.97) and

i (x, t),
g (x, t) are the originals of ω1 i (x, ω) and ω1 g(x, ω). Explicit expressions of
the originals have the forms
1 1 r
Gij (x, t) = δij − (λ + μ(1 + ))∂i ∂j δ(t)−
4πμr μ(λ + 2μ) 8π

1 Qr
− ∂i ∂j H (t) − erf c √ , (2.100)
(λ + 2μ) 4πQ2 r 2 t

1 Q Q2 r 2
i (x, t) = − ∂i δ(t) − exp − , (2.101)
α 4πr 8(πt)3/2 4t

1 Qr

i (x, t) = − ∂i H (t) − erf c √ , (2.102)
α 4πr 2 t

Q Q2 r 2

g (x, t) = exp − . (2.103)
8κ(πt)3/2 4t
Here, erf c(z) = 1 − erf(z), erf(z) is the error function

z
2
e−t dt,
2
erf(z) = √ (2.104)
π 0
H (t) is Heaviside’s function, and δ(t) is Dirac’s delta function.
2.6 Acoustic waves in fluids
For compressible fluids, the linearized equations of motion are formulated in terms of
fluid pressure p(x, t) and velocity υi (x, t) of fluid particles [10]
∂p ∂υi
+ K∂i υi = 0, ρ + ∂i p = qi . (2.105)
∂t ∂t
Here, ρ is the fluid density, K is the fluid bulk modulus, and qi is the body force
acting on fluid particles. Applying the time derivative to the first equation and using
the second one, we obtain the equation for acoustic pressure p(x, t) in the form
1 ∂ 2p K
∂i ∂i p − = −∂i qi , c2 = . (2.106)
c2 ∂t 2 ρ
Here, c is the sound velocity in the fluid.

Applying the time derivative to the second equation of the system (2.105) and using
the first one, we obtain the equation for the velocity υi of fluid particles in the form
1 ∂ 2 υi 1 ∂qi
∂i ∂j υj − =− . (2.107)
c2 ∂t 2 K ∂t
If dependence on time is defined by the multiplier eiωt , where ω is frequency

(time-harmonic acoustics), then qi (x, t) = qi (x)eiωt , p(x, t) = p(x)eiωt , υi (x, t) =
υi (x)eiωt , and the equation for the pressure amplitude p(x) takes the form
ω2
∂i ∂i p(x) + κ 2 p(x) = −∂i qi (x), κ2 = . (2.108)
c2
The Green function g(x) of the operator ∂i ∂i + κ 2 (the Helmholtz operator) is the
solution of the equation
∂i ∂i g(x) + κ 2 g(x) = −δ(x), (2.109)
and the explicit form of g(x) is well known, i.e.,
e−iκ|x|
g(x) = . (2.110)
4π|x|
The partial solution of Eq. (2.108) can be presented in the integral form

p(x) = ∂i g(x − x )qi (x )dx . (2.111)
For time-harmonic acoustics, the Green tensor Gij (x) of the operator ∂i ∂j + κ 2 δij
in Eq. (2.107) for the velocity of fluid particles is the solution of the equation
∂i ∂k Gkj + κ 2 Gij = −δij δ(x). (2.112)
The Fourier transform G∗ij (k) of the Green function satisfies the equation
ki kk G∗kj (k) − κ 2 G∗ij (k) = δij , (2.113)
and its solution is

ki k j 1
G∗ij (k) = − δij . (2.114)
κ 2 (k 2 − κ 2 ) κ 2
After application of the inverse Fourier transform, we obtain the x-presentation of this
function
1 e−iκ|x|
Gij (x) = − δij δ(x) + ∂i ∂j . (2.115)
κ2 4π |x|
2.7 The Green function of time-harmonic

electromagnetics
We consider equations of time-harmonic electromagnetics for an isotropic homoge-

neous medium with dielectric permittivity c and magnetic permittivity μ. In this case,
the electric field Ei , the current Ji (x), and the magnetic field Hi are defined by the
equations
Ei (x, t) = Ei (x)eiωt , Ji (x, t) = Ji (x)eiωt , Hi (x, t) = Hi (x)eiωt , (2.116)
and Maxwell equations for the amplitudes of these fields take the forms [1]
rotij Ej (x) + iωμHi (x) = 0, (2.117)

rotij Hj (x) − iωcEi (x) = Ji (x), (2.118)
∂i (cEi (x)) = ρ(x), ∂i (μHi (x)) = 0. (2.119)
Applying the operator rot to the first equation and using the second one, we obtain
−rotij rotj k Ek (x) + κ 2 Ei (x) = iωμJi (x), κ 2 = ω2 cμ. (2.120)
The Green function Gij (x) of the operator −rotij rotj k + κ 2 δik is the solution of the
equation
−rotij rotj k Gkl (x) + κ 2 Gil (x) = −δil δ(x). (2.121)
Using the identity (2.12) we can rewrite this equation in the equivalent form
−∂i ∂j Gj k (x) + ∂j ∂j Gik (x) + κ 2 Gik (x) = −δik δ(x). (2.122)
Application of the Fourier transform operator yields the equation for the Fourier trans-
form G∗ij (k) of the Green function Gij (x)
ki kk G∗kj (k) − (k 2 − κ 2 )G∗ij (k) = −δij . (2.123)
The solution of this equation has the form
1 ki k j
G∗ij (k) = δij − 2 2 . (2.124)
k2 −κ 2 κ k − κ2
After application of the inverse Fourier transform, we obtain the explicit form of the
Green function Gij (x)
1 e−iκ|x|
Gij (x) = g(x)δij + ∂i ∂j g(x), g(x) = . (2.125)
κ2 4π |x|
For the current amplitude Ji (x), the electric Ei (x) and magnetic Hi (x) fields in the
medium are presented in the integral forms

Ei (x) = −iωμ Gij (x − x )Jj (x )dx , (2.126)

Hi (x) = − rotij Gj k (x − x )Jk (x )dx . (2.127)
2.8 The Green function of time-harmonic elasticity

We consider an infinite homogeneous elastic medium with stiffness tensor Cij kl and
density ρ subjected to body forces of density qi (x, t). For time-harmonic elasticity,
qi (x, t) = qi (x)eiωt , the vector of displacements is ui (x, t) = ui (x)eiωt , and the am-
plitude ui (x) satisfies the equation
∂j Cij kl ∂k ul (x) + ρω2 ui (x) = −qi (x). (2.128)
For a finite function qi (x), the partial solution of this equation is presented in the
integral form

ui (x) = gij (x − x )qj (x )dx , (2.129)
where gij (x) is the Green function of the operator ∂k Cikj l ∂l + ρω2 δij . Thus, gij (x) is
a vanishing at infinity solution of the equation
Lik (∂)gkj (x) + ρω2 gij (x) = −δij δ (x) , Lij (∂) = ∂k Cikj l ∂l . (2.130)
For an arbitrary anisotropic medium, an elegant method of construction of gij (x)

was proposed in [11]. The method is based on the plane-wave decomposition of the
3D Dirac delta function δ(x) indicated in [3]

1 d 2 δ(z)
δ(x) = − 2 δ (ξ · x)dSξ , δ (z) = . (2.131)
8π |ξ |=1 dz2
Here, Sξ is the surface of a unit sphere. It follows from Eqs. (2.130) and (2.131) that
the tensor gij (x) can be found in the form of the plane-wave decomposition similar
to (2.131)

1 d 2 Fij (z)
gij (x) = F (ξ · x)dS ξ , F (z) = , (2.132)
8π 2 |ξ |=1 ij ij
dz2
where the function F (z) satisfies the equation
Lik (ξ )Fkj (z) + ρω2 Fij (z) = δij δ(z), z = ξ · x. (2.133)
For any fixed vector ξi , the tensor Lij (ξ ) = ξk Cikj l ξl is positive and symmetric. There-
fore, there exists a basis of orthogonal normalized eigenvectors eiα (ξ ) (α = 1, 2, 3)
such that this tensor is presented in the form

3
Lij (ξ ) = lα (ξ )eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ), lα (ξ ) > 0, α = 1, 2, 3. (2.134)
α=1
Here, lα (ξ ) are the eigenvalues of Lij (ξ ). Presenting the tensor Fij (z) in the basis eiα ,

3
Fij (z) = fα (z)eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ), (2.135)
α=1
and using Eq. (2.133), we obtain the equations for the functions fα (z) in the form

lα (ξ )fα (z) + ρω2 fa (z) = δ(z), α = 1, 2, 3. (2.136)
The solutions of these equations are

1 iω|z| lα (ξ )
fα (z) = − exp − , υα (ξ ) = . (2.137)
2iρωυα (ξ ) υα (ξ ) ρ
Then, using Eq. (2.132), we obtain the equation for the Green function gij (x)
3
1 eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ) iω ω|ξ · x|
gij (x) = δ(ξ · x) − exp −i dSξ .
8π 2 ρ |ξ |=1 υα (ξ )2 2υα (ξ ) υα (ξ )
α=1
(2.138)
This presentation provides direct decomposition of the Green function of time-

harmonic elasticity as the sum of the static part gijs (x) (for ω = 0) and the dynamic
part gijω (x)
gij (x) = gijs (x) + gijω (x), (2.139)

3
1 eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ )
gijs (x) = δ(ξ · x)dSξ =
8π 2 ρ υα (ξ )2
α=1 |ξ |=1

1
= L−1 (ξ )δ(ξ · x)dSξ , (2.140)
8π 2 ρ |ξ |=1 ij
3
iω eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ) ω|ξ · x|
gijω (x) = − exp −i dSξ =
16π 2 ρ υα (ξ )3 υα (ξ )
α=1 |ξ |=1
√
iω ρ −3/2 √ −1/2
=− L (ξ ) exp −iω|ξ · x| ρLkj (ξ ) dSξ . (2.141)
16π 2 |ξ |=1 ik
Here, the function exp(Tij ) is defined for any symmetric tensor Tij with eigenvalues
tα and eigenvectors eiα by the equation

3
exp(Tij ) = exp(tα )eiα ejα . (2.142)
α=1
Taking into account the equations
1 xi
δ(ξ · x) = δ(ξ · n|x|) = δ(ξ · n), ni = , (2.143)
|x| |x|
the static part of the Green function is presented as the integral over the unit sphere

1
gij (x) =
s
L−1 (ξ )δ(ξ · n)dSξ . (2.144)
8π 2 ρ|x| |ξ |=1 ij
Thus, the static part gijs (x) is a homogeneous function of the order of |x|−1 , while the
dynamic part gijω (x) has no singularity at x = 0.
For an isotropic medium with Lame constants λ, μ, the Green function of time-
harmonic elasticity takes the form
−iβ|x|
1 2e e−iα|x| e−iβ|x|
gij (x) = β δij − ∂i ∂j − , (2.145)
4πμβ 2 |x| |x| |x|

ρ ρ
α=ω , β =ω . (2.146)
λ + 2μ μ
2.9 The Green function of time-harmonic poroelasticity
For an isotropic homogeneous medium, the complete system of equations of dynamic

poroelasticity in terms of the displacement vector ui of the solid skeleton and fluid
pressure p in the porous space has the form [8], [9]
χ ... χ
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + ∂j ∂j ui (x) − ρ üi + ρf2 u i − α∇p + ρf ∂i ṗ = −Fi ,
η η
(2.147)
χ χ
− α∂i u̇i + ρf ∂i üi + ∂i ∂i p − β ṗ = −f. (2.148)
η η
In these equations, λ and μ are effective Lame constants of the solid skeleton with dry
pores, α and β are Biot’s parameters defined in Eq. (2.77), η is the fluid viscosity, χ
is the medium permeability, ρ is the effective density
ρ = φρf + (1 − φ)ρs , (2.149)
where ρf and ρs are the densities of the fluid and solid phases, φ is the medium poros-
...
ity, u̇i , üi , and u i are the first, second, and third time derivatives of the displacement
vector, ṗ is the first time derivative of the pressure, and Fi and f are the field sources.
For time-harmonic poroelasticity, Fi (x, t) = Fi (x)eiωt , f (x, t) = f (x)eiωt , and
the displacement vector ui (x, t) and pressure p(x, t) are presented in the forms
ui (x, t) = ui (x)eiωt , p(x, t) = p(x)eiωt . From Eqs. (2.147) and (2.148), we obtain
the system of equations for the amplitudes ui (x) and p(x)
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x) + ρt ω2 ui (x) −

α ∂i p(x) = −Fi (x), (2.150)
α ∂i ui (x) − (κ∂i ∂i + β) p(x) = −fˆ(x),
− (2.151)
ρf ρf2 1 η 1

α=α− , ρt = ρ − , κ= =
,ρ , fˆ(x) = f (x). (2.152)
ρ ρ ω2
ρ iωχ iω
For finite functions Fi (x) and f (x), a partial solution of this system is presented in
the integral form

ui (x) = Gik (x − x )Fk (x )dx + i (x − x )fˆ(x )dx , (2.153)

p(x) = k (x − x )Fk (x )dx + g(x − x )fˆ(x )dx , (2.154)
where Gik (x), i (x), g(x) are the Green functions of the system (2.150)–(2.151).
Substituting Eqs. (2.153) and (2.154) into the system (2.150)–(2.151) and equating
the expressions in front of Fi and f in the left and right hand sides of the resulting
equations, we obtain the systems of partial differential equations for the Green func-
tions

(λ + μ)∂i ∂k + (μ∂j ∂j + ρt ω2 )δik Gkj (x) −
α ∂i j (x) = −δij δ(x), (2.155)
− α ∂j Gj i (x) − κ∂j ∂j + β i (x) = 0, (2.156)

(λ + μ)∂i ∂j + (μ∂k ∂k + ρt ω2 )δij j (x) −
α ∂i g(x) = 0, (2.157)
α ∂j j (x) − κ∂j ∂j + β g(x) = −δ(x).
− (2.158)
Application of the Fourier transform operator to these equations yields the system

−(λ + μ)ki kk + (−μk 2 + ρt ω2 )δik G∗kj + i α ki j∗ = −δij , (2.159)

α kj G∗j i − −κk 2 + β i∗ (x) = 0,
i (2.160)

−(λ + μ)ki kj + (−μk 2 + ρt ω2 )δij j∗ (x) + i
α ki g ∗ = 0, (2.161)

α kj j∗ − −κk 2 + β g ∗ = −1.
i (2.162)
Here, G∗ij , i∗ , and g ∗ are the Fourier transforms of the Green functions Gij (x), i (x),
and g(x). The functions G∗ij (k) and i∗ (k) can be found in the forms

k i kj ki k j
Gij = A 2 + B δij − 2 , i∗ = (−iki )C,
∗
(2.163)
k k
where A, B, C are scalar functions of the variables ki . Substitution of these ex-
pressions into the system (2.159), (2.162) yields the following equations for these
functions:
κk 2 − β 1
α ∗ (λ + 2μ)k 2 − ρt ω2
A=− , B= , C = − , g = ,
μk 2 − ρt ω2
(2.164)

= (λ + 2μ)k 2 − ρt ω2 −κk 2 + β + α2k2. (2.165)
After application of the inverse Fourier transforms, the explicit equations for the Green
functions take the forms
e−iκt r e−iκt r − e−iκf r e−iκt r − e−iκs r
Gij (x) = δij + g1 ∂i ∂j + g2 ∂i ∂j ,
4πμr 4πμr 4πμr
(2.166)
2

1 μ κ2 1 μ κf
g1 = 2 − s2 , g2 = − 2 − 2 , (2.167)
(κf − κs2 ) M κt (κf − κs2 ) M κt
−iκf r
e − e−iκs r
α κf2 κs2
i (x) = γ ∂i , γ= , (2.168)
4πr βμ κt2 (κf2 − κs2 )

e−iκf r e−iκs r 1 κf2 κs2 M κf
2
g(x) = b1 − b2 , b1 = 1− ,
4πμr 4πμr βμ κ 2 − κ 2 μ κt2
f s
(2.169)
2
1 κf2 κs2 M κs
b2 = 1− , r = |x| , M = λ + 2μ. (2.170)
βμ κ 2 − κ 2 μ κt2
f s
Here, κt is the wave number of shear waves,

ρt
κt = ω , (2.171)
μ
and κf , κs are the wave numbers of the so-called fast and slow longitudinal waves that
can propagate in the poroelastic medium. The numbers κf and κs are the solutions of
the dispersion equation [16]
μ iμκt2 μχ
ε2 κ 4 + i iκt2 ε 2 + Mβ +
α2 κ 2 − (μβ) = 0, ε2 = (2.172)
M M ωη
with negative imaginary parts.
2.10 Volume potentials of electrostatics

The Green functions provide natural integral presentations of fields in homogeneous
media with external and internal field sources. For instance, the electric potential u(x)
in the medium with the electric charge q(x) distributed in the region V is the integral

1
u(x) = g(x − x )q(x )dx , g(x) = , (2.173)
V 4πc|x|
which is called the volume potential of electrostatics.
Let the charge with intensity m h be concentrated at the point x = 0, and let the
h be concentrated at the point x = he, where h is
charge with the opposite intensity − m
a distance between the charges and e is a unit vector. If h tends to zero, the resulting
charge q(x) takes the form
m
q(x) = lim [δ(x) − δ(x − he)] = mei ∂i δ(x). (2.174)
h→0 h
The electric charge (2.174) is called the dipole of vector intensity Mi = mei con-
centrated at the point x = 0. The electric potential that corresponds to this charge is
defined by the equation

u(x) = g(x − x )Mi ∂i δ(x )dx = Mi ∂i g(x). (2.175)
If dipoles with density Mi (x) are distributed in a region V , the electric potential u(x)
takes the form

u(x) = ∂i g(x − x )Mi (x )dx , (2.176)
V
and the corresponding electric field Ei (x) is

Ei (x) = Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx , Kij (x) = −∂i ∂j g(x). (2.177)
V
The kernels of the integral operators in Eqs. (2.173) and (2.176) have weak singu-
larities when x → x (g(x) = O(|x|−1 ) and ∂i g(x) = O(|x|−2 )), and these integrals
exist in the ordinary sense. The integrand function in Eq. (2.177) has a strong singu-
larity when x → x (Kij (x) = O(|x|−3 )), and this integral needs regularization. Let
υε (x) be a sphere of a small radius ε with the center at point x. The integral (2.177)
can be presented in the form

Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx ≈ Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx +
V V \υε (x)

+ Kij (x − x )dx Mj (x). (2.178)
υε (x)
Here, V \υε (x) is the region V without the excluded sphere υε (x). In the variable
y = x − x , the last integral in this equation is

Aij = Kij (x − x )dx = Kij (y)Vε (y)dy, (2.179)
υε (x)
where Vε (y) is the characteristic function of a sphere of radius ε with the center at
y = 0: Vε (y) = 1 if y ∈ υε (0), Vε (y) = 0 if y ∈/ υε (0). The integral on the right hand
side in Eq. (2.179) is calculated over the entire 3D space. Using the Parseval formula,
we change the integrand functions with their Fourier transforms and write

1
Aij = Kij (y)Vε (y)dy = Kij∗ (k)Vε∗ (k)dk. (2.180)
(2π)3
In this equation, Kij∗ (k) and Vε∗ (k) are the Fourier transforms of the functions Kij (y)
and Vε (y)
mi mj ki
Kij∗ (k) = Kij∗ (m) = , mi = , (2.181)
mk Ckl ml |k|
j1 (ε|k|)
Vε∗ (k) = 4πε 2 , (2.182)
|k|
where j1 (z) is the spherical Bessel function of the first kind. Then, after introducing a
spherical coordinate system in the k-space, we obtain the equation for the tensor Aij
∞
1
Aij = Kij∗ (m)dSm Vε∗ (|k|)|k|2 d|k|, (2.183)
(2π)3 S1 0
where S1 is the surface of a unit sphere in the k-space. Taking into account the equation

1 4π ∞
Vε (0) = Vε∗ (|k|)e−ik·y dk = Vε∗ (|k|)|k|2 d|k| = 1,
(2π)3 y=0 (2π)3 0
(2.184)
we obtain the following expression for the tensor Aij :

1
Aij = K ∗ (m)dSm . (2.185)
4π S1 ij
Finally, regularization of the formally divergent integral in Eq. (2.177) follows from
Eq. (2.178) by ε → 0

Ei (x) = pv Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx + Aij Mj (x). (2.186)
V

Here, pv V ...dx is the Cauchy principal value of the integral defined by the equation

pv Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx = lim Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx . (2.187)
V ε→0 V \υε (x)
2.10.1 Discontinuity of the volume potential in Eq. (2.177)

The potentials (2.173) and (2.176) are continuous functions in the entire space, but
the potential (2.177) is discontinuous on the boundary of the region V . In order
to determine the jumps of this potential on , we define the function Mi (x) outside
V by an arbitrary smooth continuation and present the integral in Eq. (2.177) in the
form

Ei (x) = Kij (x − x )[Mj (x ) − M(x)]dx + Kij (x − x )dx Mj (x) .
V V
(2.188)
The first integral on the right hand side is continuous on because the integrand func-
tion has a weak singularity. Let us consider the limit of the second integral when x
tends to a point x 0 ∈ from outside or inside of the region V . We introduce Cartesian
coordinates (y1 , y2 , y3 ) with the origin at the point x 0 and the y3 -axis directed along
the external normal n0i = ni (x 0 ) to and consider the limits of the integral

Jij (y) = Kij (y − y )dy (2.189)
V
when y tends to zero from the side of the normal n0i or from the opposite side. Let
a point y =y 0 , y 0 = 0, be fixed. Then, we introduce the dimensionless coordinates
ξi = yi / y 0 , (i = 1, 2, 3). Because Kij (y) is a homogeneous function of the degree
of −3, the integral (2.189) in the new coordinates takes the form

0
Jij (y) = Jij (y ξ ) = Kij (ξ − ξ )dξ = Kij (ξ − ξ )V (ξ )dξ , (2.190)

V
where V (ξ ) is the characteristic

0 function of the region V in the coordinates ξi . If y 0
tends to zero, ξi = yi / y is the unit vector of the direction along which the point y 0
0 0
tends to the origin. In the limit y 0 → 0, the region V (ξ ) is transformed (in the coordi-
nates ξi ) into the half-space ξ3 < 0, i.e., V (ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) → H1 (ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) = 1 − H (ξ3 ),
where H (ξ3 ) is the Heaviside function (Fig. 2.1).
Figure 2.1 The local coordinate system at the boundary of the region containing field sources.
Thus, the following equation holds:

lim Jij (y ) = Kij (ξ 0 −ξ )H 1 (ξ )dξ =
0
y 0 →0

1
= Kij∗ (k)H1∗ (k) exp(−ik · ξ 0 )dk . (2.191)
(2π)3
In this equation, Kij∗ (k) and H1∗ (k) are the Fourier transforms of the functions Kij (ξ )
and H1 (ξ ) that have the forms [14]
ki kj
Kij∗ (k) = , H1∗ (k) = (2π)2 δ(k1 )δ(k2 ) πδ(k3 ) − ik3−1 , (2.192)
ck 2
and the last integral in Eq. (2.191) is calculated explicitly, i.e.,

1
Kij∗ (k)H1∗ (k) exp(−ik · ξ 0 )dk =
(2π)3
1 ∗
= Kij (0, 0, 0) − Kij∗ (0, 0, 1)sign(ξ30 ) . (2.193)
2
Taking into account these equations, we obtain for the limit Jij+ (0) of the integral
Jij (y 0 ) at the point y 0 = 0 from outside of V (y 0 → +0)
1
Jij+ (0) = lim Jij (y 0 ) = [Kij∗ (0) − Kij∗ (n0 )], y0 ∈
/V. (2.194)
y →+0
0 2
The same procedure gives us the limit of Jij (y 0 ) when y 0 → −0 from inside V , i.e.,
1
Jij− (0) = lim Jij (y 0 ) = [Kij∗ (0) + Kij∗ (n0 )], y0 ∈ V . (2.195)
y →−0
0 2
Hence, the jump of the integral Jij (y) in Eq. (2.189) on the boundary of the region
V is
[Jij (0)] = Jij+ (0) − Jij− (0) = −Kij∗ (n0 ) . (2.196)
It follows from Eq. (2.188) that the jump of the potential Ei (x) on the boundary of
the volume V is defined by the equation
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into harbour. With Thomas's miss I scored eleven. Unfortunately, off my
next stroke, Thomas again went down.
"Billiards," he said.
"You don't think I want to put the rotten thing down, do you? It's such a
blessed rabbit. Directly it sees a hole anywhere it makes for it. Hallo, six
more. I shall now give what they call a miss in baulk."
"Oh, good miss," cried Myra, as spot rested over the middle pocket.
"That was a googly. You both thought it would break the other way."
The game went on slowly. When Thomas was ninety and I was ninety-
nine, there was a confused noise without, and Archie and Miss Blair burst
into the room. At least only Archie actually burst; Miss Blair entered
sedately.
"Who's winning?" cried Archie.
"What an absurd question," I said. "As if we should tell you."
"All right. Dahl—Miss Blair, have you ever seen billiards played really
well?"
"Never."
"Then now's your chance. Ninety, ninety-nine—they've only just begun.

This is Thomas's first break, I expect. There—he's got a clear board. You
get five extra for that, and the other man is rubiconed. Ninety-nine all. Now,
it is only a question of who misses first."
I put down my cue.
"Thomas," I began, "we have said some hard things about each other to-
night, but when I listen to Archie I feel very friendly towards you."
"Archibald," said Thomas, "is a beastly name."

"So I told Miss Blair. For a man who was, so to speak, born with a
silver billiard-table in his mouth to come here and make fun of two
persevering and, in my case, promising players, is——"
"You'll never finish that sentence," said Myra. "Try some more
billiards."
"It was almost impossible to say what I wanted to say grammatically," I

answered, and I hit my ball very hard up the table at the white.
"It's working across," said Archie, after the second bounce; "it must hit
the red soon. I give it three more laps."
"It's going much more slowly now," said Miss Blair.
"Probably it's keeping a bit of a sprint for the finish. Wait till it gets its
second wind. No, I'm afraid it's no good; it ought to have started sooner.
Hallo, yes, it's—— Got him!"
"It hasn't finished yet," I said calmly. "Look—there!"
"Jove!" said Archie, shaking my hand, "that's the longest loser I've ever
seen. My dear old man, what a performer. The practice you must have had.
The years you must have devoted to the game. I wonder—could you
possibly spare an hour or two to-morrow to play cricket for us?"
CHAPTER IV
A FEW WIRES
A hundred and eighty for none. The umpire waved his lily hand, and the
scorer entered one more "four" in his book. Seeing that the ball had gone
right through a bicycle which was leaning up against the pavilion, many
people (the owner of the bicycle, anyhow) must have felt that the actual
signalling of a boundary was unnecessary; but our umpire is a stickler for
the etiquette of the game. Once when—— But no, on second thoughts, I
sha'n't tell you that story. You would say it was a lie—as indeed it is.
"Rotten," said Archie to me, as we crossed over. (A good captain always

confides in his wicket-keeper.)
"Don't take Simpson off," I said. "I like watching him."
"I shall go on again myself soon."
"Oh, it's not so bad as that. Don't lose heart."
The score was two hundred when we met again.
"I once read a book by a lady," I said, "in which the hero started the
over with his right hand and finished it with his left. I suppose Simpson
couldn't do that?"
"He's a darned rotten bowler, anyway."
"His direction is all right, but his metre is so irregular."
At the end of the next over, "What shall I do?" asked Archie in despair.
"Put the wicket-keeper on," I said at once.
The idea was quite a new one to him. He considered it for a moment.
"Can you bowl?" he said at last.
"No."
"Then what on earth——"
"Look here; you've tried 'em with people who can bowl, and they've
made two hundred and twenty in an hour and a half; somebody who can't
bowl will be a little change for them. That's one reason. The second is that
we shall all have a bit of a rest while I'm taking my things off. The third is
that I bet Myra a shilling——"
Archie knelt down, and began to unbuckle my pads. "I'll 'keep' myself,"
he said. "Are you fast or slow?"
"I haven't the faintest idea. Just as it occurs to me at the moment, I

expect."
"Well, you're quite right; you can't be worse than some of us. Will you
have a few balls down first?"
"No, thanks; I should like to come as a surprise to them."
"Well, pitch 'em up anyhow."
"I shall probably vary my length—if possible without any alteration of

action."
I am now approaching the incredible. The gentle reader, however, must

not be nasty about it; he should at least pretend to believe, and his best way
of doing this is to listen very silently to what follows. When he has heard
my explanation I shall assume that he understands.
Bowling is entirely a question of when you let go of the ball. If you let
go too soon the result is a wide over the batsman's head; if too late, a nasty
crack on your own foot. Obviously there are spaces in between. By the law
of averages one must let go at the right moment at least once. Why not then
at the first ball? And in the case of a person like myself, who has a very
high action and a good mouth—I mean who has a very high delivery, such a
ball (after a week of Simpsons and Archies) would be almost unplayable.
Very well then; I did let go at the right moment, but, unfortunately, I
took off from the wrong crease. The umpire's cry of "No-ball" and the
shattering of the Quidnunc's wicket occurred simultaneously.
"Good ball," said Archie. "Oh, bad luck!"

I tried to look as though, on the whole, I preferred it that way—as being
ultimately more likely to inspire terror in the batsman at my end. Certainly,
it gave me confidence; made me over-confident in fact, so that I held on to
the next ball much too long, and it started bouncing almost at once.
The Quidnunc, who was convinced by this that he had been merely
having a go at the previous ball, shouldered his bat and sneered at it. He
was still sneering when it came in very quickly, and took the bottom of the
leg stump. (Finger spin, chiefly.)
Archie walked up slowly, and gazed at me.
"Well?" I said jauntily.
"No, don't speak. I just want to look, and look, and look. It's wonderful.
No elastic up the sleeve, or anything."
"This is where it first pitched," said the Major, as he examined the

ground.
"Did you think of letting in a brass tablet?" I inquired shortly.
"He is quite a young man," went on Archie dreamily, "and does not care
to speak about his plans for the future. But he is of opinion that——"
"Break, break, break," said Simpson. "Three altogether."
"Look here, is there anybody else who wants to say anything? No? Then
I'll go on with my over."
Archie, who had begun to walk back to his place, returned thoughtfully
to me.
"I just wanted to say, old chap, that if you're writing home to-night
about it, you might remember me to your people."
Blair was about the only person who didn't insult me. This was because
he had been fielding long-on; and as soon as the wicket fell he moved round
about fifty yards to talk to Miss Fortescue. What people can see in her——
Well, directly my next ball was bowled he started running as hard as he
could to square leg, and brought off one of the finest catches I've ever seen.
"The old square-leg trap," said Archie. "But you cut it rather fine, didn't
you? I suppose you knew he was a sprinter?"
"I didn't cut it at all—I was bowling. Go away."
Yes, I confess it. I did the hat trick. It was a good length half-volley, and
the batsman, who had watched my first three balls, was palpably nervous.
Archie walked round and round me in silence for some time, and then went
over to Thomas.
"He's playing tennis with me this evening," he began.
"I was beaten at billiards by him last night," said Thomas proudly.
"He's going to let me call him by his Christian name."
"They say he's an awfully good chap when you know him," replied
Thomas.
I got another wicket with the last ball of the over, and then we had
lunch. Myra was smiling all over her face when we came in, but beyond a
"Well bowled, Walter" (which I believe to be Brearley's name), would have
nothing to do with me. Instead she seized Archie, and talked long and
eagerly to him. And they both laughed a good deal.
"Arkwright," I heard Archie say at the end. "He's sure to be there, and
would do it like a shot."
Like a wise captain Archie did not put me on after lunch, and Simpson
soon began to have the tail in difficulties. Just after the eighth wicket fell a
telegram came out. Archie took it and handed it to me. "From Maclaren, I
expect," he said with a grin.
"You funny ass; I happen to know it's from Dick. I asked him for a wire
about the Kent match."
"Oh, did Kent win?" said Archie, looking over my shoulder. As I
opened it, the others came up, and I read—
"Please be in attendance for next Test Match."

"HAWKE"
I got three more that afternoon. One from Fry, one from Leveson-
Gower, and one from Maclaren. They all came from Lord's, and I've half a
mind to take my telegrams with me, and go. Then Myra would probably get
six months in the second division.
"But I shouldn't mind that," said Myra. "You could easily bowl—I mean
bail—me out."
A silly joke, I call it.
CHAPTER V
AT PLAY
I selected a handkerchief, gave a last look at the weather, which was

beastly, and went down (very late) to breakfast. As I opened the door there
was a sudden hush. Everybody looked eagerly at me. Then Miss Fortescue
tittered.
Well, you know how one feels when that happens. I put my hand
quickly to my tie—it was still there. I squinted down my nose, but there
was no smut. To make quite sure I went over to the glass. Then Simpson
exploded.
Yet nobody spoke. They all sat there watching me, and at last I began to
get nervous. I opened my mouth to say "Good-morning," but before I got it
out Miss Blair gave a little shriek of excitement. That upset me altogether. I
walked up to the tea-pot, and pouring myself out a cup said, with
exaggerated carelessness, "Rotten day, isn't it?"
And then came the laughter—shout after shout.
I held out my hand to Myra. "Good-bye," I said, "I'm going home.

Thank you for a very jolly time, but I'm not going to be bullied."
"Oh, you dear," she gurgled.
"I am rather sweet before breakfast," I admitted, "but how——"
"It was too heavenly of you. I never thought you would."
"I think I shall go back to bed."
"It was rather rough luck," said Archie, "but of course the later you are
the worse it is for you."
"And the higher the fewer. Quite so. If this is from Breakfast Table
Topics in The Daily Mirror, I haven't seen them to-day; but I'll do my best."
"Archie, explain."
Archie took up a piece of paper from the table, and explained. "It's like
this," he said. "I came down first and looked at the weather, and said——"
"Anyone would," I put in quickly.
"Well, then, Blair came in and said, 'Beastly day,' and then Simpson
—— Well, I thought I'd write down everybody's first remark, to see if
anybody let the weather alone. Here they are."
"It's awful," put in Myra, "to have one's remarks taken down straight
off. I've quite forgotten what I said."
This was the list:
Archie: "Bother." (So he says.)
Blair: "What a beastly day!"
Simpson: "What a jolly day!"
The Major: "Well, not much cricket to-day, hey?"
Myra: "Oh dear, what a day!"
Miss Blair: "What a terrible day!"
Miss Fortescue: "Oh, you poor men—what a day!"
Thomas: "Rotten day, isn't it?"
Me: "Rotten day, isn't it?"
"I don't think much of Thomas's remark," I said.
Later on in the morning we met (all except the Major, that is) in the
room which Myra calls hers and Archie calls the nursery, and tried to think
of something to do.
"I'm not going to play bridge all day for anyone," said Archie.
"The host should lay himself out to amuse his guests," said Myra.
"Otherwise, his guests will lay him out," I warned him, "to amuse
themselves."
"Well, what do you all want to do?"
"I should like to look at a photograph album," said Thomas.
"Stump cricket."
"What about hide-and-seek?"
"No, I've got it," cried Archie; "we'll be boy scouts."
"Hooray!" cried everybody else.
Archie was already on his hands and knees. "Ha!" he said, "is that the
spoor of the white ant that I see before me? Spoorly not. I have but been
winded by the water-beetle.
"Sound, sound the trumpet, beat the drum,

To all the scouting world proclaim
One crowded stalk upon the turn
Is worth an age without a name."
"Archie!" shrieked Myra in horror. "It is too late," she added, "all the
ladies have swooned."
We arranged sides. Myra and I and Simpson and Thomas against the
others. They were to start first.
"This isn't simply hide-and-seek," said Archie, as they went off. "You've
got to track us fairly. We shall probably 'blaze' door-posts. When you hear
the bleat of a tinned sardine that means we're ready. Keep your eyes
skinned, my hearties, and heaven defend the right."
"We ought to have bare knees really," said Myra, when they'd gone.
"Boy scouts always do. So that when they go through a bed of nettles they
know they've been."
"I shall stalk the stairs to begin with," I said. "Simpson, you go down
the back way and look as much like a vacuum-cleaner as possible. Then
they won't notice you. Thomas and Myra—— Hush! Listen! Was that the
bleat of a fresh sardine or the tinned variety?"
"Tinned," said Myra. "Let's go."

We went. I took the Queen Anne staircase on my—in the proper
stalking position. I moved very slowly, searching for spoor. Half-way down
the stairs my back fin slipped and I shot over the old oak at a tremendous
pace, landing in the hall like a Channel swimmer. Looking up, I saw
Thomas in front of me. He was examining the door for "blazes." Myra was
next to him, her ear to the ground, listening for the gallop of horses' hoofs. I
got up and went over to them.
"Hast seen aught of a comely wench in parlous case, hight Mistress

Dahlia?" I asked Thomas.
"Boy scouts don't talk like that," he said gruffly.
"I beg your pardon. I was thinking that I was a Cavalier and you were a
Roundhead. Now I perceive that you are just an ordinary fathead."
"Why," said Myra at the foot of the stairs, "what does this button mean?
Have I found a clue?"
I examined it, and then I looked at my own coat.
"You have," I said. "Somebody has been down those stairs quite
recently, for the button is still warm."
"Where is Scout Simpson?"
At that moment he appeared breathless with excitement.
"I have had an adventure," he said hurriedly, without saluting. "I was on
the back stairs looking like a vacuum-cleaner when suddenly Archie and
Miss Blair appeared. They looked right at me, but didn't seem to penetrate
my disguise. Archie, in fact, leant against me, and said to Miss Blair: 'I will
now tell you of my secret mission. I carry caviare—I mean despatches—to
the general. Breathe but a word of this to the enemy, and I miss the half-
holiday on Saturday. Come, let us be going, but first to burn the secret
code.' And—and then he struck a match on me, and burned it."
Myra gurgled and hastily looked solemn again. "Proceed, Scout
Simpson," she said, "for the night approaches apace."
"Well, then they started down the stairs, and I went after them on my—
scouting, you know. I made rather a noise at one corner, and Archie looked
round at me, and said to Miss Blair: 'The tadpoles are out full early. See
yonder where one lies basking.' And he came back, and put his foot on me
and said, 'Nay, 'tis but a shadow. Let us return right hastily. Yet tarry a
moment, what time I lay a false trail.' So they tarried and he wrote a note
and dropped it on me. And, afterwards, I got up and here it is."
"The secret despatch," cried Myra.
"It's addressed to the Scoutmistress, and it says outside: 'Private, not to

be opened till Christmas Day.'"
Myra opened it and read: "Your blessed scouts are everywhere. Let me
just have five minutes with her in the nursery, there's a dear. I'd do as much
for you."
But she didn't read it aloud, and I didn't see it till some time afterwards.
She simply put it away, and smiled, and announced that the scouts would
now adjourn to the billiard-room for pemmican and other refreshments;
which they did. The engagement was announced that evening.
CHAPTER VI
IN AND OUT
"Well," said Thomas, "how are we going to celebrate the joyful event?"
We were sitting on the lawn, watching Blair and Miss Fortescue play
croquet. Archie and Dahlia were not with us; they had (I suppose) private
matters to discuss. Our match did not begin for another hour, happily for the
lovers; happily also for the croquet-players, who had about fifty-six more
hoops, posts, flags and what not to negotiate.
"It's awfully difficult to realise it," said Myra. "My own brother! Just
fancy—I can hardly believe it."
"I don't think there can be any doubt," I said. "Something's happened to
him, anyhow—he's promised to put me in first to-day."
"Let's have a dance to-morrow night," continued Thomas, relentlessly

pursuing his original idea. "And we'll all dance with Miss Blair."
"Yes. Archie would like that."
"I remember, some years ago, when I was in Spain," said Simpson——
"This," I murmured appreciatively, "is how all the best stories begin."
And I settled myself more comfortably in my chair.
"No," said Simpson, "I'm wrong there. It was in Hampstead." And he

returned to his meditations.
"Tell you what," said Thomas, "you ought to write 'em an ode,
Simpson."
"There's nothing that rhymes with the lady."
"There's hair," I said quite unintentionally.
"I meant with Dahlia."
"My dear man, there are heaps. Why, there's azalea."
"That's only one."
"Well, there are lots of different kinds of azalea."
"Any rhymes for Archie and Mannering?" said Simpson scornfully.

"Certainly. And Simpson. You might end with him—
"'Forgive the way the metre limps on,

It's always like that with Samuel Simpson.'
You get the idea?"
"Hush," said Myra, "Miss Fortescue has passed under a hoop."
But it is time that we got on to my innings. Archie managed to win the

toss, and, as he had promised, took me in with him. It was the proudest and
most nervous moment of my life.
"I've never been in first before," I said, as we walked to the wickets. "Is
there any little etiquette to observe?"
"Oh, rather. Especially, if you're going to take first ball."
"Oh, there's no doubt about my taking the first ball."
"In that case the thing to remember is, that when the umpire calls 'play'
the side refusing to play loses the match."
"Then it all rests on me? Your confidence in me must be immense. I

think I shall probably consent to play."
I obtained guard and took my stand at the wicket. Most cricketers

nowadays, I am told, adopt the "two-eyed stance," but for myself I still stick
to the good old two-legged one. It seems to me to be less wearing. My style,
I should observe, blends happily the dash of a Joseph Vine with the patience
of a Kenneth Hutchings; and after a long innings I find a glass of—— I've
forgotten the name of it now, but I know I find it very refreshing.
Being the hero (you will admit that—after my hat trick) of this true
story, I feel I must describe my innings carefully. Though it only totalled
seventeen, there was this to be said for it: it is the only innings of less than a
hundred ever made by a hero.
It began with a cut to square leg, for which we ran a forced single, and
followed on with a brace of ones in the direction of fine slip. After that, I
stopped the bowler in the middle of his run-up, and signalled to a spectator
to move away from the screen. This was a put-up job with Myra, and I
rather hoped they would give me something for it, but apparently they
didn't. At the end of the over, I went up and talked to Archie. In first-class
cricket, the batsmen often do this, and it impresses the spectators
immensely.
I said, "I bet you a shilling I'm out next over."
He said, "I won't take you."
I said, "Then I huff you," and went back to my crease.
My next scoring stroke was a two-eyed hook over point's head, and then
Archie hit three fours running. I had another short conversation with him, in
the course of which I recited two lines from Shakespeare and asked him a
small but pointed conundrum, and afterwards I placed the ball cleverly to
mid-off, the agility of the fieldsman, however, preventing any increment,
unearned or otherwise. Finally, I gave my cap to the umpire, made some
more ones, changed my bat, and was caught at the wicket.
"I hit it," I said, as I walked away. I said it to nobody in particular, but
the umpire refused to alter his decision.
"I congratulate you," said Miss Blair, when I was sitting down again.
"I was just going to do that to you," I said.
"Oh, but you were kind enough to do that last night."
"Ah, this is extra. I've just been batting out there with your young man.
Perhaps you noticed?"
"Well, I think I must have."
"Yes. Well, I wanted to tell you that I think he has quite an idea of the
game, and that with more experience he would probably be good enough to
play for—for Surrey. Second eleven. Yes. At hockey."
"Thank you so much. You've known him a long time, haven't you?"
"We were babes together, madam. At least, simultaneously. We actually

met at school. He had blue eyes and curly hair, and fought the captain on
the very first day. On the second day his hair was still curly, but he had
black eyes. On the third day he got into the cricket eleven, and on the fourth
he was given his footer cap. Afterwards he sang in the choir, and won the
competition for graceful diving. It was not until his second term that the
headmaster really began to confide in him. By the way, is this the sort of
thing you want?"
"Yes," smiled Dahlia. "Something like that."
"Well, then we went to Cambridge together. He never did much work,

but his algebra paper in the Little Go was so brilliant that they offered him
the Senior Wranglership. He refused on the ground that it might interfere
with his training for the tug of war, for which he had just obtained his blue
—and—— It's a great strain making all this up. Do you mind if I stop
now?"
"Of course I know that isn't all true, but he is like that, isn't he?"
"He is. He put me in first to-day."
"I know you really are fond of him."
"Lorblessyou—yes."
"That makes you my friend, too."
"Of course." I patted her hand. "That reminds me—as a friend I feel
bound to warn you that there is a person about in the neighbourhood called
Samuel Simpson who meditates an evil design upon you and yours. In
short, a poem. In this he will liken you to the azalea, which I take to be a
kind of shrubby plant."
"Yes?"
"Yes, well, all I want to say is, if he comes round with the hat
afterwards, don't put anything in."
"Poor man," smiled Dahlia. "That's his living, isn't it?"
"Yes. That's why I say don't put anything in."
"I see. Oh, there—he's out. Poor Archie."
"Are you very sorry?" I said, smiling at her. "I'm just going, you know."
"Between ourselves," I said later to Myra, "that isn't at all a bad girl."
"Oh, fancy!"
"But I didn't come to talk about her. I came to talk about my seventeen."
"Yes, do let's."
"Yes. Er—you begin."
CHAPTER VII
ALL OVER
"May I have a dance?" I asked Miss Blair.
She put her head on one side and considered.
"One, two, three—the next but five," she said.
"Thank you. That sounds a lot; is it only one?"
"You may have two running then, if you like."

"What about two running, and one hopping, and one really gliding?
Four altogether."
"We'll see," said Miss Blair gravely.
Myra, who was being very busy, came up and dragged me away.
"I want to introduce you to somebody. I say, have you seen Thomas?"
"It's no earthly good introducing me to Thomas again."
"He's so important because he thinks the dance was his idea; of course
I'd meant to have it all along. There she is—her name's Dora Dalton. I think
it's Dora."
"I shall call her Dora, anyhow."
I was introduced, and we had a very jolly waltz together. She danced
delightfully; and when we had found a comfortable corner she began to
talk.
She said, "Do you play cricket?"
I was rather surprised, but I kept quite cool, and said, "Yes."
"My brother's very fond of it. He is very good too. He was playing here
yesterday against Mr Mannering's team, and made six, and then the umpire
gave him out; but he wasn't out really, and he was very angry. I don't
wonder, do you?"
I had a sudden horrible suspicion.
"Did you say your name was Dora—I mean his name was Dalton?"
"Yes. And just because he was angry, which anybody would be, the
wicket-keeper was very rude, and told him to go home and—and bake his
head."
"Not bake," I said gently, my suspicion having now become almost a
certainty. "Boil."
"Go home, and boil his head," she repeated indignantly.
"And did he?"
"Did he what?"
"Er—did he understand—I mean, don't you think your brother may

have misunderstood? I can't believe that a wicket-keeper would ever
demean himself by using the word 'boil.' Not as you might say boil. 'Cool
his head' was probably the expression—it was a very hot day, I remember.
And ... ah, there's the music beginning again. Shall we go back?"
I am afraid Miss Dalton's version of the incident was not quite accurate.
What had happened was this: I had stumped the fellow, when he was
nearly a mile and a half outside his crease; and when he got back to it some
minutes later, and found the umpire's hand up, he was extremely indignant
and dramatic about it. Quite to myself, sotto voce as it were, I murmured,
"Oh, go home!" and I may have called attention in some way to the "bails."
But as to passing any remarks about boiling heads—well, it simply never
occurred to me.
I had a dance with Myra shortly after this. She had been so busy and
important that I felt quite a stranger. I adapted my conversation accordingly.
"It's a very jolly floor, isn't it?" I said, as I brought her an ice.
"Oh yes!" said Myra in the same spirit.
"Have you been to many floors—I mean dances, lately?"
"Oh yes!"
"So have I. I think dances have been very late lately. I think when the
floor's nice it doesn't matter about the ices. Don't you think the band is
rather too elastic—I mean keeps very good time? I think so long as the time
is good it doesn't matter about the floor."
"Oh, isn't it?" said Myra enthusiastically.
There was a pleasant pause while we both thought of something else to

say.
"Have you," we began.
"I beg your pardon," we said at once.
"I was going to say," Myra went on, "have you read any nice books
lately, or are you fonder of tennis?"
"I like reading nice books about tennis," I said. "If they are nice books,
and are really about tennis. Er—do you live in London?"
"Yes. It is so handy for the theatres, isn't it? There is no place exactly
like London, is there? I mean it's so different."
"Well, of course, up in Liverpool we do get the trams, you know, now....

I say, I'm tired of pretending I've only just met you. Let's talk properly."
At this moment we heard a voice say, "Let's try in here," and Archie and
Dahlia appeared.
"Hallo! here's the happy pair," said Myra.
They came in and looked at us diffidently. I leant back and gazed at the
ceiling.
"Were you just going?" said Archie.
"We were not," I said.
"Then we'll stay and talk to you."
"We were in the middle of an important conversation."

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Ebook Heterogeneous Media Local Fields Effective Properties and Wave Propagation PDF Full Chapter PDF

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Heterogeneous Media: Local Fields,

Effective Properties, and Wave

HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA HETEROGENEOUS

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

2 Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 7

3 Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in

3.7 A cavity subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a poroelastic

4 Numerical calculation of volume and surface potentials 103

5 Numerical solution of volume integral equations for static fields in

Appendix 5.A The computational program for numerical solution of

6 Cracks in heterogeneous media 193

7 Time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media 245

8 Quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media 335

Appendix 8.A The computational program for construction of

9 The homogenization problem 387

ui , εij , Cij kl , ... Lower case latin indices are tensorial.

L(C)u = −f, (1.1)

C(x) = C0 + C1 (x), (1.2)

L(C0 )u = −f − L(C1 )u. (1.3)

G(C0 )L(C0 ) = −I, (1.4)

u = u0 + G(C0 )L(C1 )u, u0 = G(C0 )f. (1.5)

If the operator G(C0 ) can be presented in the integral form

The problem of calculation of fields in heterogeneous media with arbitrary varying

Here, m ∈ Z d is a vector with integer components in the space of the dimension d,

|u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| ≤ C1 ||u||h + O(exp(−π 2 H )). (1.9)

Chapter 5 is devoted to the numerical solution of the volume integral equations

in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 is independent and devoted to approximation by the Gaussian

2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous

We consider a homogeneous dielectric medium with the tensor of dielectric permit-

∂i Di (x) = q(x), Di (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.1)

Here, rot is the differential operator

Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.3)

Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = −q(x). (2.4)

Cij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.5)

The system of equations of magnetostatics of homogeneous media is formulated in

∂i Bi (x) = 0, Bi (x) = Mij Hj (x), rotij Hj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.8)

Mj k ∂j ∂k Ai = Mj k ∂i ∂j Ak − rotik rotkl Al , (2.10)

A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)

Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space,  = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

Mij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.13)

sij (x) = −rotij g(x). (2.16)

∂i Ji (x) = 0, Ji (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.19)

Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.20)

Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = 0. (2.21)

2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics

Cij = cδij , (2.22)

c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)

where k · x = ki xi is the scalar product of √

In the case of an anisotropic medium, linear transformation of the Cartesian coor-

converts Eq. (2.5) into the following:

Cij Aik Aj l ∂k ∂l g(A−1 y) = −δ(A−1 y). (2.29)

If the tensor Aij satisfies the equation

Cij Aik Aj l = δkl , (2.30)

g (y) = g(A−1 y) the equation

δ(A−1 y) = det Aδ(y). (2.32)

A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)

Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space, = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)

Eq. (2.31) is similar to Eq. (2.23), and therefore,

(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x) + ρt ω2 ui (x) −