IN THIS UNTT.. # Understanding Text 3 ‘@ Practice Problems with their Answers 22, 62 ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS (For Competitive Fxaminations) 1M, 23, 31, 92, 39, 54 CHAPTER SUMMARY 8 ‘KEY TERMS 8 ‘NCERT FILE # NCERT Exercise Questions (with Answers) ot ‘# NCERT Exemplar Problems (with Answers & Hints) & HOTS & BRAIN TWISTING QUESTIONS a (vith Answers) QUICK MEMORY TEST 7 (with Answers) ‘REVISION EXERCISES (vith previous years’ CBSE & Other State Boards Examinations) + Very Short Answer Questions - ‘One mark each (with Answers) n + Short Answer Questions ~ ‘Two marks each (with Answers) 2B Short Answer Questions -Throe marks each 73 ‘ Long Answer Questions - Five marks each 4 COMPETITION FILE (WITH ANSWERS & HINTS) ‘$ Multiple Choice Questions (From AIPMT & Other Competitive Exams) ‘© COSE-PMT (Main Examination) Questions © Matching Type Quostions Assertion Type Questions @ Reasoning Type Questions ‘ Additional Multiple Choice Questions R epezax CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST MORPHOLOGY Every living organism has a fixed form and it is because of this reason that we are able to distinguish most of them just due to their external structure. The study of external structures of organs is known as external morphology and that of internal structures as internal mosphology or anatomy. Study of extemal ‘morphology or extemal appearance of higher plants is necessary in order to describe the plants in an accurate fashion. This study further enables us to distinguish betwen almost similar looking plants. So, the plants are identified by their morphological characters. Variation in plants is found not only in external forms but also in their anatomical characters which are represented by different types of tissue systems. The flowering plants (angiosperms) are most diverse and wide-spread of all plant groups. There are about3,00,000 species of flowering, plants on the earth. Morphology along with anatomy constitutes the base of studying pattem of life forms. ‘There are very minute plants like Wolfie (smallest angiosperm) and tallest like Eucrlyptus. Depending, upon their habitat they can be classified as hydrophytes, mesophytes and xerophytes. ae Various parts of an angiospermic plant can be studied from a small plant with intact roots as Solanum nigrum (Mako), Petunia, Brassica campestris (Mustard) etc, These parts are roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds (Fig. 1). Parts of a plant mainly concerned with the nutrition and growth are called vegetative parts eg. root, stem and leaf. The reproductive part is flower which is essentially concerned with the sexual reproduction of a plant. A typical angiospermic plant can be divided into two main parts I. Root system II. Shoot system I. Root system The root and its branches together constitute the root system. The root system is typically underground and consists of main root and its branches. The root formed directly from the radicle is called Tap root. The tap root along with its branches forms the tap root system. There is a main thick root, called as Primary root, main root or tap root. It bears many lateral branches or Secondary TEREroots, The branches of secondary roots are called as ‘Tertiary roots. The fine endings of the branches of a root are called as rootlets, Root is the underground {positively geotropic), non-green part of the plant. The ‘major functions of the root are = 1. To fix the plant in the soi 2. To absorb water and mineral salts. 3. To hold the soil particles TL Shoot system Itconstitutes the aerial, epiterranean parts of a plant lying above the soil. The main axis with its branches, leaves, flowers and fruits is collectively called shoot system. The axis of the shoot is called as stem. The branches bear flat, green, expanded lateral out-growths called as leaves. They are borne on special points known, as nodes. ‘Ihe distance between two adjacent nodes is known as internode. The upper angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called axil. A lateral bud which develops in the axil of a leaf is known as axillary bud. This bud later on bears a branch. The stem along with its branches and leaves forms the shoot. Its positively eA (eNLaRceD) sHoor system MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI phototropic and negatively geotropic. Atthe tip of stem branches lie the terminal or apical bud. Itis responsible for increasing the lengti of the stem, ‘The chief functions of stem are : 1. To hold the leaves, flowers and fruits. 2. To expose the leaves to sunlight. 3. Toexpose the fruits and seeds for proper dispersal. 4. To conduct the water and minerals from roots to leaves. 8. To transport the food from leaves to all parts of plant such as roots, flowers, fruits ete. Leaves. A leaf is a dissimilar, green, flat, expanded lateral outgrowth of stem or its branches on a node. Each leaf consists of three parts i. leaf base or vagina, petiole and lamina, Leaf base is the lowermost part of the leaf by which it ia attached with the node of stem. Petiole is the stalk of leaf. The leaf blade or lamina is the expanded green part which is supported by veins. ‘The major functions of the leaves are (1) Photosynthesis (2) Gaseous exchange (G) Transpiration. FLOWER Fig. 1. The parts of flowering plant (Entire plant body).MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Fig. 2. Pa Flower: It is a modified branch which is usually brightly coloured. The stalk of flower is called pedicel (Fig. 2). Swollen flat tip of pedicel forms the thalamus or receptacle. The four types of floral leaves—sepals, petals, stamens and carpels appear from thalamus. Stamens [androscium) and carpels (gynaccium) constitute the essential parts ofa flower, Non-essential partsare sepals (calyx) and petals (corolla). The sepals re usually green and petalsare coloured and showy. Each stamen consists ofa stalk like filament and flattened globoid top called anther. The anthers produce the pollen grains. Carpel shows basal swollen ovary, middle elongated style and upper terminal stigma, The ovary contains ovules. The functions of a flower are: 1. It is the part of a plant which helps in sexual reproduction, 2. Itbearsmale sex organs ie. stamens and female sex ongans ie. carpels, 3. Ovary after fertilization ripens into fruit which contains seeds and thus is responsible for continuation of the race Fruits and seeds. The fruitisa ripened ovary mostly developed after fertilization. The fruit encloses and protects the seeds, Seed is the ripened ovule. It contains anembryo and reserve food for developing the embryo. Outer protective covering is called as testa or seed coat. Embryo axisis a bipolar elongated structure with which food laden cotyledons are attached. The two ends can be distinguished as plumule and radicle. The plumule is the future shoot and radicle is the future root. The seed under suitable conditions germinates to give rise to young plant called seedling Root is an underground cylindrical part of the plant which develops from radicle and grows vertically down into the soil. Root lacks leaves, nodes, internodes and buds. Root and its branches constitute root system. Characteristics of root 1. They normally constitute the descending part of the plant axis, 2 Root develops from radicle, 3. Roots are cylindrical structures. of a flowe 1: A. Surface view; B. LS. 4. Root is positively geotropic. 5. Buds and leaves are usually absent. 6. Root is colourless due to the absence of chlorophyll. 7. Root cap is present over the apex. 8. The branches of root arise from inner region, thus are endogenous. 9. Root possesses root hairs which are always unicellular. ‘The primary functions of the root isto fix the plant firmly with the soil and to absorb water and mineral nutrients. In submerged hydrophytes and floating aquatics... Ceratophylium, Myriophyllum, Utricularia, “Hydrtfa, these Functions are nok critical. In these plants root system is either poorly developed or totally absent. Geena he The following parts can be distinguished in a typical root : 1. Root cap. Root cap is thickened, protective cap. like structures present at the tip of root apex (Fig. 3). Withoutit, the tender root would be unable to penetrate the hard soil. Itprotects the young growing apex of roots, in all the terrestrial plants. The cells of root cap secrete -mucilage which lubricates the passage of root through the soil. When root pushes deeper into the soil particles, its outer cells are continuously peeled off and replaced by new cells formed from root meristem. 2. Meristematic zone or Zone of cell division. Itisa small gion present behind rootcap (subterminal es about 1 mm long. It represents the growing point. Cells are thin, have large nucleus and are non-vacuolated. Tt is made up of actively dividing meristematic cells. This region adds new cells and is responsible for longitudinal ‘growth of the root, It also absorbs mineral salts. 3. Zone of elongation, It lies just above the ‘meristematic zone and is about 5 mm. long. The cells of this zone do not divide. These cells elongate rapidly. ‘These also possess the power of absorption of water and, ‘mineral salts from the soil. In cells of this zone, small vacuoles develop and later the vacuoles fuse to form ‘one large central vacuole filled with cell sap.REGION OF WATURE CELLS ROOTHAIR ROOT HAIR 20NE REGION OF ELONGATION @Rowna Pont (MERISTEMATIC ZONE} Fig. 3. The regions of root tip. 4. Root hair zone. Root hair zone is 1-6 cm in length. Root hairs appear from outer cells of this zone in the form of tubular outgrowths. Most of the water absorption takes place through this zone. When the cells of root hair zone mature root hairs shrivel and become non-functional. New root hairs appear in the older parts of zone of elongation. 5. Zone of cell maturation (differentiation). It is called a5 root hair maturation zone. Lange number of unicellular root hairs are present which mainly absorb swater and minerals from soil. [tis the major part of root. ‘The walls of cells are not elastic. As the cells of root hair zone become mature, the root hairs shrivel and become non-functional. The enlarged cells undergo maturation and differentiation into different typesof primary tissues, Of the root ie. cortex, endodermis, xylem, phloem etc. KINDS OF ROOT (a) Tap root system. The primary root and its branches constitute the tap root system. Root which appears from radicle of embryo of seed is called tap root. First formed root is known as primary root. It bears branches of first order known as secondary roots. ‘The secondary roots bear branches of second order known as tertiary roots. The finer branches are called as rootlets, Rootlets are the ultimate root branches. ‘The older branches occur near the base and younger branches near the apex showing the arrangement called acropetal succession. The primary root which is thickest at the base and tapering towards the apex, along with its branches form the tap root system. Tap roots of perennial plants generally grow deep into the soil and are deep feeders. The primary root may be sparingly or profusely branched according to the need of plant. (b) Adventitious root system. Those roots which are produced from any other part of plant except the radicle are called adventitious roots (Fig. 4). Various MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI ADVENTITIOUS Flanous ROOT Fig. 4. Kinds of roots. A. Tap root; B. Adventitious fibrous root types of adventitious roots differin shape and functions. ‘They may appear from base of the stem replacing the primary root or in addition to they may arise from nodes or internodes of stem. They usually appear in groups and are clustered. The adventitious roots together with its branches constitute the adventitious root system eg. grasses, mangrove trees, banyan tree, sugarcane etc. Adventitious roots are mostly surface feeders. Even te CON Rel CONE Roots may be modified in order to carry on some special functions. These functions differ from the normal functions assigned to roots eg. storage, assimilation, additional support ete. PRU stereo d Normal tap roots may undergo modifications in order to perform additional functions like storage of food and water, respiration, perennation, vegetative ‘propagation etc. Storage tap roots are described below: (a) Storage or fleshy tap roots. Here the roots are modified for the storage of food. Food is stored in primary root, as a result it gets swollen. Sometimes ‘hypocotyl (embryonic region between cotyledons and radicle) also stores the food. Stem in these cases is present in the form of reduced narrow green disc. The leaves appearing from this reduced stem are called as radical leaves. Fleshy tap roots can be classified into following types (i) Conical. The base of the root is broad and gradually tapers towards the apex (Fig. 5 A), Secondary roots are present all over the swollen root eg. Carrot (Daucus carota). The fleshy basal part of conical root is derived from hypocotyl (i) Fusiform (Fig. 5 B). The root is swollen in the middle and gradually tapers towards both the ends imparting itaspindle shaped structure. Finer secondaryMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS: a“ Fig. 5 Fleshy (Storage) tap roots: (A) Conical fleshy tap root of carrot; (8) Fusitorm tleshy tap root ot English radish; (C) Napiform fleshy tap root ot turnip, ‘Table 1. Differences between Fusiform and Napiform root, Character Fusiform root Napiform root 1 Shape It is spindle shaped in outline Its globular or spherical in outline 2. Tapering, Apical region of root gradually tapers ‘The root suddenly tapers towards apex. 3. Example Radish Tumip roots appear from the apical part, In tum, they further bear root hairs. However, these are found to be absent on middle swollen and upper parts. These parts develop from hypocotyl eg. Radish (Raphanus satious) (iii) Napiform. This type of fleshy root is thickest at the base and takes the spherical shape. Towards lower side it suddenly thins out. In tumip, food is stored in ‘upper swollen part which is devoid of secondary roots hence develops from hypocotyl. Tap root shows its presence towards the narrow, thin apical side which bears secondary roots, e.g. Turnip (Brassica rapa) ver. Shalgam (Pig, 5C), Beet (Beta vulgaris) ven. Chuakandar, (Gv) Tuberous tap root. Root of Mimbilis (4 o’clock plant) and Trichosanties which have no definite shape and store food are called tuberous roots. (b) Nodulated (tuberculate) Roots. The secondary, tertiary or sometimes primary roots in sub-family Papilionatae of family Leguminosae eg. Gram (Cicer arietinum), Groundnut (Arachis hypogea), Barseem (Crfotium alexandrianum) and Pea (Pisum satrown) bear small nodule like swellings (Fig, 6) The root nodules or tubercles contain nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium Jegumiosurum). These bacteria are able to convert free atmospheric nitrogen into organic compounds of nitrogen and the process is called nitrogen fixation. Bacteria and leguminous plant show the phenomenon of mutual benefit exhibiting symbiosis. These plants increase the fertility of soil by adding nitrates after the death of these roots. (¢) Pneumatophores or respiratory roots. Such roots, are found in plants growing in mangroves or swamps near thesea-shoree.¢. Rhizophora, Feritiera(vern.Sundri), Sonneratia and Avicinnea. At the base of horizontal roots, absorbing roots are present. Pneumatophores arise vertically upwardsand come out of soil and water. They bear small pores called pneumathodes or lenticels over their apical region for ‘exchange of gases (Fig. 6B). Adventitious roots do not appear from radicle of embryo, instead they arise from other parts of plant. ‘They may appear from parts like stem or leaves. They are normally fibrous and surface feeders but some may be adapted for special functions like storage, support, assimilation etc. Some of the important types are as und (a) Fibrous roots. They may appear due to repeated branching of radicle. These rootsare thin, almost of equal length, thread-like and arise from the base of erect stem or nodes of horizontal stem. As they do not go deep into the coil, they behave ac eurface feeders, They appear in clusters (Fig. 7) and perform the functions of fixation and absorption eg. Wheat (Triticum), grass and maize. (b) Fleshy adventitious roots. As in tap roots, sometimes adventitious roots also become swollen and thick due to storage of reserve food. They can be further classified into following types:A Fig. 6. A. Nodulated root of a legume; B, Peumatophores with lenticels (b) Tubercular (Single Root Tubers) (Fig. 8). When the roots become spindle shaped due to storage of food but are found singly eg. sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). ‘The root tubers of sweet-potato also bear adventitious buds from which new plants can develop. Such roots are also called reproductive roots. roots of Dali; Soup) Fig. 9. Prop roots of banyan, MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI sovgemous ig, 7. Fibrous adventitious root system, (6) Prop roots. These are large pillar-like roots, which appear from large horizontal branches in trees like banyan (Ficus benghalensis). These adventitious roots grow downwards, which may finally enter into soil. These roots are provided with root caps. These hanging roots change their colour from brown to red after absorbing water from atmosphere. As they look ike pillars, hence called as Pillar roots (Fig, 9). Sometimes these pillar roots and main stem are of same thickness, ‘They support or prop up the horizontal branches like pillars. Even the main trunk may die and prop roots fully replace it. With the help of prop roots banyan tree can spread over a large area and becomes almost immortal. In small tees like serewpine (Pendants odoretissimus) (Fig. 10B) which appear on the edges of tanks, marshes e Fig. 10. A. Stilt roots in Maize, B. Prop or pillar roots in Pansdanus (screw pine); C. Multiple root cap in Pandavas.WoRPHOLOGY OF FLOWERNG PLANTS na © In Dalia and Asparagus, fascicled or fasciculated roots are present which swell up due to storage of food and are fotmnd in chisters. ‘© Moniform or beaded roots are present in Moniondica and Vitis where roots get thickened at regular intervals giving bead like appearance of necklace. © The fleshy adventitious roots in Oreltis and Aconitum assume plam (human hand) like appearance hence called palmate roots. ‘In Curcuma (Turmeric) swelling occur only near the tips. They are called as nodulose roots. Buttress roots are present in plants like Fics, Bombay, Terininatia where they appear from basal parts ‘of main stem. They are vertically elongated and horizontally pressed. etc., where anchorage is not very strong, pillar roots appear on the shoot of this plant which grow obliquely. ‘These roots bear several large overlapping root caps called multiple root caps (Fig. 10C) uso (@) Stilt roots or brace roots. In plants like Maize (Zea mays) (Fig. 1A), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), Sorghum and Bajra (Pennisetum typhoies) stilt roots appear from the basal nodes near the soil. They grow downwards and fix the erect stem with soil to provide extra support. They behave as ropes of a tent. Such roots are called stilt or brace roots. These plants have slender, ‘weak, tall unbranched jointed stems called culms. () Parasitic or haustorial roots. A plant may be total parasite (eg. Cuscuia) Fig. 114,C) or partial parasite (eg. Viscunt album and Loranthus). Cuscuta, a total parasite shows achlorophyllous long stem, with reduced scale leaves. Being nomgreen, it camot manufacture the food. For its food and water supply it depends upon hosts like Zizypluis, Duranta, Populus etc. The haustorial roots come in contact with the xylem and phloem of the host, and as a result water and food supply of host is diverted towards the parasite. Viscum (Mistletoe), a partial parasite absorbs only water and mineral elements, from the host plant. Plant being green is capable of Fig, 11, Parasitic roots. A. Total parasite of Cuseuta;B. Partial DID YOU KNOW? ‘manufacturing the food (Fig. 11B). parasite of Viscum C. Host parasite relationship in TS. © FS) © Green assimilatory (photosynthetic roots) are present in plants like Tintspora (ilo), Taertiophyllim, fo) Paostemon and Trape (singhara). A) © Some times roots at nodes store gases and become inflated thus help in floating on the surface of 54 roots. Such floating roots are present in Jussiaea (= Luutwigia) and Pistia SJ) © Epiphytlous or foliar roots are present on leaves of Begonia, Bryophyllum and Kalanchoe fe) © In Orchids like Vanda, some roots freely hang in air, they are provided with outer covering called. > ‘velamen by means of which moisture from atmosphere is absorbed. (2) © Clinging or climbing roots help the plants in climbing by penetrating the cracks of the support eg. Fat Potlias (money plant), Ficus pumila, Hedera helix, Piper betle (betel), Tecoma. ‘Table 2. Differences between Tap root and Adventitious root. Character Tap root ‘Adventitious root T. Origin | Itis formed from radicle Karis from any part of plant other than radicle. 2 Position | Its always underground, Itmay be underground or aerial. 3. Number| It has a single primary root. Other roots are] Cluster of roots may be present. ‘bore in acropetal succession. 4. Life | Primary root persists throughout the life. | Primary potis soon replaced by adventitious roots, hence shortlived. 5. Depth | is generally deep feeder. Ttis underground, such roots are usually surface feeders8 3 z ‘Table 3. Differences between Prop and Stilt roots. Prop roots ava ‘enon 89 ‘Spry ‘opus 39 oor snsudida spor nS 7, “Appear from basal nodes of main stem. Provide support just like ropes of a tent. Sugarcane, maize, Pennisetum, Sorghum Comparatively shorter Develop obliquely i) Hi) | SSS 3 Sulsw sour oreneoy EE ma eed sjoor BaHeOL 'T ‘sy001 doy “T (suop>umy T4209) Very lengthy ‘001 snonnuaspy pe sLoou Character (ods exweypon 33) (eayieg) vowel foun ‘ong Bs onnd 9 ‘seni zeman ve uu ‘004 porerauuy “= sain oBves > sig yeuapoms way seg B2 pt ono Suny worm ge ‘3001 paIEIMpON 9 ‘spp gman sag, oye momy ‘ey 39 ‘yoo! pairmose Z ‘sod peg od ane F ‘sxanos?foaneoa deg A OK “Bava Soa, ‘3001 sO! "1 mining “5 rondipopo ey _adeysamutap morn, aL (pur ong) yates 9 (P0010 afesos) Lae se seman Bae ‘eopou ways Susi a7 it syoutsonspe on © £ i 3 -wnghtotrg omaiog “rade spuenoy Suey LE Ogg ‘eave Jgappoe semaon Bee ‘oss 2 aan E g ‘au ways a8 _(smaygos smunydeyyy ysrpes °F a 4 ose op wo SuIsuE ‘spt side eetes BESSE Jou Ter aUPO ‘pypes wow Suna Spon ROO) soot dey, s}0or yo suns0y JuaIaSIG eau oor deMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS odostemon isa plant made up only of roots. It has some roots called haptera fo fixing to the ground. The part of the plant that develops from radicle is calle primary root. Lateral roots are endogenous iv. arise from pericycle ‘while lateral shoots arise exogenously ie. arse from cortex. In hyirophytes instead of root cap, a root pocket is present eg. Pistia, Lemma. Seminal roots are new roots growing near the base of radicle in monocots. ‘© Root cap is continuously produced from root apex. © Once lst, root pockets cannot be regenerated. FUNCTIONS on Main o primary functions 1 Anchorage. They help in fixing the plant firmly with the soil. 2. Absorption of water and minerals. The roots absorb water and mineral salts 3. Prevention of soil erosion. It binds the soil. Secondary functions 1. Root floats. They help in floating eg. Jussiaea. 2. Reproductive roots. They can help in multiplication otplantze. vegetative propagation e.g sweet potato and Dahlia 3. Hygroscopic roots. They can absorb the water from atmosphere with the help of special tissue velamen eg. Vania, Vail 4. Assimilatory roots. They help in synthesis of food eg, Padastemon, Tinospora 5. Respiratory roots. They may serve for respiration eg Rhizophora, 6. Storage of food. They can store the food by becoming fleshy eg. Radish, Turnip, Dalia etc. 7. Helping plants to climb. They may help inclimbing the weak stem eg. Potios, Tecoma and Ivy. 8, Providing additional support. Prop roots and stilt roots provide additional support to plants ¢.. Ficus benghalensis, Pandanus, Zen mays etc. 9. Mycorthizae. Some roots bear fungal hyphae to form mycorthizae. Such roots help in absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus from organic sources eg, Pinus and Quercus. 10, Haustorial roots. In plants like Cuscute, roots penetrate the host stem to obtain food and water, thus behaving as haustorial roots. Stem is the main axis of shoot system of plants. It can be defined as the ascending part of shoot axis which is negatively geotropic, positively phototropic {In Wolffia—a floating plant (smallest angiosperm) and Usriculria-a submerged hydrophyt, there are no roots. Roots of some plants: like Pinus bear fengal hyphae and do not have root hair and rot caps, Such roots are called mycorrhizal roots. Velamen a spongy tissue on roots is characteristic of epiphytes. and develops from plumule of embryo. There are two chief functions of stem: 1. Conduction of water, mineral and food material. 2. Production and support of leaves and reproductive structures. A stem with its leaves is called shoot. Entire stem. ‘withallitsbranchesand leavesisknownasshootsystem, Stems usually grow above the soil and termed as aerial stems, Sometimes the stem may remain underground to be called as underground or subterranean stem, There are examples where the stem is weak, becomes prostrate ‘and trails on the ground. In a few cases this weak stem ‘may twine around a support or climb with the help of me special climbing organ as tendril, thorn, hook, ine etc. In all these cases aerial stems are not strong ‘enough to become erect. stem is differentiated into ‘nodes and internodes which alternates with each other. Leaves arise from nodes. Internode isthe portion of stem ‘between two nodes. Nodes are usually recognised by the presence of leaves. But in some cases as bamboo the nodes become very distinct and exhibit clear joints. The internodes of such jointed stems are called culms. Characteristics of stem 1. Stem bears leaves, flowers and fruits. 2. Itrepresents the ascending part of the shoot axis 3. Stem isnormally positively phototropicin nature, 4. It bears distinct nodes and internodes. 3. Stem bears buds. 6. ‘The branches and leaves appear exogenously on. stem. 7. It may bear multicellular hairs on external surface. 8. Scale leaves or advent on stem, Bud can be defined as young undeveloped shoot consisting of a short stem and a number of tender leaves arching over the growing apex. jous roots may appearOr Bud is a compact young shoot consisting of short stem overlapped by crowded immature leaves which are surrounding the growing point. ‘The buds are generally small but in some buds, ike that of cabbage (Fig. 12.C) (Brassica oleracea var. captata) are quite large. In the upper angle between the point of juncture of a leaf stalk, with a stem is located, as rule, a bud. The angle between the leaf stalk and the stem is termed the leaf axil. Bud found in leaf axil is called axillary (Fig. 124). Since they are found along the sides ‘ofa stem, they come under the category of lateral buds. ‘APICAL GROWING PONT AcceSsoRY BUD scuLAR Tissue ‘axusary 6u0 MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! Sometimes some extra buds are found by the sides of axillary bud and are known as accessory buds (Fig. 12A). Occasionally buds appear at places other than leaves. Such buds are called adventitious, The adventitious buds may appear on stem (cauline) from roots (radical) or from leaves (epiphyllous) (Fig. 13) ‘They sometimes develop as a result of injury. In naked buds the meristematic tissue is exposed to air without any protective covering other than rudimentary leaves. In some plants the buds are covered with overlapping, scales. known as bud scales. These scales protect the ‘meristematic tissue from desiccation FOUAGE LEAVES Fig. 13, Buds A. Accessory bud in Duranta B. Bud scale on scaly bud of Ficus C. Winter buds D. Adventitious buds ‘on tuberous roots of sweet potato E. and E Adventitious buds on leaves of Bryoplyllum and Begonia respectively.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS (On the basis of activity, buds may be active or dormant. Dormant buds usually remain inactive. They during unfavourable season do not give branches. Buds differ also in the nature of structures wihich are produced by them. They may be flower buds, which produce only flowers. They are called vegetative buds, or branch buds when they grow into new length of twigs bearing leaves. They are mixed buds when they sproutto produce twigs bearing both leaves and flowers, Fleshy buds which take part in vegetative reproduction are called bulbils eg. Agave. Fleshy buds functioning, in perennation in aquatic plants are called turions eg. Potamogeton, Buds may also be modified into tendrils eg, Passiflon or thorns eg. Durant, Roe Based on branching plants may be classified into four categories (@ Culm. The stem is unbranched showing distinct nodes and internodes imparting ita jointed appearance eg. Bambusa arundinacea (bamboo). (i) Columnar (Caudex) (Fig. 144). In such eases trunk is unbranched erect, cylindrical and marked with scars and remnants of fallen leaves. It bears a crown of leaves at its apex. eg. Fan palm (Borassus flabellifer), Nut palm vem. Supari (Areca catechu) and coconut (Cocos nucifera). (ii) Excurrent, In such cases lateral branches donot compete with growth of main stem. Branches appear actopetally. Thus a tree receives cone-like appearance eg. Pinus, Casurina, Eucalyptus (Fig. 14B), (iv) Decurrent or deliquescent, When some of the lateral branches grow more vigorously, the trunk disappears after some distance due to suppression of 18 cAUDEX. 8 EXCURRENT growth of terminal bud, the form is called decurrent eg. Mango (Mangifera indica), Shisham (Datbergia) and. Banyan (Ficus benghalensis) (Fig. 14C). (v) Scape. Naked flowering stem arising from the ground without leaves is called scape e.g, Onion (Allin cepa) and banana (Musa paradisiaca). (vi) Climbers. Such plants attach themselves to nearby objects by means of some special structures like tendrils eg, wild pea, hooks e.g, Bougaincillen Roeeienekemeaite) Along with erect forms of stems such as culm, columnar, excurrent and decurrent types, the stems are of three kinds : (a) Reduced stems, (b) Underground stems, and (©) Weak stems. (A) REDUCED STEMS The stem is highly reduced in the form of a disc and lies above the base of the root. Nodes and intemodes are not distinguishable and leaves appear ‘crowded together on these stems eg. Daucus carota (Carrot), Raphunus satious (Radish) and Brassica rap (Tumip). Leaves appearing on reduced stem are called radical leaves. (8) UNDERGROUND STEMS Mostly herbaccous plants are shot living annuals because they find it difficult to survive above ground during unfavourable seasons of the year. However, during unfavourable season when aerial parts die, “underground parts remain safe. They usually store food and can be vegetatively propagated. Such underground stems are specially adapted for perennation (to tide Over the unfavourable season). The underground stem though non-green in colour can be easily distinguished from root by the presence of DDELIQUESCENT © Fig. 14. Types of trees A. Caudex; B. Excurrent; C. Decurrent or deliquescent(a) Nodes and internodes. (b) Scaly leaves. (©) Axillary and terminal buds. There are four principal kinds of underground stems. viz, rhizome (Root stock), corm, bulb and tuber. ‘Rhizome. Rhizome or rootstock isa dorsiventral, horizontal stem growing beneath the surface of soil Though erroneously known as root stock, rhizomes are strictly stem in the sense that they bear nodes and internodes. They bear scaly leaves, axillary buds and often bear roots at their nodes. Rhizomes are perennial ctructures. During favourable ceacon, come of their buds develop into leafy shoots, while others form new subterranean shoots. Rhizomes produce adventitious, roots in profusion. Its direction is usually horizontal, bbut in some cases it grows in vertical direction (root stock) or obliquely placed and unbranched eg. Musa ‘parailsiaca (Banana) and Dryopteris (Fern). Rhizomes are usually fleshy due to storage of food. ‘The rhizome which is placed horizontally and usually branched iscalled straggling rhizome. The branching of sthizome may be racemose constituting monopodial axis, thizome eg. Saccharum aurndinaceum, Lotus. Branching, is cymose giving the appearance of sympodial axis, thizome eg. Zingiber officinale (ginger) (Fig. 15 D) and Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Canna indica (Fig. 15 A) and water lily. 2 Corm, Corm is short, thick and unbranched underground stem with stored food material. It grows, vertically and covered by thin sheathing leaf bases of dead leaves called scales. The corm bears buds at AERIAL Shoot SCALE LEAVES ADvENTMOUS ROOTS. EMERGED LEAF PETOLE PHZOME 2 Hy awveninous ‘ROOTS Poros ‘ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS: MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! their nodes. These buds are responsible for giving off adventitious roots. Corm serves the functions of food storage, vegetative propagation and perennation. Corm is more or less rounded in shape or often somewhat flattened from top to bottom. Corm is found in Amorphophatlus (Kanda) (Fig. 16D), Alocusia, Gladiolus, Colocasia (Kachalu), Crocus (Saffron vern. kesar) (Fig. 160), Colchicunt (Meadow saffron) Zamikand, and Freesia (Fig. 16A). The nodes in all these cases are circular. Axillary buds in Colocasia (Fig. 16B) are very prominent. 3. Bulb. Gulb may be regarded as a short ‘underground stem with fleshy leaf base called scales. ‘Stem is very much reduced and becomes disc like. The discoid stem is convex or conical in shape and bears highly compressed intemodes. These node bear fleshy scales. On the upper side, disc bears terminal bud surrounded by number of leaves. The axillary buds are present between the axis of leaves. The adventitious roots are borne on the lower side of the disc. The bulbs are of two types: (a) Tunicated () Sealy. (a) Tunicated. In tunicated bulb, the scale leaves overlap one another with a dry scale called tunic on the outer side. Bulb is called simple tunicated or layered when thescale leavesare arranged ina concentricmanner and form a series of rings. Axillary buds are bome in the axils of fleshy scales. Such bulbs are surrounded by a common sheath of membranous structure tunic on ‘outer side e.g. Allium cepa (onion) (Fig. 17), Narcissus AERIAL OLD SHOOTS HIZOME SCAR OF LAST — YEARS SHOOT SCALE LEAF Fig. 15. Rhizome. A. Cana; B. Lotus (Nelumbium; C. Kanna (Saccharum aurndinaceun); D. Ginger.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS FOUAGELEAF ope INTERNODE. CORMOF AXILLARY: KNextvEAR BUD SCALE LEAF, DAUGHTER CORMS, SCALE LEAF ‘ou corm Fig. 16, Corms, A. Freesia; B. Colocasia; C. Crocus; D. Amorphophallus; B. Alocasia. and Tulipa (Tulip). Compound tunicated bulbs as in Allium satioum (garlic) (Fig. 17D) buds become fleshy. ‘They bear their individual tunics. Such fleshy buds are called bulblets or cloves. These concentric rings of tunicated bulblets aren tum surrounded by overlapping unico, That is why ouch type of bulbs are ealled a compound tunicated bulbs (b) Sealy or imbricate, In such cases scale leaves: hy EMoAVONC LEAVES INFLORESCENCE ax GROWING sy.scer € frurruneo prec: ‘TUN ADVENTITIOUS > ROOTS AX (i) ro ‘are not concentric. Scale leaves are narrow, small and. separated. They are loosely arranged and overlap each other only at their margins. They lack enveloping tunic eg. Lilium buibifera (Lily) (Fig. 176). 4. Tuber. When the underground stem becomes enlarged at the growing tips by the accumulation of stored food, commonly starch, tubers are produced eg. Solar tuberosum (Potato) (Fig. 18). The eyes of potato CCONCENTAIG FLESHY ‘SCALE LEAF XLLARY BUD ise ‘ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS. : Fig. 17. Bulb, A. Entire bulb of Onion; B. LS. Onion bulb; C.S. Onion bulb; D. Compound ‘tunicated bulb of Garlic; E. LS. Bulblot;E TS. bulb of Garlic; G. Scaly bulb of Lily.MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI SCAROF_evE SGALE BAF] GERNINATING ‘EYE BUD e ; i SoaLe Lene nob, Ny Fig. 18. Tuber (Potato). A. Stom tuber formation; B. Potato tuber; C. Enlarged eye; D. Stem tuber of Helianthus tuberosus are nodes at each of which 1-3 buds are produced in the axils of small scaly like leaves. Tubers are responsible for storing the food. At the skin of potato a number of lenticels are present which help in gaseous exchange, Potatoes are propagated by cutting of tubers. Each piece of tuber should contain an eye or node for vegetative propagation. The eyes are more crowded towards distal end (rose end) and tuber is terminated by an apical bbud. The point of attachment of the tuber to stem is represented by a scar which lies opposite to the apical bud. Tubersare also found in Cyperus rotundus, Felianthus iuberosus and Stachys tuberifer. Initially adventitious roots are absent on tubers butat the time of germination, eye buds develop into small shoots from the bases of which adventitious roots appear. Beobuauan Oe! In such cases the stems are delicate, thin, weak and unable to stand erect. They cannot expose their leaves to sunlight while competing with erect plants, To overcome thisproblem they may grow prostrate on ground or climb ‘up on support as climbers and thus can be classified as (i) Prostrate weak stems and (ii) Climbing weak stems (i Prostrate weak stems Sometimes the stems are thin, delicate, weak and are unable to stand erect. They may grow prostrate on. ground or may become buried in the top soil. These branches bear adventitious mots and aerial branches at their respective nodes. These plants can be propagated easily by means of fragments oF special branches. Such plants are usually known as creepers. They are of following types 1. Runner 2, Sucker 3. Stolon 4. Offset 5. Trailer 1. Runner. It grows prostrate in all directions above the soil level. Nodes bear scale leaves. It has a creeping stem with long intemodes. On the lower sides, nodes bearadventitious roots. Runner develops from the axils of lower leaves of aerial stem which sends slender horizontal branches in the form of runners. When older parts of plant die, the branches separate from parent plantand form independent plantse.g. Cyriadon dactyion (Doob grass) (Fig, 19) and Oualis (Fig, 19B), Fig. 19. A. Runner of grass B. Runner of wood sorrel (Ovi)MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS: Fig. 20. A. Sucker of mint; B. Sucker of Chrysiithenaun. 2, Sucker. Sucker like runner develops from the nodes of horizontal or vertical branch of main stem. Butiit usually moves horizontally below the soil. It also develops from the axis of scaly leaves from axillary buds. Adventitious roots develop from lower side of nodes. Some of the branches come above the soil obliquely and produce green leaves to form aerial shoots. So the sucker can be rightly called as underground runner, eg. Chrysanthemum (Fig. 20B) and Mentha (Mint) (Fig. 20). Some authors consider mint as a runner. Sucker is more shorter and stouter than a runner. 3.Stolon. Itisa slenderlateral branch which appears from the lower part of main axis. This lateral branch ‘grows aerially for some distance and becomes arched and finally touches the ground to give rise to new shoot with the help of its terminal bud. It also bears roots to get fixed with the soil eg. Fragaria (wild strawberry) (Fig, 21), Jasininum Jasmine) and peppermint. Fig. 21 Stolon of Strawberry (Fragaria). 4. Offset. Offset is more shorter and thicker. It is usually found in aquatic plants like Eichhornia (water hyacinth) and Pistia (Fig. 22). An offset bears a caster of leaves near the water or ground level and gives adventitious roots inside water or ground fromall nodes. Fig, 22. Offset. A. Pistia; B. Eichorna, Fee en enoaerise! (i) Climbing weak stems They te uf uve Kinls—twinets, lianas an climbers 1. Twiners. The stem is long, flexible and go up twining around the support by a special type of growth movement which makes the stem coil around the support eg. Dolichos lablab (Sem) (Fig. 23), Comaotoutus arvensis and Ipomoea quamoclit. The twining may be clockwise or anticlockwise.2. Lianas. They are thick and woody twiners in which the young stems are sensitive and flexible and coil around the supporte g. Baul aati, Tinospora, Hiptage. 3. Climbers. The weak stems climb upwards with the help of various parts which act as climbing organs MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! (a) Tendril climbers. Tendrilsare green thread: sensitive structures which can coil around the support and help the weak stemmed shoots to climb up. Tendrils, may be modified stems (Fig. 25) or leaf (Fig. 37). (b) Root climbers. The weak stem cling to the support by adventitious roots eg. Pothos (money plant), Tecoma, Hiedera nepatensis (Ivy), Piper beile (Fig. 24). eg. tendrils, spines, thoms, hooks and roots. They may be classified into following types : Fig. 23. A. Twiners of Dolichos lalab, B. Comrotoulus ig. 24. Root climbers. A. Piper betle B. Hedera nepalensis (Ivy). Madifications of stom Rhizome Subterranean, ‘grows horizontally; eg., Ginger (Zinger ofcinale), Turmeric Taber Swollen stem tip, axillary buds present; 2g. Potato (Solaniom tuberosum) Comm Sub-terranean, grows vertically; 8; Gladiolus, saffron, Colocasia, Crocus, Alocasia Bulb ‘Stem condensed, leaves scaly and fleshy 8, Onion (Allure cepn), Garlic (Allium satiou) ol I. Underground modifications —1. Runner Prostate creeping, rooting at nodes; eg, doobgrass, Oxalis [2 sucker Arises from basal underground stem, grows obliquely upwards: eg, Meth, Chrysanthemum Stolon Sub-terranean, roo’s at nodes and gives off aerial branches; eg, Foagoria, Jasminum Offset IL. Sub-aerial modifications Internodes short and thick, group of leaves at nodes; 8, Water Hyacinth (Eichhormia)MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS [— 1. Tends Thin, wiry, leafles, spirally coiled structures; eg, Pasiffora, grapevine [2 Thora Hard, straight, pointed axillary branch; eg, Duranta, Cras MM, Aerial [- 5. Photocade modifications. —— Stem modified into leaflke structures; eg,, Opuntia [— 4. Cladode Phylloclade of one or two intemodes; eg. Asparagis, Ruscus 5, Bubil Modified vegetative o floral buds, eg, Diosoren ‘Table 4. Differences between Runner and Sucker Character Runner Sucker 1. Nature Runners a prostrate, aerial green stem. ‘Sucker is almost underground, non-green stom. 2 Internodal | Its the main axis of plant with long internodes. | is only the specialised branch of main axisand Tength bears short intemodes. 3 Reproduction | is only helpful in vegetative propagation, eg.| Itishelpful in vegetative propagation as well as aay perennation eg Mint ‘Table 5. Differences between Stem and Root. Character Stem Root 1. Origin 1 develops from plumale, Itdevelops from radiele. 2 Leaves and buds | tr bears leaves and bus. Itdloes not bear leaves and buds. 3. Nodes and internodes | Nodes and intemodes present. Nodes and internodes absent 4. Hairs Hie if present are multicellular. Root hair are unicellular 5, Root cap No cap present at the apex. Root cap prosent atthe apex. 6 Colour ‘Often green in colour Never gren in colour 7. Origin of branches | Branches have exogenous origin Branches have endogenous origin, 8. Phototropism and | Itispositively phototropicandnegatively | It is negatively phototropic and positively ‘peotropism sgeotrople. scot 9, Formation Stem usually forms shoot system in| Root usually forms root system in the soil the ale ‘Table 6. Differences between Rhizome and Corm. Character Rhizome Comm 1 Position ‘Underground stem iswelldeveloped, gener-| Underground stem is not well developed and. ally well branched rarely unbranched. | unbranched. 2. Nodes and internodes | Stom and branches bear distinct nodes and | Nodes and intemodes are distinct but internodes. circular 3. Storage Food material is stored in enti stem | Food material is stored in main stem. and branches. 4. Adventitious roots 5. Buds 6. Seale leaves 7. Storage in scale leaves rage ‘8. Duration of scale leaves 9. Examples. “Adventitious roots arise from the part which. is in touch with soil to keep the rhizome in. horizontal position. Budsareboenein the axils of dry scale leaves. Scale leaves are thin, brownish and ‘membranous. Scale leaves co not store food material Scale leaves are persistent in nature. Examples of rhizome are fern, ginger, etc. Adventitious roots may arise all over the body to keep the corm in vertical position. Buds are bore in the axils of scale. Seale leaves are thin, membranous and brownish. ‘Scale leaves do not store the food. In corms also, scale leaves are persistent. Examples of corms are Colocasia, Crocus et.MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! ‘Table 7. Differences between Tuber and Bulb. Character Tiber Bab 1 Size “The stem is well developed. ‘Stem is reduced fo form a disc 2. Branching ‘Tuber is unbranched. Bulb is also unbranched. 3, Storage Food material is stored in apices of branches. | Food materials stored in scale leaves, buds etc. ‘4. Adventitious roots 5. Under ground Adventitious roots are not present but they appear when it is sown in soil Main stem gives underground sucker-like Adventitious roots are present at the base of seduced stem to keep the bulb vertical in thes. Branchos are absont. branches branches. Tips ofthese branches store foc and. swell up to form tubers 6. Nodes Distinct nodes are present in the form of eyes | Distinct nodes and internodes are con tubers. absent. 7. Scale leaves Scale leaves in eyes are thin, membranous and | Bases of leaves become fleshy to store the food. brown. ‘Outermost scale leaf forms covering to consti- tute tunic. 8, Examples Examples of tubers are potato and Heliantius | Examples of bulb are onion and garlic. tuberosus ‘Table 8, Differences between Stem tuber and Root tuber. ‘Character ‘Stem tuber Root tuber T Nature Teisa swollen underground stem. This a swollen root 2. Position ‘They are borne at the tips of underground | They develop adventitious roots from any part stem branches. of the stem. 3. Roots ‘Stem tubers do not bear any rocts, Many finer root branches may arise from it. 4 Nodes and internodes They are differentiated into nodes and internodes. Nodes and internodes are absent. 5. Fyes, buds Eachnode is represented by an eye. Itconsists | Scaly leaves and axillary buds are absent. How= ofascaly leaf with que urimoreaillary buds. | eves, edveutitivus buds ay Le preset 6. Apical bud ‘An apical bud is present. Apical bud is absent. 7. Chlorophyll ‘On exposure to light, the stem tubers may | Chlorophyll does not develop in a root develop chlorophyll. tuber 8, Resemblance ‘Anatomically, it resembles a stem. Anatomically, it resembles moot. Table 9. Differences between Twiner and Climber. ‘Character Twiner Climber T. Response “Twinor is sensitive fo contact “Climber is not sensitive to contact 2. Specialised organ 3. Climbing organ [No specialised climbing structures appear fon twiners ‘Twiner climbs by twining (coiling) around the support. Specialised climbing structures appear on climbers. ‘Climbing organs such as tendrils, thorns, spines, Prickles, hooks etc. help in climbing on the support. (©) Hook climbers. In Bignonia unguis cati (Fig, 40R) throo terminal modified into claw-Hike climbing, (a) Spine or Thorn climbers. In such cases (Fig. 26), the climbing organs are thoms, prickles or some other spiny structures, They help the plants to climb up eg. Climbing Asparagus (with leaf spi axillary thorns), Calamus climbers are also known as Scramblers. Eran ome The stem may be modified to perform diverse Ihaflots af comporind loaf are hooks which help the plant in" «) © F @ rose (with curved prickles), ines), Bougainoillea (with extra (ovith leaf sheath spines). Thorn (spring of stem, Followingare the few importantstem modificatior 1. Stem tendrils. The weak stems climb up with the help of thread-like greenish, sensi called as tendrils. They are slender and spirally coiled functions according to specific requirements of a plant. Such modified stems can be recognised by : ‘exogenous type of branching by presence of leaves and buds by their axillary origin by their internal structure. fe structures like structures). A tendril may be a modification 1 branch, a leaf or part of leaf.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Fig. 25. Stom tendrils. A. Passflora, B. Cucurbita. C. Grapevine. D. Antigonon. Some stem tendrils are : (a) Axillary branch tendril eg. Passifora (passion flower) (Fig, 25A). (b) Extra axillary branch tendril eg. Cucurbita, cucumber, pumpkin, watermelon etc. (Fig, 258). (©) Sympodial axis tendril e.g. Vitis vinifera (grapevine) (Fig. 25C). (d) Floral bud tendhil eg. Antigonun (Fig. 25D). 2. Stem thorns. Sometimes the stem branches which appear from axillary buds are deprived of their normal growth and are modified into sharp pointed structures called thorns. Thoms are deep seated structures with vascular connections. Prickles represent the superficial ‘outgrowths on epidermis. Spines are usually modified leaves or part of leaves. Thoms are very commonly found on plants like Citrus (Fig, 26 C), Bougainoillea (Fig, 26D), Durante (Fig, 264), Flacourtia (Fig. 26E) and Aegle marmelos. THORN 3. Phylloclade. Itisa green, flattened or cylindrical stem which takes the form and function of leaf. They contain chlorophyll and are responsible for carrying on photosynthesis, It bears succes-sion of nodes and ‘ntemodes at long or short intervals. Phylloclades are found in xerophytic plants where the leaves either grow fecbly or fall off early or modified into spines eg. Opuntia (Fig. 27), Mueltenbeckia (Cocoloba) (Fig. 27D), Eviphutlun, (Fig. 27 C), Euphorbia rovleana (Fig, 278) and Casurina etc. In Opwrtia (ern, Chittarthor) the stem is green and leaf-like, It is flattened, fleshy, thick, jointed structure which appears in the axil of ‘caducous leaf on node. This phylloclade shows raised areas called areoles. On areoles one or two long spines and stiffened fine hair bristles or glochidia are present. ‘The spines are modified leaves of suppressed axillary branch. The stem-like nature of phylloclade can be confirmed by : (a) axillary position (b) by presence of flowers and fruits on it, -H0RN wmceo Peo sreu en ORANCHED "THORN Fig. 26. Stem thorns A. Duranta; B. Carissa; C. Citrus; D. Bougainvilen; B. Flacourtia Aegle marmeles.MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! Fig. 27, Phyllociades A. Opuntie; B. Euphorbia royeana;C. Epphyllum; D. Cocoloba (Muchleecia) 4, Cladode. Phylloclade with one or two internodes, is called cladode e.g. Asparagus, Ruscus actleatus. In Asparagus (Fig. 28A) cladodes are needle-like, slightly flattened green structures which appear in cluster in the axil of a scaly leaf. Main stem bears leaf spines at its nodes. A scale leaf is found just above the spine. Every branch on main stem bears only scale leaves. In the axil of scale leaves cluster of cladodes appear. Ruscus (Fig, 28B) is another interesting example of cladode which looks very much like leaf. In this case a Cladode develops in the axil of scaly leat. The stem-like nature of this leaf-like cladode can be confirmed by the presence of scale leaf and floral bud. 5. Bulbil, Bulbil (Fig. 29) is the modification of vegetative or floral bud e.g, Agave and Globia, It is ‘swollen due to storage of food. It can function as an organ of vegetative propagation e.g. Dioscorea bulbiera and Oxalis, In Ouatis, bulbils are formed at the tip of tuberous roots. In Agave and onion (Ait cepa), bulbils are found on inflorescence and represent the modified flowers. in A. Primary or main functions 1. It supports and holds leaves, flowers and fruits. 2, Leaves are borne on stem in such a fashion FLOWER BUD, SCALE LEAF Fig. 28. A. Cladode of Asparagus; B. Cladode of Ruscus. ‘Table 10. Differences between Phylloclade and Cladode. Phylloclade Both main axis and itsbranches get mod fed into flat, leaf like phylloclades. T. Modification 2 Internode ‘They areusually of unlimited growthand ‘bear many internodes. 3. Leaves ‘True leaves are caducous in nature. Cladode ‘Only the branches get modified into leaf like cladodes. ‘Cladodes exhibit the definite or limited growth, and are usually with one internode, ‘True leaves are reduced either to scales or modi- fied to form spines.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS. that they are able to carry on the important function efficiently just like to receive the light and to carry on the gaseous exchange (Fig. 29), 3. The stem conducts the water and minerals from roots to leaves and fruits. 4. Stem bears flowers and fruits in position to facilitate the processes of pollination and fertilization. B. Secondary or Accessory functions 1. Perennation. The underground stems as in Dryopterts, Zingiber, Curcuma help the plants to tide over the unfavourable conditions. 2. Storage of food. Food is stored in parenchymatous cells and underground stems eg. Colocasia, Sofamum tuberosim (Potato), ginger etc. 3. Photosynthesis, When modified into phylloclade and cladode eg. Opuntia, Asparagus and Ruscis, young, leaf like flattened stems help in photosynthesis. 4. Vegetative propagation, Stem can be used for vegetative propagation as in case of runners (eg. Grass), stolons (Strawberry), offsets (Eictihornia) and underground stems (e.g. Potato, Ginger ete.) 5. Protection against browsing. By developing thoms, stem protects the plants from grazing animals. 6. As climbers. The stems may be modified into tendrils, hooks, thoms etc. to climb eg. Passiffora, Bougaincillen and Vitis vinifera Fig. 29. Bulbil. Leaves are the food manufacturing ongans of the plant. All food used by living organisms of all kinds (except few species of bacteria) are products of leaves and other green parts. Leaves are most important appendages of aerial plants. A leaf isa lateral flattened, green structure borne ona node. Though occasionally they are needle-like oF scale-like as in pines and junipers. At the top of stem, there is a mass of cells which divide frequently called shoot meristem. The cells constituting this region are small, isodiametricand thin walled. Leaves initiate from the shoot meristem as leaf primordia and gradually cealarge, as they grow further. ‘The green food making leaves of plants are termed foliage leaves. A typical foliage leaf (Fig. 30) consists of leaf stalk or petiole, expanded portion at the end of petiole is called blade or lamina. Leaf base is the lowermost part of leaf by which leaf is attached with node. In some cases leaf base becomes swollen to form ig. 30, Parts of a leat Cyamadon (doo grass) ic 9 eavrgroen herb (zorewnial) Ulex bears both stem thorns and leaf spines. Only first internode is tuberous in Bulbophyllum. Whole ste is tuberous in knol-kll Woolly climber or twiner is called Fiana, Suckers developing in Musa are known as Sword suckers. A plant with reduced stem or without a stem called acaulescent, Sobole is underground runner of Andropygom and Saccharum spontaneum. Pseudobull is thickened part of aerial stem (one or few internodes) in orchids and modified for storing water and other reserves.24 pulvinus(Cassia). Pulvinus is responsible for sleep movements in Miniose pudica (Touch-me-not). In some species of plants leaf base forms small green appendage called stipule at the points of juncture of petiole with stem, Stipules probably protect the leaves in young stage. leaf with stipules is called stipulate and without stipules, ex-stipulate. Some leaves lack petioles, their blades growing directly from the stem a condition described assessile. A leaf with petioleiscalled petiolate. Petioles conduct water and solutes from the stems into leaf blades and transport food manufactured in lamina or blade downward into the stem, They expose the lamina to sunlight for photosynthesis, Lamina in most of plants is flat, thin and broad swith conspicuous system of veins and veinlets forming the extemal framework of lamina or blade. Lamina is usually traversed by a prominent vein in the middle called as midrib. Veins contain the vascular tissue and act as channel for the transport of food, water and minerals. They also function as skeleton of lamina. ‘The entire network constituted by midrib, veins and veinlets in leaf blade is called venation. The side of ast MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI lamina forms the margin and tip forms the leaf apex. ‘The functions of leaf are : 1. It forms the food by the process of photosynthesis. 2. Ithelpsin gaseous exchange during respiration, 3. Water loss occurs through stomaia in leaves by transpiration, Simon) The arrangement and distribution of veins and veinlets in the leaf lamina is called venation. Veins in addition to forming the structural framework of blades, are the ultimate branches of the conducting channels which pass into leaves from vascular tissue of stem, ‘Thus veins in the leaves are made up of conducting tissue ie., xylem and phloem. There are three mam types of venation : 1. Reticulate 2. Parallel 3. Furcate ‘LReticulate venation. When the veins arerregularly distributed to form a network, itis known as reticulate venation. Itisa characteristic feature of the dicotyledons. It is of following types: BCOSE wuuncostare RETICULATE RericuLAaTe mucncosmare CONVERGENT" RETICULATE OWERGENT MutticostarE PARALLEL CONVERGENT mucricostare PARALLEL DVERGENT Fig. 31. Venation in leaves.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Reticulate innate Palate (Pipal, Jamun) —————1 Convergent Divergent (izyps) (Cucurbita) (@) Unicostate reticulate (Pinnate reticulate). A leaf with a single main midrib or costa is called unicostate reticulate. eg. Eugenia Jamun), Oleander (Kaner), Ficus religisa Peepal) Fig.31), Hibiscusand Mangifera (Mango), (b) Multicostate reticulate (Palmate reticulate) When there are two or more costae or principal veins arising from a single point. It is of two types : (i Multicostate convergent. Many principal veins curved in a curved manner from the base of blade to its apex eg. Zizyphus (Beri) (Fig, 31B). (i) Multicostate divergent. Principal or main veins areat the base of leaf and then diverge from one another. towards the margin of leaf eg. Cucurbita (Fig, 31C), Luff and Caries papaya (Papita). 2. Parallel venation. When the veins are parallel and do not form a network. such a venation is called parallel. Its of two kinds : (a) Unicostate parallel (Pinnate parallel). Thelamina hhasa single prominent midrib and from this arise lateral veins which run towards the margin eg. Banana (Fig. SID), Turmeric and Canna, (b) Multicostate parallel venation (Palmate parallel) In this case several veins run parallel to one another. It can be classified into two types : (@ Multicostate convergent. The principal veins appear from the base of lamina and converge at apex 3. Bambusa (Bamboo) (Fig. 31E), grasses. (Gi) Multicostate divergent. The main veins appear from thebase of lamina towards the manginse.g. Borasss flabelifer (Fan palm) (Fig, 31F). 3. Furcate venation. Such types of venation is present in ferns. In such cases veins divide dichotomously (Fig. 31G). The finer branches do not meet to form a reticulum or network. Exceptions. There are few exceptions to above ‘mentioned examplese.g- Monocotyledons like Dioscorea, Smilax show reticulate venation and Calophyllum (Dicotyledon) exhibits parallel venation. eo Depending upon the indentation or incision of lamina, the leaves are of two types : Parallel — Palmate Ginger, Banana) Convergent Divergent ‘Bamboo, Grass) Boras) 1. Simple leat 2. Compound leaf. 1. Simple Leaf. A simple leaf can be defined as one in which there is a single lamina, and which is, not divided completely into distinct leaflets. Or A leaf is said to be simple when its lamina is entire or is incised but the incisions do not touch the mid-tib in pinnate leaf or do not reach up to the tip. of petiole in palmate leaf. ‘The incision is called pinnate type when incision takes place from margin towards mid: ‘unicostate or pinnate lamina. The indentation or incision is called palmate type when indentation occurs from margin towards basem palmate ormulticostate lamina, incisions (Fig. 22) are of following types : (1) Fid, When the incision of the margin is half way (Pinnatifidg. Chrysanthemum (b)Palmatifide- Lufi. (2) Partite. When the incision is more than half ‘way, (a) Pinnatipartite eg. Argenione, Raphanus (Radish) (b) Palmatipartite e.g. Ricinus communis (Castor). 2. Compound Leaves (Pinnate and palmate) A leaf is called compound when incision of leaf lamina goes down to the mid-rib (rachis) or to the petiole so the leaf is broken up into number of segments called leaflets. In compound leavesthe leaflets are distinct. Leaflets remain free from one another and jointed to rachis or tip of petiole. (a) Finnate compound leaves (b) Palmate compound leaves (a) Pinnate compound leaves. In pinnately ‘compound leaf, mid-rib (rachis) bears laterally anumber of leaflets arranged alternately or in opposite manner. It is derived from simple pinnate leaf, Pinnate compotnd. leaf may be of following types (i) Unipinnate. In such cases leaf lamina divides ‘only once, Leaflets or pinnae are attached to central axis or rachis which is continuation of petiole. It is further of two kinds :Paripinnate. When the leaflets are even in number eg. Cassia, Abrus, Sesbania (Fig. 33A). Imparipinnate. When the leaflets are odd in number €- Rosa indica (Rose) (Fig. 33 B), Azadiracsta (Mangosa, Neem), Murraya (Chinese box) i) Bipinnate. In such case pinnate leaf divides twice ‘The leaflets in bipinnate leaf are called pinnules. The pinnuiles are borne on secondary axis called rachilla or MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI rachule ¢.g. Caeselpinia (Gold mohur) (Fig. 33C), Acacia (Gum tree), Mimosa pudica (Touch-me-not), Albizzia (ii) Tripinnate. When the leaf is divided thrice in a pinnate fashion ic. the secondary axes produce tertiary axes, on which the leaflets are borne. In other words, rechillae are further divided to form branches of thind order and leaflets in this case are called Pinnulules ¢g. ‘Moringa (Soanjana) (Fig. 33D), Oroxylon (Arlu). Fig. 32.1 jons of lamina, A. Entire pinnate leaf of mango B. Pinnatifed of Clrysanthermum; C. Pinnatipartite of Launaen; D. Pinnatisect of Tagetes; E. Entire Palmate leaf of Garden Nasturtium; E Palmatifid of Lufja; G. Palmatipactite of Castor; H. Palmatisect of Cannabis, LEAFLETS POE) Fig. 33 Compound leaves. A. Paripinnate leaf in Cassi B. Imparipinnate leaf in Rose; C. Bipinnate leat in Acncia; D. Tripinnate leat in Moringa and E. Decompound leaf in Coriander.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS (iv) Decompound. When a compound leaf is more than thrice pinnate eg. Coriantdrum (Fig. 33E). (b)Palmate compound leaves. In palmate compound leaf, leaflets are borne at the tip of petiole like the fingers. of palm. Tt may be : (i) Unifoliate. In unifoliate type of palmate compound leaf a single leaflet is separated from the petiole by constriction e.g. Citrus (Fig. 34). The leaf of Citrus looks like a simple leaf, however, its compound nature can be confirmed due to () presence of joint between lamina and petiole i) by many abnormal leaves, where two leaflets along with central one make their presence. So the Citrus is basicaly trifoliate compound leaf but due to suppression of two lateral leaflets, it has become tnifoliate. BLADE (LEAFLET) LATERAL LEAFLET Fig. 34, Citrus leaf (Unifoliate compound lea A. Normal; B. Abnormal with two latoral leaflets. (i) Bifoliate. Two leaflets arc jointed to the petiole eg. Hantwickia (Fig. 35), Prinsepia. vee ‘Trifoliate. Three leaflets are articulated to the petiole eg. Aegle, Medicago, Onalis, Trigonella (Methi) (Fig. 35 B). (iv) Quadrifoliate. Four leaflets are attached at the tip of petiole e.g. Marsilen (Fig. 35C), Paris quadrifoia and uals tetraphyla (¥) Multifoliate. Five or more leaflets are articulated to the tip of petiole and spread like fingers of a palm ‘eg. Bombay (Fig, 35D) and Cleome. NERO ‘The arrangement of leaves on a stem or branch is called phyllotaxy. Phyllotaxy can be defined as mode of distribution of leaves on stem, The aim of phyllotaxy is to orient the leaves in such a way that they receive maximum sunlight to perform the function of photosynthesis, It is of three main types : 1. Alternate or Spiral (Fig. 36A). When there is only ‘one leaf borne at each node, the arrangement is called spiral or alternate or acyclic e.g. Hibisces (China rose), ‘Nicotiana (Tobacco), Ficus religiosa (Peepal). Leaves are usually arranged spirally around the stem. The number of vertical rows in which leaves are arrranged is called a8 arthostichies Fig. 35 Plate compound faves. A Biflat leaf B.Tifliat lea; C. Quadifoliate leaf; D. Maltifoite lo. ig. 36, Phyllotaxy A. Alternate or spiral; B. Opposite and superposed in Quisqualis; C. Opposite and decussate in Calotros; D. Whorled in Nerium,28 2. Opposite. In opposite phyllotaxy two leaves appear at each node and lie always opposite to each other. It is further of two types (a) Opposite and Superposed. When the opposite leaves of two adjacent nodes are in the same direction i.e. two opposite leaves of one node lie exactly below those of the upper node and above those of the lower node in the same plane, the phyllotaxy is called as opposite and superposed, e.g Eugenia (Jamun), Quisquatis (Rangoon creeper) (Fig, 368) (b) Opposite and decussate. In this type of phyllotaxy the leaves of successive nodes are placed at right angle to each other and thus the leaves get arranged in four vertical rows eg. Calatropis (Ak) (Fig. 36C), Ocintum (Tulsi) and Zinnia. (©) Whorled. When three or more leaves are present at node, phyllotaxy is known as whorled or verticilate. They are bome in whorl or circle eg. Nerium (Oleander, vern, kaner) (Fig. 36D), Alstonia, Gatium. MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! Rene a Ninian Rene Reese! on The leaf or part of leaf is occasionally modified into other structure. They can perform special functions other than photosynthesis. Prominent examples are : |L Leaf tendrils. Tendrils are thread-like green structures, which are sensitive to touch and are capable of coiling around thesupport. They can be differentiated from stem tendrils by absence of scaly leaves over them and being unbranched. Following are the examples of leaf tendrill (a) Whole leaf tendeil. In Latiyrus aphaca (Wild ‘pea) (Fig. 37A), the whole leaf is modified into tendril Stipules in this case become large and foliaceous and. carry out the function of photosynthesis. (b) Leaflet tendril. In Pisum satiown (Sweet pea) and Lathyrus oforatus (Garden pea) upper leaflets of ‘compound leaf are modified into tendrils. The lower leaflets remain unchanged (Fig, 37 B) (c) Stipular tendril. Stipular tendrils are found in ‘Smilax (Fig. 37E). Table 11. Differences between Simple and Compound leaf. Character Simple leaf Compound laf 1. Incision ‘The lamina is not divided into dis- | _Thelaminaisincsed intotwoormore distinct leaflets. tinct lobes or leaflets fe it has single | The leaflets are borne either a the tip of petioles or lamina, on theses of rachis, 2. Axillaygbud | An aviary bud is present in the axilof | Individual leaflets do not bear any axillary bud. simple lat. Hiowover, bud is prosent in th al of whole lea. 3. Arrangement | Simple leaves appear in acropetal | Leafltsofacompound leafdonotappearinacropetal Suowtssion on stom succession on rachis. 4. Stipules Tho base of eaf may bear sHpules: | Stipes may be present at the base of compound leaf however such structures are nover presont at the base of leaflets, 5. Plane Simple leaves may appear in one or more planes. Leaflets in a compound leaf appearin one plane only. ‘Table 12. Differences between Pinnate compound leaf and Palmate compound leaf. == ‘Fannate compound Tear Valmate compound Leat 1. Shape Feather ike Tike palm of hand 2 Origin of | Leaflets appear on elongted axis. Leaflets appear from common point. Teaflets 3. Appearance — | Leaflets appear in two rows. Leaflets are clustered together. 4 Joint Joint absent betweon leaflet and its axis. Joint is usually present between leaflet and point of atachment. 5. Origin Axisbenringlealesiscontinuationofbranch | Tip of petiole represents the leaflet bearing, of mid-rib. point.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Leaner TENOR (4 Peniote| Fig. 37. A. Whole leaf tendtil in Lathyrus aphaca; B. Leaflet tend in Pisum satiounn, (C. Rachis tendril in Clematis; D. Leaf tip tendéil in Glorisa and E. Stipular tendril in Smilax (d) Petiolar tendril. ‘Ihe petioles of some plants like Tropaeotum (Garden nasturtium), Narqoelia become tendril-like. The rachis and leaf:stalks of leaflets form tendril in Clematis (Fig. 37C), (e) Leaf apex tendril. In Gloriosa superba (Fig. 37 D) leaf apex becomes sensitive and drawn out to form tendril. 2. Leaf spines. In plants like Barberry (Fig. 40A), Opuntia, Aloe and Argemone leaves are modified into spines. Spines protect the plant from grazing animals and also reduce the area for transpiration, The leaf nature of spines can be made out by the presence of buds in their axils. 3. Food storage. Food is stored in the leaves of Alliu cepa (onion). The leaves may also become fleshy or juicy (Gucculent) duc to storage of water, muciloge and food material eg. Aloe and Portulaca, 4. Leaf pitcher. Pitchers are found in epiphytic limber of Disctiia rafesiana (Fig. 38C), which represents the modified leaves. Debris along with rainwater collects in these pitchers and finally water is absorbed by the adventitious roots, which come out of stem nodes and. ramify in the pitcher cavities, In Nepenthes or pitcher plant (Fig. 38, B) pitchers are held vertically by a tendrib-like, slender coiled stalk, petiole. The lid of pitcher represents the modified leaf ‘apex. Leaf lamina is modified into pitcher. The flattened basal portion is the leaf base. Pitchers are also formed in Sarracenia 5. Leaf bladder. In insectivorous plants like Utricularia (bladder wort), leaves are modified to form bladder. Such plants have mechanism to catch insects and feed on them. ‘Table 13. Differences between Stem and Leaf tendrils. Tea tendrils Character ‘Stem tendsils 1 Branching, Stem tendrils are usually branched. 2. Sealy leaves Seale leaves may be present in the region of forking. 3. Buds ‘The buds may be present in axis of scaly leaves. 4. Position ‘They may appear from stem, bud or flower. ‘They are usually unbranched. Seale leaves are not found on the ten- drils. Buds are not present on leaf ten- drils. ‘They appear from leaf or its parts.MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! Waco PETOUE a pircnea ue) a moor Pion, Bue Smog K ee were Fig. 38. A. Nepenthes plant, B.A pitcher enlarged, C. Dischidia 6. Phyllode. In case of Australian acacia (Acacia ‘auriculiformis) (Fig. 39) the normal leaf is bipinnate compound. The leaflets disappear, petiole get flattened and green in colour to perform the function of se enone a photosynthesis. This type of modification when petiole of leaf is modified into lamina or leaf blade-like structure is known as phyllode. PHYLLODE (PETIOLE) Fig. 39. Phyllode of Australian acacia. A.A young plant showing transformation of petiole into phyllod B.A phyllode only: ‘Table 14. Differences between Phylloclade and Phyllode. Phyllode Character Phylloclade T. Modification | Tes the stom modification into leak like structure. 2. Origin Tearises inthe axil of leaf which can falloff and leaves a scar. 3 Axillary bud | It does not bear any axillary bud 4 Leaves, Phylloclade can’ develop leaves and flowers flowers et. 5. Peproduction | It helps in vegetative propagation. ©. Nodesand Nodes and intemodes are bore on internodes phylloclade. 7. Storage It stores food and becomes usually Aleshy. 8. Position It may be vertical or horizontal in position. Tt is the petiole modification into leafy struc- ture, Phyllode does not arise in the axil of a leaf ‘because itis itself a lealy structure A bud is present in the axil of a phyllode. No such structures are found on phyl- lode. Tt does not help in any type of reproduction. A phyllode does not bear nodes and internodes. Tt does not store food. It is always vertical in position.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS ‘sRaNcHED EAP SPINE sTeM Leaves oF NORWAL Coane Fig. 40 A. Leaf spines of Barberry; B. Leaf hooks in Bignonia unguis cat. 7. Leaf hooks. In Bignomia unguis cati (Fig, 40 B) three terminal leaflets of compound leaf are modified {nto claw like hooks which help the plant in climbing. 8, Reproductive leaf. Leaves of Bryophyium and Begonia bear adventitious buds on them and help in ‘vegetative propagation of plants. 9, Leaf roots. The leaves are modified into roots in. Saleinia (water fern). Out of three leaves at each node, ‘one forms roots and the other two remain normal. 10. Heterophylly. The occurrence of different kinds ‘ormore than ne type of leaves on the same plant is called as heterophylly. In Ranunculus aquatitis and Linmophita iieterophylla submerged leaves differ completely from floating leaves. In Evenlyphis and Sonichus, the leaves differ in their shape and size which appeared at different developmental periods on the same plant. FUI TONS OF LEAE A. Primary functions of leaves 1. Photosynthesis. The principal function of the leaves is to manufacture organic food. The seat of photosynthesis are the green cells of leaf having chlorophyll 2. Transpiration. The loss of water from leaf surface is known as transpiration. It is necessary to create force or tension in water cohumn and thus cause ascent of sap. 3. Gaseous exchange. It takes place in leaves through stomata during the process of photosynthesis ‘and respiration, B. Secondary functions of leaves 1 Storage of food in leaf bases eg. onion. 2. Water is stored in the leaves of succulent nature (Bryophryitum and Ato). 3. Protect the plants from grazing animals when ‘modified into spines (Opuntia and Barberry). 4. Itreduces the rate of transpiration when changed into Phyllode eg. Acacia auriculiformis. 8. They help in climbing the plants having weak stem, when modified into tendrils and hooks. 6.Leaves help the plantsin vegetative multiplication (Bryophyltun). 7. Leaves actas balancers for floating when modified into roots eg. Salvinia 8. Theleavesare modified into sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels to take part in sexual reproduction. (© Belt’s corpuscles are the glands producing edible materials at the apices of lewfles in Acacia sphaerocephala. © Monophyllea isa plant with single laf. (© The centiamplesicaul or cup-Ie leaf base protects the axillary bud in Platanus and Robinia, (© Petiole is hollow, tubular or fistular in Carica papaya. © Leaf with largest diameter of about 1.8 m. is of Victoria amuzoniea (Aomaan lily) (© Leaf mosaic is characteristic of sciopliytes where lonoes of oarious size and shape are eroded forming a mosaic. (© Stipel is stipule like outgrowth atthe base of leaflets in sub family Popilionatae of family Legurninosae, © Longest leaf is of Raphi vinifera (10-15 m.) © In Berbers, whole leafs mexified into spine. (© Bamboo i tallest gras. Iti also considere as tallest shrub or arborescent grass. © In Quisquatis, the petiole becomes herdened and pointed ater the Iemina falls off spinous petiole)"| sce] ooEAWS ate + oF BioLoate TERNAL sU0 Fig. 1. A. A branch of rose bearing imparipinnate compound leaf; B, An axillary branch beating simple leaves. Table 15. Differences between Branch bearing simple leaves and a Pinnate compound leaf. Branch beating simple leaves ‘A pinnate compound leaf T. Trarises in the axil ofa Teak, T. Tebears a bud in its axil 2. Terminal or apical bud is always present. 2. Theterminal bud is absent and is replaced by one ortwo leaflets. 3. Buds are present in the axil oF simple leaves | 3. Buds are absent in the axl of leaflets born on the branch. 4. During leaffall, branches usually do not fall, | 4 During leaf fall, the entire leaf including leaflets and rachis ‘only leaves fall. falls down, 5. The leaves on a branch may appear in diffe- | 5. Leaflets of a pinnate compound leaf appear and lie in the same sent planes. plane. 6 The branch is differentiated into nodes and 6 The rachis is not differentiated into nodes and internodes. internodes. 7. Number of leaves on a branch is unlimited. 7. Number of leaflets in a compound leaf is fixed. ‘8. Pulvinus is not present at the base of a branch. | 8 The leaf base may bear pulvinus e.g. Cassia 9. A branch may bear flowers. 9. A leaf nover bears flowers. 10. At the base of branch, stipules are absent. 410. stipules may be present at the base of whole ‘However, leaves may be stipulated. leaf but always absent at the base of leaflots. A plant laroing normal root system initially but later becoming epiphyte is called hemi-epiphyte. A plant with normal root ystems intially but later becoming unconnecting climbing epiphyte e.g. Monstera, Scindapsus fs called pseudo-epiphyte. (© Wolffia (less than 0.1 mm) is smallest angiosperm. © Evcatyptus regnans isthe tallest plant with height of more shan 114 m. (375 ft.) A gymmosperm Sequoia semproirens (red wood tree) is mest massive plant which is oer 111 m. tall and more than 24m. ie girth © Zostera is a marine angiosperm. Pingnicuta (butterwort) bears rosette of fleshy yellow lenves having mucilage and digestive glands and is cape of curing to ‘rap small animals Aldrovanda (water flea tap) is rootless free floating aquatic with lees similar to Diomoea for trapping small animals. (© The characteristic foul odgour of eon is due to an ol lke organic compound of sulphur allyl sulphide formed in fleshy loaves. © Antitisbeta eect of gurlic is de tu the presence uf sulplaw euntuining amino weil Sally cystine sulphide (SACS). [Ml PRACTICE PROBLEMS — MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS: 11. A root system is extensively branched and bears a very lange number of delicate root tips. How do the root tips manage to penetrate the hard core of soil? 2. Define buds, nodes and intemodes. What is the difference between the axillary bud and terminal bud? 3. How do the buds protect themselves?MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS. 4 Supply tw appropriate cant rm cach ofthe following “A oot developing from any part ofthe plant othe than the rade 5. Shapeless swollen root occurring singly. . Pilla like roots appearing from large horizontal branches, D. Naked flowering stem arising from ground without leaves. EE. Leaf with single lamina and which is not completely divided to form leaflets. E Underground stem growing vertically, rarely branched and spherical or oval in form. G. H 1 Runner with short internodes and each node bearing a rosette of leaves and tuft of oots | Roots are swollen, become spindle shaped and found singly, J. Veins irregularly distributed in the lamina forming & network, J. Thearrangement ofthe leaves on the stem - Differentiate between herbaceous and woody stems, ANSWERS TO PRACTICE PROBLEMS |. The cells of root cap secrete mucilaginous substance thet acts as a lubricant. It facilitates the tender root tips to enter the hhard crust of the soil Root cap is composed of parenchymatous cells and these cells store the starch. The starch grains are responsible for geotropism. 2. Buds, The bud is a small compact structure and the shoot develops from it. Plumule isthe first bud, Node. It may be defined as a point of attachment fora leaf on the stem. Internode. The interval between two adjacent nodes is called intemode Axillary bud. The buds which are located in the axil of each leaf are called axillary or lateral budls. These buds grow into branches. ‘Terminal bud. The bud which remains at the rip and continue to grow indefinitely, i called terminal or apical bud, 3. 1. Bud scales, The buds are covered by dey scaly outer leaves called bud scales eg. Ficus, Magnolia, 2. Hair. Dense mass of hair is present around bud eg. Zizyplus 3.Folded leaves. The leaves of buds are very compact and folded to protect themselves, 4. Resinous secretions. In some plants the buds are covered by wax, cutin, resinous secretions to prevent their wetting. and also to check transpiration, 4. A. Adventitious root B. Tuberous root Prop roots D.Scape E Simple leaf Com Offset TH. Tubercular roots I Reticulate venation J-Phyllomxy. 5 “Herbaceous stem ‘Woody stem 1. They are annual or Biennial and shortlived. | 1. They are always perennial and long lived 2 They are green, soft and fleshy and on bending | 2. They are brown or grey and hard and break on bending, does not break. 3. The proetivesupercllayers epidermis. ] 3.The opermis is place by cork layer o bark 4. They contain stomata for gaseous exchange. | 4. They develop dot-like pores, the lentices for gaseous exchange. 5. Buds are often naked. fart peace pa 6:They mainly consist of primary permanent | 6. They mainly consist of secondary permanent tissue tissue INFLORESCEN growth, form of peducle and arrangement of flowers, inflorescence are also formed. ‘The flowersare arranged in some definite manner on the plant in each species of the flowering plants. ‘The mode of arrangement of flowers on a specialised branch on top of the plant which bears flowers is called inflorescence. The axis of the inflorescence is called peduncle. Sometimes the flowers are borne singly. Such arrangement is said to be solitary. When solitary flowers are borne at the tips of branches or ‘main stem, they are described as Solitary terminal e.g Poppy or they may be borne in the ail of a foliage leaf and are termed as Solitary axillary eg. Petunia, Garden Nasturtium and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (China rose) (Fig. 42) Like branching inflorescence alsomay beracemose or eymose. It may also be mixed type when itis partly racemose and partly cymose, Depending upon the Fig. 42, enact ry axillary flower of Hibiscus rose-sinensis,1. Racemose or indefinite inflorescence The peduncle grows indefinitely and bears flowers in acropetal order ic. older ones at the base and younger flowers near the apex or growing point. Sometimes the peduncle instead of developing, into Tong axis, condenses to form a flat rounded structure called receptacle. In this case arrangement of flowers become centripetal ie. younger flowers are found in the centre of the inflorescence. In simple racemose type of inflorescence the peduncle remains unbranched. Racemose inflorescences are classified as under : (@) Flower stalked Raceme, When the pedicellate (stalked) flowers are bore lly on an elongated axis eg. Raphanus, Crotolaria (Fig. 43 A), Delphinium (Larkspur), Lupinus (Lupin) ete. (b) Flower sessile (@ Spike. Inflorescence is similar to raceme bu the flowers are sessile eg. Aciyranthes aspera, Callistemon (Bottle brush), Antrim (Dog Flower), Piper longum (Long pepper) (Fig. 43 B) Adhatoda and Amaranthus. (i) Catkin or Amentum. A catkin is a spike in y sexo SPIKE ° earn RACEME MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! which the axis is thin and weak, Flowers are sessile and bome in acropetal order as in spikes, The catkin is ‘mostly pendulous and flowers are unisextal. They drop off as a whole, when they mature eg. Satix (Willow), ‘Morus (Mulberry), Populas (Poplar), Acalypha, Croton (Fig. 43 ©) and Betula. (ii) Spadix. Itisa modification of spike having thick ‘and fleshy pedumele, which may be variously coloured on. the upper side. The flowers are covered by one or more spathy bracts. The flowersare small i and unisexual. The lower flowers on peduncle are usually female and upper are male. Male and female flowers are separated by sterile hairs or neuter flowers. Spathe ‘may be brightly coloured, spotted or green. The upper sterile, attractive part of peduncle is called appendix eg. Colocasia (Arum), Amorphophailus titanum, Banana ‘ete, (Fig, 44 AB). (iv) Spikelet. It is a type of very small spike with ‘one or few florets. Spikalets are arranged in spite, raceme or panicle fashion. Each spikelet bears at its base two ‘minute bracts called empty glumes. Little above, third bract known as flowering glume or fertile glume or Jemma or lower palea is present opposite the lemma cone ume. Fig. 43. Types of racemose inflorescence. s Fig. 44. A. and B. Spadix of Colocasia antiquorum, C. Spikelets of wheat. EATHERY STIGMA evwoecum — woven =. NFERIOR a.EA OF ehuan (Pema cue} curry GLiMe SUPEROR PALER — RACHA 8) Lower cMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS ‘tears the small ghume called upper palea. Every floret of spikelet remains enclosed by a lemma and palea eg. Wheat, rice, oat, bamboo, sugarcane. (Family Gramineze) (Fig. 44 O). (© Peduncle shortened. ( Corymb. In Corymb peduncle is shortened, Pedicellate flowers bome at different points reach at the same level. The pedicels of lower, older flowers are longer and those of upper, younger flowers are shorter eg. Iberis amara (Candytuft) (Fig, 43 E, 45) and cherry )) Corymbose raceme. The young flowersappear to be arranged like corymb but in mature state the longer pedicels of the lower flowers do not bring them to the level of upper ones eg. mustard. (d) Peduncle suppressed Umbel. In umbel peduncle is reduced to a point. Pedicellate lowers appearin luster. The youngest flower in the centre and older ones are towards periphery (centripetal order). Number of bracts in the form of involucre are bore atthe base of lowerse.g. Hydrocotyle asiatica. When the axis of umbel branches, one gets a compound umbel e.g. Foeniculum (Fennel), Coriandrurt (Coriander), Daucus carota (Carrot) etc. (Fig. 438,47 A-B). PeDuNoLE “sHonr’ (e) Peduncle flattened to form receptacle Capitulum. This is the characteristic inflorescence of family compositae. The peduncle forms a flattened more or less convex receptacle, on which very small sessile flowers called florets are arranged in a centripetal order. ‘The florets present at the centre of receptacle are termed as dise florets while peripheral florets are known as ray florets. The whole capitulum is surrounded by an involucre or bracts. When disc and ray florets are alike in their sex and symmetry the inflorescence is described fs humugainous capituluane x. Ayevturn aut Sonetars. It the disc and ray florets differ in their sex and symmetry the inflorescence is termed as heterogamous capitulum eg, Hetiantiues anus (Sunflower) (Fig. 46), Marigold and Zinnia 2. Cymose or definite inflorescence In this case the main axis stops its growth and terminates into a flower. The lateral branches appear below it, which also terminate into flowers. The central flower opens first. The opening of flowers is basipetalous (towards base). It becomes centrifugal when the axis is flattened to form a receptacle, ‘YOUNG FLOWERS, Fig. 45. (A-B). Corymb inflorescence. A. corymb (diagrammatic); B, corymb of Iberis (candytuft) TScAaLeSy “OVARY: isc FLORETS ig, 46 (A-B) Captlum or racomose head of ets ams: A an entire capitan Vertical section of cap! lum; C. An entie dise floret; D. An entire ray floretMODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! ‘Table 16. Differences between Corymb and Umbel. Character Corymb Umbel 1. Peduncle Flongated ‘Reduced to small point. 2. Involuere Absent Prosent 3. Positions of flowers Flowers are bore at different levels. Flowers develop from same point. 4. Size of pedicels Older flowers are with longer pedicels Pedicels are of similar size. 5. Arrangement of flowers Acropetal, Centripetal ‘Table 17. Differences between Racemose and Cymose inflorescence. Character ‘Racemove inflorescence ‘Cymose faflorescence 1 Main axis longated with unlimited growth and ‘Short with limited growth and ends in a does not end in a flower. flower. 2. Arrangement of, iz. youngest near the apex ‘oldest near the apex and flowers ‘and older at the base ‘younger at the base 3. Flower opening Centripetal Centrifugal 4. Mother axis Monopodial with true axis. Sympodial Table 18. Differences between Spadix and Capitulum. Character Spadix Capitakom 1 Peduncle Thick and fleshy. Shortened to form receptacle, 2. Spathe Leafy bracts or spathe present. Bracts form involucre. 53. Florets Both male and female flowers are Disc and ray florets are present. separated by sterile portion. 4. Bamples. Sunflower, Sonchus. Colocasia, banana. Flown 1.086 eDIceL shosr wucne Peoee. twvouver PEDUNCLE Fig. 47.(A-B) A. an umbel:B, an umbel (diagrammatic). (i) Monochasial or uniparous cyme. In this case ‘main axis terminates in a flower and one lateral branch appears from its base also ending in a flower eg. Bigonia, Hamelia and Drosera (sun dew). It may be of helicoid oF seompiatd type Thopadrinclaat inflorosconc is Formed by the fusion of bases of lateral floral branches and called as sympodial axisilt is of two types : (a) Helicoid. The successive lateral branches arise “on the same side of the axis forming a helix eg. Myosotis palustris (Fig. 48), Drosera (b) Scorpioid. The successive lateral branches with their flowers are produced on alternate sides forming a zig-zag structure eg. Ramnculus bulbosus (Fig. 48), Freesia and Tecoma, (ii) Dichasial or biparous cyme. In this case also ‘main axis terminates in a flower. Two lateral branches, arise from its upper node but they also end in flowers. Each lateral branch acts as main axis and develops two lateral flowers. The oldest flower is in the centre and subsequent younger flowers are lateral in position, thus representing the basipetal or centrifugal order eg. Dianthus (Pink), Silene (Talla), Spergita (Fig, 48) Bougaivillea, teak and jasmine. (ii) Polychasial or multiparous eyme. In this case ‘more than two lateral branches are produced from the base of the apical flower. Further branching occurs in the same manner e.g. Galotropis, Neri, Viburnum (Fig, 48) and Asclepias. 3. Special types of inflorescence (a) Hypanthodium. In this case fleshy receptacle forms a hollow cavity which is more or less pear ‘shaped with anarrow apical opening guarded by scales. Canal is lined by downwardly pointed hairs. Internally the receptacle bears male flowers towards the pore andMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Prowen nom usar eracn ‘sruroo spoon "xs Lear (BRAC tear Flower vumpnrous (eracr) HEUCOID LUNIPAROUS SCORPION OLDEST FLOWER ‘OLDEST FLOWER Les NY prpanous MULTIPAROUS: Fig. 48. Kinds of cymose inflorescence. female flowers towards the base eg. Ficus species like Peepal, Banyan ete. (Fig, 50). (b) Cyathium. This is a special type of inflorescence and is the characteristic of genus Euphorbia of family Euphorbiaceae. The flowers are naked having no perianth. A male flower is represented by a single stalked stamen and a female flower by a single stalked tricarpellary pistil. The floral axis is very condensed ‘on which five or more male flowers (stalked stamens) and one female flower (stalked pistil) are aggregated. ‘The group of flowers (inflorescence) is surrounded by MALE FLOWERS INVOLUGRE. Fig. 51 A. Complete cyathium; B. VS. Cyathium Lene ‘racy VERTICLLASTER HvpaTHooWUM Fig. 49. Special types of inflorescence, 2 cup like structure called involuere which is formed by the fusion of bracts. There are four half-moon shaped glands present at the mouth of this involucre eg. Euphorbia (Fig, 51), () Verticillaster. In this case a cluster of sessile oF almost sessile flowers appear in the axil of leaf forming, a false whorl or verticil at the node. On squarish axis, the inflorescence first is dichasial eyme which is reduced to two scorpioid cymes on two sides, This is a complex inflorescence and found in the family Labiatae eg. Ocinuan, Salvia, Coleus etc. (Fig. 52 A-C). Importance of Inflorescence 1 It provides more chances for cross pollination. 2. Inflorescence makes flowers more conspicuous. Thus insects are attracted for pollination. 3. A large inflorescence also enhances the chance of wind pollination and simultaneously in many flowers. 4. An insect can pollinate many flowers in inflorescence in a single visit. Fig. 52. A-C. Verticillaster inflorescence.(A) Racemose Gndoterminate), the tip of axis continues to grow, flowers [produced laterally. shortened 8) Cymose cece xis terminates int a flower axis growth stops, lateral branches bear flowers: branches also terminate into flower ‘longated form receptacle MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! INFLORESCENCE (An axis bearing flowers) 4, 8. 1 Raceme stalked flowers laterally borne: eg, Delius. Panicle bbranched raceme; ¢3:; gold mohur. Spike raceme with sessile flowers; eg, Achyranthes. ‘Compound spike/spikelet axis branched, made of spikelets consisting of one or more flowers; eg, Amaranthus Catkin sessile and unisexual flowers, axis pendulous; 3, Morus (mulberry). Spadix flowers sessile, axis fleshy, bracts coloured (spathe); eg, banana. Cory’ floral satks unequal, flowers ie on the same love; fg, Tels amara (onde) Compound corymb eee eee eee e8., Pyrus. Unibet floral sats equal, losers ie on the same level: 8; Hydrocotyle ‘Compound timbel axis of umbol branched, cach branch bearing urbe; coriander, fennel carol Capitulum or head florets arising from disc-like receptacle : eg, Sunflovver. ‘Uniparous or monochasial ‘only ove lateral branch produced (a) Seorpioia lateral branches develop ‘on altemate sides; eg. Teoma @) Metocoid lateral branches develop on the same side; eg, Drosera Biparous or dichasial ‘tivo latoral branches produced; eg, Izom, Dianthus “Multiparous or polychasial ‘more than two lateral branches produced; eg, Caotropis, NeriumMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Cyathinm ‘cup-shaped involuere that encloses ‘one fernale and many male flowers; eg, Euphorbia. ‘Verticilaster ichasial cyme reduced to scorpioidl ‘cymes, one on each side of the node; eg, Ocimum, Salvia 3. Hypanthodiam ‘cup-shaped receptacle with opening, male flawers near opening of cup, fomale flowers at base; 8, Fiews (Peepal, Banyan). Table 19. Differences between Umbel and Capitulum. Umbel Capitulam ‘Reduced to a point. ‘Reduced but flattened to form a receptacle. Pedicellate flowers of one type only: Sessile flowers of one oF two types iz. disc florets and ray florets. Sunflower (© Special types 1. Peduncle 2. Flowers 3. Examples Coriander ‘Table 20. Comparison among Hypanthodium, Cyathium and Verticillaster. Cyathium ‘Vertcilaster Tnthisinfloreseence the involucre | Tn this inflorescence, typical of plants with forms acup, single female lower | opposite leaves, a cyme arises in each leaf (without perianth) arises in| axil, The first axis ends in a flower. The the middle surrounded by a| branches arise below itbearing branches in, large niimhar of mala flownrs | an alinmating mannor Flowars are snssile incymose groups (Ficus). | represented by stalked stamens | and appear as a cluster (Ocimum) around. (Poinsettia, Euphorbia). the node, ADDITIONAL USEFUL INFORMATIONS ABOUT INFLORESCENCE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS ioluce isthe shat of sll acts th ase of secondary unbelabell Anthotaxis fs the arrangement of wer on the ave of pane eg. acropetal, asp cetrpetal ‘Stripe nich the lrsere develop inthe as of persitent membres bracts eg Hulu (hop) Thgrsus 4 tpe of mized iforecence when cmos cluster rearrange actrpealy eg. grapevine. Pie minors Co) tthe ages inflocence of word, iS CCoenanthium is open hyped. Peo att fund in Bougatea, Largest indian inlorecence i Amorphophalbs Longest inflorescence Agata. Eile inflorcence i cnutflonoer ‘Mast common tnorescnce spike. Iivohipitum scorpoidcyme, the lateral branches are preset on sane plane Solanum nigrum eee ed Hypanthodiam ‘The main axis forms a cup-shaped receptacle with a small opening. at the top. Flowers are fencloyed vwithin the cup. is said to be ebrracteate. The stalk of the flower is called pedicel, which exposes the flower in favourable position for pollination and the flower is called as pedicellate. If the pedicel is absent the flower is sessile. Some time, there is a very short pedicel present in the flower, such flower is described as sub-sessile. In some flowers two small leaf like structure are also present on the flower pedicel called bracteoles and the flower is spoken as bracteolate. If bracteoles are absent the flower is, ebracteolate. The pedicel has an upper swollen portion called thalamus oF torus. [tis also known as receptacle. ‘Thalamus is considered as an axis ofthe flower. It bears four types of floral leaves arranged in successive whorls ‘The flower is a highly modified shoot meant essentially for the sexual reproduction of the plant. ‘The different parts of a flower are best understood by referring the structure of a typical flower. A flower is generally borne on the lateral side of the peduncle ata node in the axil ofa leaf like structure called bract (Fig.53). The bract protects the flower in bud condition. A flower arising in the axil of a bractis called bracteate and ifthe bracts absent at the base ofa flower the flowernD MODERN’S abe + OF BIOLOGY-KI cane, omnoecitim, ey cum anon uauent eracrEOLE fen corolla) src ome one sem. women wus Ce a Fig. 53 A. Parts of typical flower; B. VS. of a flower. the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. In group or collectively these whorls are called calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecie The arrangement of floral leaves on the thalamus varies and is of the following types: A. Hypogyny. When the various whorls of lower are arranged below the ovary, the carpel occupies the central ition and other floral parts are borne below it in their respective whorls, Such flowers are called hypogynous e.g, China rose (Fig. 54). In such a case ovary is called superior and other parts are inferior. B. Perigyny. Ifthe thalamus is flattened out to form a disc or a cup or flask shaped top, the gynoecium will be placed not on the top of the flower but in centre. ‘The remaining three whorls of flower (calyx, corolla and androecium) are usually inserted on the rim of the disc (Fig, 54 C) or cup (Fig. 54 B) or flask (Fig, 54 D) like thalamus. The gynoecium lies at the centre or tip of the thalamus and therefore considered as superior and remaining parts inserted on the rim of the thalamus are described inferior. Example of perigynons flower with flat (disc) receptacle are strawberry and peas. Perigynous flower with flask shaped receptacle is found in Rose. Cup shaped perigynous condition is present in Prunus. C.Epigyny. Inthis type the thalamus also a hollow cup or flask-like structure but the ovary is completely fused with the inner wall of the thalamus or hollow receptacle. The styleand stigma of gynoerinm are visible above the thalamus. The sepals, petals and stamens are bome on the top of the ovary. The gynoecium is described as inferior while other floral parts are superior e.g, Sunflower. Coriander and Apple (Fig. 54E). Pere Following evidences can be given in favour of ‘flower is a modified shoot’: (@ Floral buds and shoot buds both are terminal or axillary in position (Gi) In Agave and onion flower buds get modified into vegetative buds or bulbil: Gii) Anatomy of thalamus, pedicel and stem exhibit similarities. Vascular supply to different appendages resemble with vascular supply of normal leaves. (iv) In rose flower, sepals resemble with leaves on stem, (v) In Degenaria, stamens are expanded like ordinary leaves and carpels are folded leaves and are not further differentiated into style and stigma, vex SUPERIOR ORY Fig. 54 Insertion of floral leaves "— A. Hypogynous B. Dise shaped perigynous in pea; C. Cup shaped perigynous in Prunus; D. Flask shaped perigynous in Rose; E. Epigynous in Pyrus (apple.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS (vi) Thalamus is elongated in Gynandropsis gynandra and show distinction of longiinternades between, different floral appendages. (vii) In. Nymphaea (water lily), transitional stages can be observed between a sepal and a petal and a petal and a stamen. Itis the outrmost whorl ofthe flower. Sepals of sepals are usually leaf like green in colour and protect the flower in bud condition. A. Forms of Calyx. The calyx is composed of sepals which may be free or united, If all the sepals in a calyx are free, it is described as polysepalous e.g. Brassica ‘campestris and if the sepals are united the calyx is spoken, as gamosepalous e.g. Petunia, The sepals may be coloured like petals called petaloid (larkspur) B. Functions of Calyx. 1. Thecalyx provides supporto the thalamus and other floral parts. 2. Italso protects the internal floral organs (petals, stamens and carpels) in bud condition. 3. Calyx also attracts insects when becomes coloured or produces nectar. 4. Te performs the functions of photosynthesis. 5. Ihe calyx of Hibiscus subdaritfa becomes fleshy dive to storage of food and are edible, In some plantsa whorl of green sepals like structure is present at the base of calyx called epicalyx. Epicalyxis| considered a whorl of the bracteoles and mostly found in the flowers of family Mafoaceae (Althea, Cotton). It is second floral whorl present inner to calyx and ‘composed of petals. Corolla protects the more essential whorls of stamens and carpels. The petals are usually brightly coloured due to the presence of pigments fond in chromoplasts of cells. Sometimes the petals may be ‘green in colour called sepaloid. Ifthe petals are free from ‘one another in the corolla, the condition is polypetalous or choripetalous and if there is any degree of fusion between the petals, the corolla is said to be gamopetalous or sympetalous. Like of the calyx the corolla is eaducous (Grapevine) mostly deciduous and very rarely it is persistent (Heather), A. FORMS OF COROLLA ‘Types of polypetalous corolla are (Fig. 58) : 1. Cruciform, Presence of four, free, unguiculate ppetals arranged in form of a cross e.g, Brassica (Sarson).. Each unguiculate petal consists ofa lowernarrow portion called claw and an upper broad portion limb. 2. Caryophyllaceous. There are five unguiculate ppetals. The limbs of petals spread outward and lie at rightangle of claw e.g. Diantfus (Pink) and Camation ete. 3. Rosaceous. The petals are five or more than five having very reduced or sessile claw and large broad limb spreading outwardly &g. Rose. 4, Papilionaceous. It is butterfly-shaped irregular corolla consists of five petals. The posterior petal is, largest known Standard or Vexillum. Two lateral petals are small and free called Wings or Alae, and are overlaped by the posterior standard petal. The two “anterior petals are fused to from innermost boat shaped structure covering the stamens and carpel of the flower Fig. 55. Polypetalous forms of Corolla ~ A. Single petals of Cruciform corolla; B. Cruciform corolla; ‘C. Caryophyllaceous; D. Rosacvous: E. Papilionaceous corollaand is spoken as Keel or Carina. It is overlapped by vengs of alae eg. members of amily Papilionacea Like of fused calyx, the gamopetalous corolla shows the various degrees of fusion of the petals and accordingly described as toothed—almost complete fusion only lobes of petals are free; fid— fused upto the halfway from the base of corolla tube toward apex and partite-fusion less than half from base to apex of corolla. Various forms of gamopetalous (Fig. 57) Regular Corolla 1. Tubular. Tube like structure eg. disc floret of sunflower. 2, Campanulate. Bell shaped eg. Cucurbita and Physatis, 3. Infundibuliform. Funnel shaped e.g. Petunia 4. Salver-shaped. Corolla tube is long and narrow with the spreading lobes at right angle e.g. Vinca rosea and Cleradendron, 5. Rotate. Corolla tube is quite short and the limbs are present at right angle like spokes of a wheel e.g. Solanum nigrum and Nyctanthes 6. Urceolate. Ur-shaped e.g, Bryoplyllum, Irregular Corolla 7. Ligulate. It is strap shaped corolla. Five petals fuse! (y fori 4 sinall natrow tube at the base whic splits on one side and become flattened like a strap e.g. ray florets of sunflower. 8. Bilabiate. Corolla i bilipped. Ifboth the lips from wide open mouth then corolla is described as bilabiate ringent eg. Salvia (Fig, 57). If two lips are placed close together and the mouth fs closed-termed as bilabiate personate e.g. Antirrhinus (Fig. 56) 9. Spurred. One or two petals in a corolla forming a beak like structure e.g. Larkspur. B. Functions of Corolla 1. Corolla attracts insects for pollination when Wey 7 iy MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! they are beautiful and coloured or forms nectar pocketson the petals or collect nectar at its base. 2, Sometime scented ducts are present on the petals, Which also help in attracting insects. These ducts produce scent which is used in the preparation of various perfumes. 3. Corolla also protects the essential organs (stamens and carpels) of a flower in young condition. 4. Thecorollaalso regulates the entry of a particular type of insect by forming various shapes. F When the two outer accessory whorls are not differentiated into sepals and petals and all the floral leaves are alike in these whorls or sometime there is a presence of only one whorl it is termed as perianth. In the perianth each floral part is known as tepals. When the tepals are free it is said to by polyphyllous and if the tepals are fused are fused the perianth is described ‘as gamophyllous. The tepals may be brightly coloured orpetaloid as in Gloriosa superia or they may be green or sepaloid e.g. Chienopotium. The perianth is represented by two white shining structures termed as Lodicules eg, Wheat and Grasses ete. Sin NDROECIUM Androecinm is the third essential whorl which consists of stamens or male reproductive part ofa flower. Each stamen is composed ofa slender stalk like filament supporting a knob like structure called anther. Each anther usually consists of two anther lobes connected with the help of a connective which can be clearly seen ‘on the dorsal side as an extension of the filament (Fig. 57). ‘Some time the connective becomes enlarged and two anther lobes are separated apart called divaricated or divergent anther lobes (Fig, 57 B). In Salvia the connective is quite enalarged and fixed to the filament at right angle, separating two anther lobes termed as distractile thus forming a lever mechanism (Fig. 57). When there are ree Of 9 f sun Fig. 56. Gamopetalous forms of corolla — 1. Tubular; 2. Campanulate; 3. Infundibuliform; 4. Salver shaped; 5. Rotate; 6. Urceolate; 7. Ligulate; 8 Bilabiate: A. Ringent, B. Personate, 9. Spurred.MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS suvune connective Avra L0Be a . ‘tose ig. 57, Foem of stamens. two lobes in the anther, it is described as bithecous, but in certain cases there is only one kidney shaped anther lobe known as monothecous (Fig. 57E) e.g. members of family Malvaceae (Althaea etc). Each anther lobe has. two pollen sacs or pollen chambers containing, large number of minute rounded bodies called as pollen grains, Sometime the stamens becomes sterile and do not form pollen grains called as staminodes. A. FORMS OF ANDROECIUM ‘Stamens are free from each other (Fig. 58) 1. Polyandrous. All the stamens are free in the androecium e.g, Drassica. 2. Epipetalous. Filaments of the stamens adnate with petals. I¢is found mostly in gamopetalous corolla e.g. Petunia, Brinjal (Fig. 58). 3. Epiphyllous. Stamens attached with sepals e.g. Asphodels, 4. Episepalous. Stamens attached with sepals Verbena. Cy 5. Gynandrous. When the anthers of stamens united with stigma of carpels forming the gynostegium. ‘eg, Calotropis (AK) (Fig. 58). 6. Inserted, Stamens are shorter than the corolla tube and remain hidden inside it eg. Petunia. 7. Exerted. When stamens come out from corolla tube e.g. Acrcia (Fig. 58). 8. Didynamous. There are four stamens out of which two stamens are larger and two are shorter in length e.g, Ocinun (Fig, 58). 9, Tetradynamous. There are six stamens in which four stamens are large and two are short e.g. Brassica ‘campestris (Hig. 58). 10, Alternipetalous. There is a single whorl of ‘stamens. The number of stamens is equal to the number of petals and they alternate with the petal lobes eg. Solanum nigrum. In case of sepals the condition is, alterniphylious. 1. Antipetalous. Same as above, but the stamens are present opposite to the petal lobes e.g, Coriander, In ‘case of sepals the condition is antiphyllous. 7 , os Fig. 58. Forms of ancroecium ~ A. Epipetalous; B. Gynostegium; C, Exerted stamens; D. Didynamous: E. Tetradynamous; F Monoadelphous; G. Diadelphous; H. Polyadelphous; L Syngenesious; and J. Synandrous.12. Diplostemonous. The stamens are double the number of petals and present in two whorls. The outer whorl of stamens is alternating with petals {alternipetalous), while inner whorl is opposite to petals {antipetalous) e.g. Cassia and Murraya exotica 13. Obdiplostemonous. It is reverse of diplostemonouss. The outer whorl of stamensis opposite to petals (antipetalous) while inner whorl of stamens. is alternating with petals (alternipetalous) e.g, Pink. 14, Isostemonous. All the stamens in a flower are alike in shape, size and mode of dehiscence ete: 15, Heteroctemonous. The ctamenc in a flower differ in their shape, size and mode of dehiscence e.g, Cassia. Forms of fused androecium (Fig. 58) 1. Adelphous. The stamens are fused by their filaments but the anthers are free. If the filaments of all the stamens fused to form one groups, is termed as monoadelphous e.g. Hibisus rosr sinensis (Fig. 58) ‘When they are fused in two groups called diadelphous e.g. Pea (Fig. 58) or some time fused in more than two groups and described as polyadelphous e.g. Citrus Fig. 58). 2. Syngenesious or Synantherous. In this case the filaments of stamens are free and anthers are fused by their sides to forma ring around the style e.g. Sunflower (Fig. 58). 3. Synandrous. When both filaments and anthers of the stamens are fused completely eg. Cuctrbtta, Phyllanthus (Fig. 58). B. FIXATION OF ANTHERS Itis the attachment of the filament to the anthers (Fig. 59) ‘The anther is said to be adnate when the filament runs up the whole length in between the anther lobes. Buttercup, Magnolia; basifixed - when filament isattached to the base of anther e.g, Brassica (Sarson), Raphanus etc; dorsifixed — when filament is attached to the back of anther e.g. Passiflora and the fixation is versatile when filament is attached to the back of the anther and the anther can swing freely in the air eg, grasses. Fig. 59, Fixation of Anthers A. Adnates; B. Basifixed; C, Dorsfixed; D. Versatile, MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! ‘The gynoecium or pisti is the fourth essential whorl of female reproductive part of the flower and may be ‘composed of one or more carpels. A carpel has three distinctparts, namely the ovary, style and stigma and isa highly modified leaf folded along the midrib. The margins of the leaf fused to form the ventral suture of the carpel and the midrib side represents the dorsal suture. Acushion like parenchymatous outgrowth develops on the ventral suture called placenta on which the ovules are borne. The ovary is a basal swollen portion of the pistil containing one of more chambers or loculi and. accordingly the ovary is known a unilocular, bilocular, trilocular tetralocular, pentalocular and multilocular. The ‘wall ofthe ovary after fertilization is known as pericarp. After fertilization, at maturity, the ovary develops intoa ‘fruit while ovules form seeds. STIGMA sme SME ovary PeDIcen, Fig, 60. Types of styles ‘The tyleis the slender projection of the ovary which, ‘meant for raising the stigma on which pollen grains are deposited during pollination. Style may be hollow or solid and is of three types based on its origin from ovary (Fig. 60). The terminal style is formed by protruding the ovary into a long or shot style. Tt is of common ‘occurrence. Lateral style arises from one side of ovary ‘eg. Mango, while gynobasic style originates from the base of the ovary or centre of thalamus e.g. Safeia and cin. Style is absent in Buttercup and Lotusetc. Style is branched also in some flowers. The stigma is the teminal end of the style and receives the pollen grains. It may be knob like or slightly pointed, even some what elongated, The stigma may be lobed, funnel-shaped, branched or feathery. The surface of stigma may be hairy, sticky, smooth or rough. A sterile pistil devoid of mature ovule is called as pistillode. FORMS OF GYNOECIUM (On the basis of number of carpels is the gynoecium is of following types: ‘When gynoecium is represented by a single carpel is termed as monocarpellary e.g, Pea, The ovary is described as simple ovary. If the number of carpels inMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS the gynoecium is2,3,4and 5, itis said tobe bicarpellary, tricarpellary, tetracarpellary and pentacarpellary respectively. When the gynoechim contains more than five carpels, itis called polycarpellary. (On the basis of free and fused carpels the gynoecium is of following nature: Apocarpous. There are two or more carpels in a gynoecium which are free from each other e, Ranrculus (Buttercup), Aconitum. Syncarpous. In this form two or more carpels are fused together to form a single compound ovary Petuaia, Altaen etc. ‘The fusion of carpels may take placein different ways. ‘They may be fused in the region of ovaries only, but the styleand stigma are freee g. Pink. Fusion may be in ovaries and styles region only and stigmas are free ¢ g, China-rose ya REPLuN PLACENTAE PLACENTA v Pucenta 6 ovary Walt CENTRAL COLUMN PLACENTA a a in some cases all the three parts e.g. ovaries styles and stigmas are fused e.g. Peturia, Solan melongena. In case of oleander the fusion occurs in between style and stigma only, the ovariesare free, while in Cafotropis(AK) the fusion occurs only by stigmas, the ovariesand styles are fre. In case of Calotropis where ovaries and styles are free the gynoecium is considered as apocarpous. \CENTATION Placentation is the mode of arrangement of placentae or ovule bearing cushion of parenchymatous cells within the ovary. The placentation is of following, types (Fig. 61) + 1, Marginal. This is a simple type of placentation found in monocarpellary (simple) pistil or polycarpellary apocarpous pistils. The longitudinal placenta develops. PARIETAL PLACENTA MARGINAL PLACENTA Q F Locus: serrum ome Locus ‘coun sme Fig. 61. Types of placentation : A-B. Marginal placentation; C-E Types of parietal placentation; G-H. Axile placentation; I]. Froe central: K. Basal and L. SuperficialTable 21. Differences between Mat MODERN'S abe + OF BIOLOGY-X! 1 and Parietal placentation. Placentation Tin monocarpallary or simple ovary 2. Placenta | Single longitudinal placenta beary ovules attached to ovary wall. 3. Locules | Ovary is always unilocular ‘on the ventral suture of the ovary bearing one or two rowsofovulles. The ovary isunilocular.eg. Pea, Larkspur and Cassia (Fig, 61 B). 2. Parietal. Tt occurs in syncarpous (compound) pistils in which the ovary is unilocular. The placentae Cevelop along the fused margins of the adjacent carpe ‘onthe parietal wall ofthe ovary. The numberof placentae is equal to the number of fused carpels eg. Fumaria and Viola (Fig. 61 C). The parictal placentation is modified in different ways in the following cases : In Brassica campestris two placentae develop on the peril ‘wall of the bicarpellary syncarpous, unilocular |, but soon a false septum or replum develops in Ferweon the two placentae making the ovary bilocalar (Fig. 61 D). In Poppy the placentae protruding inwards into the cavity of ovary form incompletesepta. The ovules develop ‘on these septa but the ovary remain unilocular (Fig. 61 E) In Cucurbita the placentae grow in the cavity of ovary towards the centre and then turn outwardly bearing the ovules on their free tured ends. Ovary is unilocular but it gives a false appearance of axile palcentation (Fig, 61F). In Cucurbita the placentae grow in the cavity of covery towards the centre and then tum outwardly bearing the ovules develop from the central cloumn ‘or axis which is formed by the fusion of margins of carpels. In certain cases the number of chambers (loculi) increases due to the false septum formation eg. Dattra, Tomato etc. (Fig. 61 G, H). 4. Free central. [tis reported in a compound pistil in which ovary is unilocular. The placenta bearing the ovulesis present in the centre of ovary forming acentral column. Tt has no connection with ovary wall. The vaWaTE conToRTED ASCENDING IWBRICATE ‘Parietal Placentation Tn compound or syncarpous ovary. Two oF more longitudinal placentae beary ovules attached to ovary wall. ‘Ovary can be unilocular oF can become falsely bilocular due to ingrowth of false septum or replum. ‘central placenta either arise from the torus or thalamus (Primrose) or the partition walls (septa), in the young, ‘ovary having axile placentation soon breakdown leaving thecentralcolumnbearing ovulese.g. Dinntlus(Fig.61,)). 5. Basal. In basal placentation the ovary is unilocular and placenta develops directly from torus bearing asingle ‘ovule at the base of ovary. The ovary may be simple Buttercup (Fig, 61 K)orcompound (Sunflower).Sometimes anovuleisattached at the apex of the unilocular ovary and +hangsdownwardly.ltsis described as Apical placentation eg. Cannabis (Bhang). Ceratoplyilum. 6. Superficial. In this the ovary ismultilocularand the placentae develop all around the inner surface of the partition walls bearing ovules eg. Nymphaea (Water lily, Fig. 61 L). AESTIVATION Itis the arrangement of petals in a flower bud in respect to one another. The aestivation may be of following types (Fig. 62). 1. Open, The margins of adjacent petal lobes are {quite apart to one another. 2. Valvate. Petals in a whorl are quite close to each other without overlapping e.g. Mimosa, Acacia. 3. Twisted or Contorted. When one margin of a petal overlaps the adjacent petal lobe and the other ‘margin is overlapped by the adjacent petal e.g. Neritan and China rose. 4. Imbricate. tis an irregular types of overlapping, of petals in the floral whorl and is of two types : Ascending imbricate. The posterior petal is overlapped by two lateral petals which in their tur are overlapped by twoanteriorpetalse.g, Cassi and Caesapinia. q 9 O ‘ouicunciaL. VEXILLARY FOR DESCENDING Fig. 62. Types of Aestivation in Corolla—t. Valvate; 2. Contorted or twisted; 3. Ascending imbricate; 4. Descending imbricate; 5. QuincuncialMORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS Descending imbricate. The posterior petals is overlapping the two lateral petals which in their tum overlap the two anterior petals. It is also known as: ‘Vexillary aestivation e.g, Pea, Latliyrus. 5. Quincuncial. There are five petals, out of which ‘twoarecompletely extemal, two are internal and fifth petal having one mangin external while other margin is internal eg. Psidium guyoa (Guava) and Punice granaturn (Anat). POT Botanically, a fruit is a matured ovary with or without seeds. In some fruits, other structures derived from other floral parts or from receptacle may become the part of fruit. Furthermore, a fruit may consist of several matured ovaries remaining together as a unit. So, a fruit may be defined as a structure made up fof one or more matured ovaries together with any accessory structures closely associated with them. After fertilization, ovary forms fruit and ovules change into seeds. Such fruits are called eucarp. Some fruits are formed without fertilization and do not bear seeds, ‘These fruits are known as parthenocarpic e.g. Banana and Grapes. When other floral parts like thalamus, perianth, bracts etc. have fused with pericarp to form a part of the fruits, they are called pseudocarp. r HR STYLE FRUIT ‘Bkown ser Fig. 63 A. Achene of Clematis; B. Caryopsis 'E. Nut of Oak; FG. Nut of Litehi and H. Si ‘The mature wall of the ovary in the fruit is called pericarp. The structure of pericarp varies greatly in different kinds of fruits. In some, three distinct layers may be differentiated ic. an outer layer called epicarp or exocarp, a middle layer called mesocarp and inner layer called endocarp. Pomology is the branch of horticulture that deals with the study of fruits and their cultivation. ‘The main functions of the fruit are : 1. To protect the seeds in young and immature condition. 2. Dispersal of the seeds to distant places, even during the untavourable conditions. 3. Some single seeded fruits are sown as a whole fruit. In such cases the fruit also provides nourishment to developing seedling e.g, Wheat and Maize ete. 4. Fruits are a source of sugars, pectins, organic acids, vitamins and minerals. 8. Many of the fruits are eaten by people. Fruits are of many kinds. In general, fruits may be classified as: (@) Simple fruits. They develop from a single flower having monocarpellary and syncarpous pisti. PERICARP ste of Maize; C. Cypsela of Sonchus; D. Cypsela of Dendelion; le samara of Elm.