Unit 3 - Basic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques PPT Notes Material For Sem II Uploaded by Navdeep Raghav

Electronic Instrumentation Unit-3
Oscilloscopes: CRT, wave form display and electrostatic

focusing, time base and sweep synchronization,
measurement of voltage, frequency and phase by CRO,
Oscilloscope probes, Dual trace oscilloscope, Sampling
Credits Theory - 04
Oscilloscope, DSO and Powerscope: Block diagram,

principle and working, Advantages and applications, CRO
specifications (bandwidth, sensitivity, rise time).
Signal Generators: Audio oscillator, Pulse Generator,
Function generators.
Practice Assignment 1 : Errors Submit on…..
Practice Assignment 2 : Meters Submit on…..
Practice Assignment 3 : Frequency Meters ..
W.D. Cooper and A. D. Helfrick,

Joseph J Carr,
Join the discussion Group : Moodle or MS TEams
Dr. Amit Pundir

2020-21
Oscilloscopes:
CRT, wave form display and electrostatic focusing,
Time base and sweep synchronization,
Measurement of voltage, frequency and phase,
Oscilloscope probes,
Dual Trace oscilloscope,
Sampling Oscilloscope,
DSO and Powerscope:
- Block diagram, principle and working,
- Advantages and applications, Valued Inputs from –
CRO specifications • Dr. Amit Pundir
• Dr. Geetika Jain Saxena
- bandwidth, sensitivity, rise time • Dr Vandana Kumari
• Dr. Sangeeta Yadav
Source: Book by Kalsi
CRO is
 A graph-displaying device of electrical signal
 X axis: Time
 Y axis: Voltage
Electronic Instrumentation
 Z axis: Intensity or brightness
 Information given by oscilloscopes

 Time and voltage
 Frequency and phase
 DC and AC components
 Spectral analysis
 Rise and fall time
 Mathematical analysis
 Oscilloscopes dynamically graph time-varying electrical signals in two
dimensions. It is used to test, verify, and debug electronic designs.
• Scope – Most commonly used terminology

• DSO – Digital Storage Oscilloscope
• Digital Scope
• Analog Scope
• CRO – Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Electronic Instrumentation Understanding the Scope’s Display
 Waveform display area shown with grid lines (or divisions).

 Vertical spacing of grid lines relative to Volts/division setting.
 Horizontal spacing of grid lines relative to sec/division setting.
Electronic Instrumentation Block Diagram of CRO
Electron Gun
■ In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a sharp beam and focused
upon the fluorescent screen.
■ The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid, an accelerating
electrode and a focusing anode.
■ The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded
by a control grid with a fine hole at its centre.
■ The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine hole.
■ The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of electrons in the electron beam, and
consequently, the brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Fluorescent Screen
■ Phosphor is used as screen material on the inner surface of a CRT. Phosphor absorbs the energy of the
incident electrons. The spot of light is produced on the screen where the electron beam hits.
■ The bombarding electrons striking the screen, release secondary emission electrons. These electrons
are collected or trapped by an aqueous solution of graphite called “Aquadag” which is connected to the
second anode.
■ Collection of the secondary electrons is necessary to keep the screen in a state of electrical
equilibrium.
■ The type of phosphor used, determines the color of the light spot. The brightest available phosphor
isotope, P31, produces yellow–green light with relative luminance of 99.99%.
Graticules
Time Base Signal
■ the beam deflects over the screen linearly (generally from left to right) and returns to
its starting point.
■ This phenomenon is termed This phenomenon is termed as Trace and Retrace. The
deflection of beam over the screen from left to right is called as Trace, while the return
of the beam from right to left is called as Retrace or Fly back. Usually this retrace is not
visible.
■ Hence a voltage that varies linearly with time, has to be applied to the deflection plates
to sweep the beam horizontally across the screen. This voltage is called Sweep
Voltage. Circuit used to generate such signals are called as Sweep Circuits (Time Base
Generators) .
■ After the time period of the deflection (set with the help of RC components used) the
signal must drop back to its initial value.
■ An Electronic generator that generates the high frequency saw tooth waves can be
termed as a Time Base Generator.
The time during which the output increases linearly is
called as Sweep Time (TS) and the time taken for the
signal to get back to its initial value is called
as Restoration Time or Fly back Time or Retrace
Time (Tr). Both of these time periods together form the
Time period of one cycle of the Time base signal.
Improving Linearity of Sweep Signal
The sweep circuits used in CRO must have excellent linearity to give accurate results of the
measurements made. To improve the linearity of the sweep circuits the following methods can be used.
■ Constant current charging, using a constant current source.

■ The Miller sweep circuit.
■ The phantastron circuit which is a variation of Miller circuit.
■ The boot-strap circuit.
Delay Line
Types of Delay Line

■ Lumped parameter delay line
■ Distributed parameter delay line
lumped parameter delay line
■ Symmetrical L.C. networks connected in cascade. When such a section is terminated
in its characteristic impedance, the looking back impedance will also be the
characteristic impedance. This section now behaves as a low pass filter. The cutoff
frequency is 1/ π√(LC).
■ If frequencies are lower than the cut off frequency, the output will be faithful
reproduction of the input and more importantly appears only after a delay. This is what
exactly we want from a delay line. The delay time is given by :
td = 1/fcπ = √(LC) approximately.
■ When ‘n’ number of such sections are cascaded in to a lumped parameter delay line.
The total delay time will be multiplied by 'n'. Hence Td = n.td.
■ The lumped parameter delay line suffers from phase distortion at high frequencies of
the input signal. The step input has over shoot and ringing which is called the
transient response distortion.
■ The sections must be terminated in the characteristic impedance, that requires
complex termination circuitry.
Distributed Parameter Delay Line
■ A specially manufactured coaxial cable with large value of inductance per unit length
makes a delay line of this type. The straight centre conductor is replaced by a continuous
coil of wire, wound on a flexible inner core in the form of a helix. Eddy currents are
minimised by the use of braided insulated wire, electrically connected at the ends of the
cable.
■ The inductance of the delay line is offered by the inner coil. The inductance can be
increased by winding the helical coil over a ferromagnetic core.
■ The parameters of a helical high impedance delay line are typically 1000 Ω of Z0 and
180 ns/m delay time td.
Electrostatic Focusing
■ In CRO the electron beam is focused by the “focusing anode”. The focusing arrangement
consists of pre-accelerating anode and the accelerating anode.
■ [There are two types of focusing – i) Electrostatic focusing and ii) Electromagnetic
focusing. The CRO uses electrostatic method while TV picture tube employs
electromagnetic focusing (larger deflection)]
Figure shows an electron at rest in an electric field

produced by two parallel plates. The force on an
electron is given by – qE, where q is the charge on
electron (q = 1.6 × 10-19 C), E is the electric field
intensity and negative sign shows that the direction
of force is in opposite direction to that of electric
field. This force can be used to deflect the beam of
electrons coming out of electron gun.
As the field is not uniform, the lateral repulsion of the electric field causes a spreading of electric
lines. The equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the field and the force on electron is in a
direction normal to them.
Figure below shows two concentric cylinders with a potential difference applied between them.
The equipotential surfaces are marked by the dotted lines which are curved in shape. The
equipotential surfaces are curved to form a double concave lens system.
The focal length of this double concave lens

system can be controlled by varying the
voltage on the focusing anode (FOCUS on front
panel).
We have to calculate the deflection angle of
electron beam when it passes through this
curved equipotential surface.
■ Let us consider the curved equipotential surface S. The potential on two sides is –V
and +V. An electron moving in direction AB is thus accelerated. Since the force acts in
direction normal to the surface, it is the normal component of the velocity that is
increased after refraction while the tangential component remains the same. The
tangential components are
vt1 = v1 sin(i) and vt2 = v2 sin(r),
since vt1 = vt2 v1 sin(i) = v2 sin(r),

sin(i) / sin(r) = v2 / v1
where v1 is the initial

velocity of the electrons, v2
is the velocity after passing
through the surface.
The electrostatic focusing arrangement
The equation is identical to the expression relating the refraction of a light beam in geometrical
optics. The refraction of an electron follows the laws of refraction as bending of light beam occurs
at a refracting surface. For this reason the focusing system in a CRT is known as electron lens.
The first electrode of this lens is pre-accelerating anode, containing several baffles to collimate the
electron beam. The second is the focusing anode. The third is the accelerating anode. The 1st and
3rd anodes are connected to a very high +ve voltage (+1500V). The focusing anode is connected to
a lower +ve potential (+500V).
Deflection Systems - Vertical
With no voltage applied on Y plates, With a D.C. voltage applied, the light
the light spot rests at the centre of spot is deflected towards +ve Y-plate.
screen
■ Voltages are applied to the Y-plate via a built-in amplifier.
■ The gain control adjusts the amplification of the input voltage to give a suitable deflection.
Deflection Systems - Horizontal
■ Time base circuit varies the voltage across the X-plates.

■ The spot is made to sweep across the screen at a steady speed, then, ‘fly
back’ rapidly to the start.
Waveform Display
An a.c. voltage across Y-plates:

spot oscillates up & down
Time base across X-plates:

spot sweeps across screen
If the input (sine wave) and saw tooth wave are perfectly
synchronised then exact input appears on the screen
Display of the Triangular Waveform
Electrostatic Deflection
Let E0 = voltage of pre-accelerating anode; V,
e = charge of an electron; C,
m = mass of electron; Kg,
vox = velocity of electron when entering the field of deflecting plates; m/s
Ed = potential between deflecting plates; V,
d = distance between deflecting plates;

ld = length of deflecting plates; m,
L = distance between screen and the centre of the deflecting plates; m, and
D = deflection of electron beam on the screen in Y direction;
The loss of potential energy (P.E.) when the electron moves from cathode to accelerating anode;
𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑒𝐸𝑎
The gain in kinetic energy (K.E.) by an electron
2
𝐾. 𝐸. = 1/2 𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥
(The mass of an electron is m = 9.109⨯10-31kg)
Equating the two energies, we have:
1/2
𝑣𝑜𝑥 = 2𝑒𝐸𝑎 /𝑚
This is the velocity of the electron in the X direction when it enters the deflecting plates. The velocity in the X
direction remains the same throughout the passage of the electrons through the deflecting plates as there is
no force acting in this direction.
The electric field intensity in the Y direction
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑑 /𝑑
Force acting on an electron in Y direction
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑒𝐸𝑦 = 𝑒𝐸𝑑 /𝑑
Suppose ay is the acceleration of the electron in Y direction therefore,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
or 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑒𝐸𝑦 /𝑚
𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑡 2
𝑦= =
2 2𝑚
As the velocity in x direction is constant, the displacement in X direction is given by:
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑡
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑣𝑜𝑥
Substituting the value of t in ‘y’ we have,
1 𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑡 2 2
𝑦= 2 𝑥
2 𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥
This is the equation of a parabola.
The slope at any point (x,y) is
𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝐸𝑦
= 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥
Putting 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑑 in above equation, we get the value of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑒𝐸𝑑 𝑙𝑑
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑙𝑑 = 2
𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑚𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑥
After leaving the deflection plates, the electrons travel in a straight line. The straight line of travel of
electrons is tangent to the parabola at 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑑 and this tangent intersects the X-axis at point o. the
location of this point is given by:
𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑙𝑑2
𝑦 2𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥2 𝑙𝑑
𝑥= = 𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑙𝑑 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2
2
𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥
The apparent origin is thus at the centre of deflection plates. The deflection D on the screen is given by:
𝐿𝑒𝐸𝑦 𝑙𝑑
𝐷 = 𝐿𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2
2𝑚𝑣𝑜𝑥
2 2𝑒𝐸𝑎
Substituting the value of 𝑣𝑜𝑥 = in the above equation, we get
𝑚
𝐿𝑒𝐸𝑑 𝑙𝑑 𝑚 𝐿𝐸𝑑 𝑙𝑑
𝐷= =
𝑚𝑑 2𝑒𝐸𝑎 2𝑑𝐸𝑎
Electrostatic Deflection on Screen
L ld E d
D
2 d Ea
From the above equation we conclude:

■ For a given accelerating voltage Ea, and for particular dimension of CRT, the deflection of the electron beam is directly
proportional to the deflecting voltage. This means that the CRT may be used as a linear indicating device.
■ The discussion above assumes that Ed is a fixed d.c voltage. The deflection is usually a time varying quantity and the

image on the screen thus follows the variations of the deflection voltage in a linear manner.
■ The deflection is independent of the e/m ratio.
Deflection sensitivity ‘S’
D L ld
S  (m /V )
Ed 2 d Ea
Deflection Factor ‘G’

 1 2 d Ea
G  (V / m)
S L ld
■ The sensitivity can be increased by decreasing the value of accelerating voltage Ea. But
this has a disadvantage of low luminosity.
■ High deflection potential Ed is required to deflect highly accelerated beam (high Ea). Highly

accelerated beam is also known as ‘hard beam’.
■ Typical values of sensitivities are 0.1mm/V to 1.0 mm/V.
Sweep Synchronisation
■ In order to obtain a steady pattern on the screen of the CRO, the sweep generator has to commence its
charging and discharging in sync with the input signal.
■ In other words the frequency of the time base generator must be equal to a whole multiple of the input
signal frequency. If this condition is not satisfied the pattern on the screen is not stable and moves
along the time axis.
■ Synchronization is the process of interlocking the input signal and the time base generators signal.
When the input signal and the sweep voltage are synchronized the pattern on the screen will be stable.
Process: The run up ramp of the sweep voltage will be made to close prematurely. This
can be done by applying a train of negative pulses to the base two (B2) of the UJT, or by
applying sinusoidal voltage to the base of the UJT (B2). When negative pulses are
applied the run up ramp ends prematurely.
For the first few cycles of the sync pulses the time base ramp follows the free running
mode. At one instant when the negative pulse reducing the peak voltage of the UJT is
able to discharge the capacitor earlier to reaching the amplitude of the previous cycle,
the synchronizing signal and the sweep signal are locked together. That is after this
instant the capacitor discharges only at the peaks of the sync signal. This means that
the sweep frequency has assumed the frequency of the sync signal, which is lower
slightly than its original frequency.
In the cathode ray oscilloscopes the sync. signal can be obtained from the output of
the vertical amplifier using the same signal for synchronizing the sweep, with the input
signal. A low voltage derived from the supply mains can also be used. External sync.
voltages can also be applied.
Vertical Deflection System
■ The vertical deflecting system has to provide the following facilities :
■ Amplify and reproduce the input signal. The amplifier must have good fidelity That is it must amplify the input signal within the
limits of its bandwidth, without effecting the amplitude, frequency and phase.
■ It has to isolate the cathode ray tube from the input signal. That is it has to act as a buffer.
■ It must have provisions for the different modes of operation.
Vertical Deflection System
The vertical deflecting system consists of the following elements:
■ Probe.
■ Selector for input signal.
■ Attenuator to adjust the gain of amplifier.

■ The vertical amplifier that amplifies the signal.
The Probe :
■ it connects the vertical amplifier to the circuit in which the waveform is to be observed
on CRO.
Input Selector :
■ The input selector is nothing but a single pole three way switch. The d.c input signals will
directly appear at the attenuator. In third mode we can measure alternating voltages.
While changing the switch from the a.c position to d.c was two connects the attenuator
to ground. This discharges any stored charge in the attenuator.
VDS - Input Attenuator
It consists of number of RC potential dividers controllers (VOLTS/DIV) on the CRO front panel. The
sequence of attenuation commonly used with the CROs is 1-2-5. For example the range of the attenuator
setting can be 0.1. 02, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 volts per division with a maximum attenuation of 50
v/div setting.
Attenuation must be independent of frequency and this requires a compensated attenuator.

-Upper position : signal is connected directly to the input of vertical amplifier (without attenuation)
-Lower position : attenuator network Ra-Ca is connected into the signal.
-It follows that the output voltage vo is proportional to the ratio of amplifier input impedance and total
circuit impedance.
-In compensated attenuator this ratio is kept constant by adjusting Ca such that RaCa = Ri Ci
■ Attenuator compensation technique : only two positions of the attenuator; in the first position of the attenuator
the input signal is directly connected to the input of the vertical amplifier. The input signals appears directly
without attenuation. In this position it corresponds to the minimum attenuation and from the above example will
be 0.1 V/div setting. This is the maximum sensitivity of the vertical deflecting system.
■ In the second position of the switch it can be observed that the resistor R1, Cv, the resistor R, and capacitor C form
a voltage divider consisting of R1 Cv Ri Ci parallel combination in them. The magnitude of the input voltage now will
be depending on the values of resistances R1 and Ri. The input to the amplifier is given by Va = (Ri/R1 + Ri)Vs
The output voltage at bridge balance is determined by the resistive voltage divider and
equals
Ri
vo  vi
Ra  Ri
Thus the voltage at the amplifiers input is va as given above. As no reactive terms are
there in the above expression for the input voltage to the amplifier, the voltage is
independent of frequency of the signal. However this is valid only if the bridge is
balanced. 
To balance the bridge a square wave test signal will be applied to the attenuator input.
The waveform obtained on the screen will be continuously observed adjusting the value
of Cv. The value of the capacitor will be adjusted until the true waveform of the applied
signal is observed on the CRO. If too large a value of Cv is offered over compensation
results giving a waveform with over shoot. Too small a value will give under
compensation rounding off the corners of the waveform observed.
Frequency Response
■ The bandwidth of an oscilloscope detects the range of frequencies that can be accurately
reproduced on the CRT screen. The greater the bandwidth, the wider is the range of
observed frequencies.
■ The bandwidth of an oscilloscope is the range of frequencies over which the gain of the
vertical amplifier stays within 3 db of the mid-band frequency gain, as shown in Fig.
■ Rise time is defined as the time required for the edge to rise from 10–90% of its
maximum amplitude. An approximate relation is given as follows:
Electronic Instrumentation Triggered Sweep
The loading effect of CRO
In common with all instruments, the CRO affects the condition of the circuit to which it is
connected. It is called the loading effect of the instrument.
As an example a simple potential divider circuit is shown in Fig. Before connecting the
CRO, the voltage across the lower 1 MΩ resistor is 6 V pk-pk by symmetry. When the
CRO is connected in the case of low frequencies for which the capacitive effect of the
CRO can be neglected, the 1 MΩ of the CRO reduces the lower resistance to a
combined resistance of 1/2MΩ. This means that the voltage across the lower
resistance will fall to 4V pk-pk and this is what a perfectly accurate CRO will read. Of
course the voltage will return to 6 V pk-pk when the CRO is removed.
The effect of the CRO on the circuit is clearly very significant and the effect becomes
worse at high frequencies, where the effect of the capacitance of the CRO further
reduces the impedance.
■ If the characteristics of the circuit and the CRO are known, then it is possible to
calculate the effect of the loading. The loading effect will only be serious where the
impedance of the circuit approaches the impedance of the CRO and it can usually be
neglected if the circuit impedance is not greater than one-tenth of the CRO
impedance. The solution is to use a suitable probe with the CRO.
Figures
Lissajous
Measurements using the CRO
Dual Trace CRO
This has Single electron beam
whose electrons are split into
two by an electronic switch.
Each channel has its own
calibrated input attenuator and

positioning control, so that the
amplitude of each signal can be
independently adjusted.
Modes:
ALTERNATE
CHOP
Dual Trace CRO
•ALTERNATE: Electronic switch feeds each signal
(channel A and B) alternately to vertical amplifier and
adds a different dc component to each signal. The
switching takes place at the start of each new sweep
of the sweep generator.
■ CHOP : when the switch is in chop mode, the

electronic switch is free running at the rate ≈
500kHz, independent of the frequency of the sweep
generator.
■ Switch successively connects small segments of A
and B waveforms to the main vertical amplifier (at
chopping rate of ≈ 500KHz, 1μs segments of each
waveform are fed to display).
If the chopping rate is slow, the

continuity of the display is lost and it
is better to use the alternate mode
of operation.
Other modes:
Add A and B
X – Y mode
DSO
Advantage of Digital Scope
 Easy to use.
One-shot measurement
 Recording
 Triggering
 Data reuse
 Connectivity
DSOs allow you to capture, view, store signals and provide extensive waveform
processing. Because the waveform information exists in digital form as a series of stored
binary values, it can be analyzed, archived, printed, and otherwise processed, within the
oscilloscope itself or by an external computer.
Analog equipment works with continuously variable voltages, while digital equipment works with discrete binary
numbers that represent voltage samples.
In contrast to an analog oscilloscope, a

digital oscilloscope uses an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) to convert the
measured voltage into digital

information. It acquires the waveform as
a series of samples, and stores these
samples until it accumulates enough
samples to describe a waveform. The
digital oscilloscope then re-assembles
the waveform for display on the screen.
Storage Oscilloscope
A mesh storage CRT uses a dielectric material (Magnesium Fluoride) deposited on a
strong mesh as storage target. This mesh is placed between deflection plates and
Phosphorous Screen.
The writing e-beam charges the dielectric material positively where hit (by knocking off
secondary emission electrons).
Because of the excellent insulating properties of Magnesium Fluoride these +vely

charged areas remain exactly at the same position for a very long time.
To make the pattern visible, the mesh is then bombarded with low velocity electrons from
a flood gun (a special gun). Most of the electrons are collected by the collector mesh.
Only electrons near the +vely charged areas are accelerated with sufficient force to pass
through storage mesh.
These electrons which pass through the storage mesh and reproduce the stored image
on the phosphorous screen, remain visible as long as the flood gun operates.
Oscilloscope Performance Specifications
“Bandwidth” is the most important oscilloscope specification
Oscilloscope “Gaussian” Frequency Response
 All oscilloscopes exhibit a low-pass frequency response.

 The frequency where an input sine wave is attenuated by 3 dB defines the scope’s bandwidth.
 -3 dB equates to ~ -30% amplitude error (-3 dB = 20 Log ).
Extending the frequency Range : Sampling
When measuring high-frequency signals, the oscilloscope may not be able to collect enough samples in one
sweep. A digital sampling oscilloscope is an ideal tool for accurately capturing signals whose frequency
components are much higher than the oscilloscope’s sample rate
The input signal is sampled before any attenuation or amplification is performed. A low bandwidth
amplifier can then be utilized after the sampling bridge because the signal has already been
converted to a lower frequency by the sampling gate, resulting in a much higher bandwidth
instrument.
Sampling CRO : Limitations
The tradeoff for this high bandwidth, however, is that the sampling oscilloscope’s
dynamic range is limited. Since there is no attenuator/amplifier in front of the sampling
gate, there is no facility to scale the input. The sampling bridge must be able to handle
the full dynamic range of the input at all times. Therefore, the dynamic range of most
sampling oscilloscopes is limited to about 1 V peak-to-peak. Digital storage and digital
phosphor oscilloscopes, on the other hand, can handle 50 to 100 volts.
In addition, protection diodes cannot be placed in front of the sampling bridge as this
would limit the bandwidth. This reduces the safe input voltage for a sampling
oscilloscope to about 3 V, as compared to 500 V available on other oscilloscopes.
Sampling
Sampling is the process of converting a portion of an input signal into a number of discrete electrical
values for the purpose of storage, processing and/or display. The magnitude of each sampled point is
equal to the amplitude of the input signal at the instant in time in which the signal is sampled.
In a digital oscilloscope, an array of sampled points is reconstructed on a display with the measured
amplitude on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis, as illustrated in Figure.
The input waveform in Figure

appears as a series of dots on the
screen. If the dots are widely
spaced and difficult to interpret as a
waveform, the dots can be
connected using a process called
interpolation. Interpolation connects
the dots with lines, or vectors.
Sampling Methods
Although there are a number of different implementations of sampling technology, today’s digital oscilloscopes
utilize two basic sampling methods:
real-time sampling and
equivalent-time sampling.
Equivalent-time sampling can be divided further, into two subcategories:

random and sequential.
Each method has distinct advantages, depending on the kind of measurements being made.
Sampling Controls are typically available on modern oscilloscopes to give you the choice of three horizontal time base
modes of operations.
If you are simply doing signal exploration, you will use the Automatic or interactive default mode that provides you with
the liveliest display update rate.
If you want a precise measurement and the highest real-time sample rate that will give you the most measurement
accuracy, then the Constant Sample Rate mode is for you. It will maintain the highest sample rate and provide the best
real-time resolution.
The last mode is called the Manual mode because it ensures direct and independent control of the sample rate and
record length.
Real-time Sampling
Real-time sampling is ideal for signals whose frequency range is less than half the oscilloscope’s
maximum sample rate. Here, the oscilloscope acquires more than enough points in one “sweep” of the
waveform to construct an accurate picture. Real-time sampling is the only way to capture fast, single-shot,
transient signals with a digital oscilloscope.
Difficult to accurately digitize high-frequency transient events. If the sample rate isn’t fast enough, high-
frequency components can “fold down” into a lower frequency, causing aliasing in the display.
In addition, real-time sampling is further complicated by the high-speed memory required to store the
waveform once it is digitized.
Equivalent-time Sampling
When measuring high-frequency signals, the oscilloscope may not be able to collect enough samples in
one sweep. Equivalent-time sampling can be used to accurately acquire signals whose frequency exceeds
half the oscilloscope’s sample rate.
Most naturally occurring and man-made events are repetitive. Equivalent-time sampling constructs a
picture of a repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition. This allows the
oscilloscope to accurately capture signals whose frequency components are much higher than the
oscilloscope’s sample rate.
There are two types of equivalent-time sampling methods:

Random and Sequential
Each has its advantages. Random equivalent-time sampling allows display of the input signal prior to the
trigger point, without the use of a delay line. Sequential equivalent-time sampling provides much greater
time resolution and accuracy. Both require that the input signal be repetitive.
Random Equivalent-time Sampling
These utilize an internal clock that runs asynchronously with respect to the input signal and the signal
trigger, as illustrated in Figure. Samples are taken continuously, independent of the trigger position, and
are displayed based on the time difference between the sample and the trigger. Although samples are
taken sequentially in time, they are random with respect to the trigger – hence the name “random”
equivalent-time sampling. Sample points appear randomly along the waveform when displayed on the
oscilloscope screen.
The ability to acquire and

display samples prior to the
trigger point is the key
advantage of this sampling
technique, eliminating the
need for external pre trigger
signals or delay lines.
Sequential Equivalent-time Sampling
It acquires one sample per trigger, independent of the time/div setting, or sweep speed, as illustrated in Figure. When
a trigger is detected, a sample is taken after a very short, but well-defined, delay. When the next trigger occurs, a small
time increment ‘delta t’ is added to this delay and the digitizer takes another sample. This process is repeated many
times, with “delta t” added to each previous acquisition, until the time window is filled. Sample points appear from left
to right in sequence along the waveform when displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
Technologically speaking, it is easier to generate a very short, very precise “delta t” than it is to accurately measure the
vertical and horizontal positions of a sample relative to the trigger point, as required by random samplers. This precisely
measured delay is what gives sequential samplers their unmatched time resolution.
Passive 10:1 Voltage Divider Probe
Passive 10:1 Probe Model
Passive: Includes no active elements such as transistors or amplifiers.

10-to-1: Reduces the amplitude of the signal delivered to the scope’s BNC input by a factor of 10. Also
increases input impedance by 10X.
Note: All measurements must be performed relative to ground!

Low-frequency/DC Model
Low-frequency/DC Model: Simplifies to a 9-MΩ resistor in series with the scope’s 1-MΩ input termination.
Probe Attenuation Factor:
 Some scopes such as Agilent’s 3000 X-Series automatically detect 10:1 probes and adjust all vertical settings and voltage
measurements relative to the probe tip.
 Some scopes require manual entry of a 10:1 probe attenuation factor.
Signal Generators:
Audio oscillator,
Pulse Generator,
Function Generators.
Valued Inputs from –

• Dr. Amit Pundir
• Dr. Geetika Jain Saxena
• Dr Vandana Kumari
• Dr. Sangeeta Yadav
Source: Book by Kalsi
Waveform - Few Fundamental Concepts
The term “wave” can be defined as a pattern of varying quantitative values that
repeats over some interval of time. (sound waves, brain waves, ocean waves, light
waves, voltage waves, and many more).
Signal generators are usually concerned with producing electrical (typically voltage)
waves that repeat in a controllable manner.
Each full repetition of a wave is known as a “cycle.”
A waveform is a graphic representation of the wave’s activity — its variation over

time.
A voltage waveform is a classic Cartesian graph with time on the horizontal axis and
voltage on the vertical axis.
Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase
Amplitude: A measure of the voltage “strength” of the waveform. Amplitude is constantly changing in an AC signal.
Signal generators allow you to set a voltage range, for example, —3 to +3 volts. This will produce a signal that fluctuates
between the two voltage values, with the rate of change dependent upon both the wave shape and the frequency.
Frequency: The rate at which full waveform cycles occur. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), formerly known as
cycles per second. Frequency is inversely related to the period (or wavelength) of the waveform, which is a measure of
the distance between two similar peaks on adjacent waves. Higher frequencies have shorter periods.
Phase: In theory, the placement of a waveform cycle relative to a 0 degree point. In practice, phase is the time
placement of a cycle relative to a reference waveform or point in time.
phase shift (also known as delay), describes the difference in

timing between two signals.
The amplitude, frequency, and phase characteristics of a waveform are the building
blocks a signal generator. In addition, there are other parameters that further define
signals.
Rise and Fall Time
Edge transition times, also referred to as rise and fall times are measures of the time it
takes the signal edge to make a transition from one state to another. In modern digital
circuitry, these values are usually in the low nanosecond range or less. Both rise and fall
times are measured between the 10% and 90% points of the static voltage levels before
and after the transition.
Pulse Width
Pulse width is the time that elapses between the leading and trailing edges of a
pulse. Note that the term “leading” applies to either positive-going or negative-going
edges as does the term “trailing.” In Figure , the positive-going edge is the leading
edge. The pulse width measurement expressed the time between the 50%
amplitude points of the respective edges.

Duty Cycle
Another term, “duty cycle,” is used to describe a pulse’s high and low (on/off) time
intervals. The example in Figure 5 represents a 50% duty cycle. In contrast, a cycle with a
period of 100 ns whose active high (on) level lasts 60 ns is said to have a 60% duty cycle.
To cite a tangible example of a duty cycle, imagine an actuator that must rest for three
seconds after each one-second burst of activity, in order to prevent the motor from
overheating. The actuator rests for three seconds out of every four — a 25% duty cycle.
Offset
Not all signals have their amplitude variations

centered on a ground (0 V) reference. The
“offset” voltage is the voltage between circuit
ground and the center of the signal’s
amplitude. In effect, the offset voltage
expresses the DC component of a signal
containing both AC and DC values, as shown
in Figure 6.
Figure. The offset voltage describes the DC
component of a signal containing both AC and
DC values.
Basic Waves
Sine waves
Square and rectangular waves
Sawtooth and triangle waves
Step and pulse shapes

Complex waves
Waveform Generator
A generator of signals used as a stimulus for electronic measurements.

Most circuits require some type of input signal whose amplitude varies over time.
The signal may be an AC signal (with peaks oscillating above and below a ground
reference point) or it may vary over a range of DC offset voltages, either positive or
negative.
It may be a sine wave or other analog function, a digital pulse, a binary pattern or a
purely arbitrary wave shape.
Types of Signal Generators
■ Audio Oscillators
■ Frequency Generators
■ Pulse Generators
(generally an oscillator is a device that provides a sine-wave signal of a certain

frequency and a certain amplitude, while a signal generator has the added
capacity of amplitude modulation of the output signal and a wide tuning range.)
Basic Signal Generator Applications
Verification
Testing Digital Modular Transmitters and Receivers

Wireless equipment designers developing new transmitter and receiver hardware
must simulate baseband signals – to verify conformance with emerging and
proprietary wireless standards.
Characterization
Testing D/A and A/D Converters
Newly-developed digital-to-analog converters (DAC) and analog- to-digital converters
(ADC) must be exhaustively tested to determine their limits of linearity, monotonicity,
and distortion
Audio Oscillator
Normally used : measurement of gain, bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, and many other circuit properties.
Standard signal generator is source of ac energy of accurately known characteristics.
The generator is also capable of modulating a carrier.
Common modulating signals are – Sine, square and pulse.
Common modulation are – AM and FM.
The elements of standard signal generator are shown in figure.
Range Frequency
Output
level
o/p
Modulation Percentage
Frequency Modulation
Improved frequency stability (oscillator designed fro highest frequency and frequency dividers are used for
lower frequency)
Master oscillator is insensitive to temperature variations.
Buffer oscillators provide good isolation between master oscillator and power amplifiers
Internal calibration by a crystal oscillator of 1MHz
Modulation is done by the internally generated signals of 400MHz and 1 MHz
Sine and Square wave generator
Wien bridge is used as generator (frequency is changed by charging capacitor or switching between different
resistance ranges in Wien bridge).
Switch connects to either sine wave generator or square wave generator.
o/p sine wave amplitude variation possible – 5mV to 5V.
Square wave amplitude variation – 0 to 20V (symmetry 30-70%).
Front panel consists of : i) Frequency Selector ii) Frequency Multiplier iii) Amplitude Multiplier iv) Symmetry
Control v) Variable Amplitude vi) Amplitude vii) Output

Figure : Basic Function Generator

Electronic Instrumentation Pulse Generator
Thanks 
14-04-2023 Dr. Amit Pundir, Maharaja Agrasen College 120

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Electronic Instrumentation Unit-3

Oscilloscopes: CRT, wave form display and electrostatic

Oscilloscope, DSO and Powerscope: Block diagram,

Practice Assignment 1 : Errors Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 2 : Meters Submit on…..

Practice Assignment 3 : Frequency Meters ..

W.D. Cooper and A. D. Helfrick,

Dr. Amit Pundir

 Z axis: Intensity or brightness

 Information given by oscilloscopes

• Scope – Most commonly used terminology

 Waveform display area shown with grid lines (or divisions).

■ Constant current charging, using a constant current source.

Types of Delay Line

Figure shows an electron at rest in an electric field

equipotential surfaces are curved to form a double concave lens system.

The focal length of this double concave lens

since vt1 = vt2 v1 sin(i) = v2 sin(r),

where v1 is the initial

■ Time base circuit varies the voltage across the X-plates.

An a.c. voltage across Y-plates:

Time base across X-plates:

d = distance between deflecting plates;

From the above equation we conclude:

Deflection Factor ‘G’

■ Attenuator to adjust the gain of amplifier.

Attenuation must be independent of frequency and this requires a compensated attenuator.

calibrated input attenuator and

of the sweep generator.

■ CHOP : when the switch is in chop mode, the

If the chopping rate is slow, the

In contrast to an analog oscilloscope, a

measured voltage into digital

Because of the excellent insulating properties of Magnesium Fluoride these +vely

Oscilloscope “Gaussian” Frequency Response

 All oscilloscopes exhibit a low-pass frequency response.

The input waveform in Figure

Equivalent-time sampling can be divided further, into two subcategories:

There are two types of equivalent-time sampling methods:

The ability to acquire and

Passive 10:1 Probe Model

Passive: Includes no active elements such as transistors or amplifiers.

Note: All measurements must be performed relative to ground!

Valued Inputs from –

A waveform is a graphic representation of the wave’s activity — its variation over

phase shift (also known as delay), describes the difference in

amplitude points of the respective edges.

Not all signals have their amplitude variations

Step and pulse shapes

A generator of signals used as a stimulus for electronic measurements.

(generally an oscillator is a device that provides a sine-wave signal of a certain

Testing Digital Modular Transmitters and Receivers

The elements of standard signal generator are shown in figure.

Control v) Variable Amplitude vi) Amplitude vii) Output

Figure : Basic Function Generator

14-04-2023 Dr. Amit Pundir, Maharaja Agrasen College 120

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