M.Ed.

I Semester

HC 04 - Curriculum Development

Unit 1 Curriculum
CONCEPT, Meaning and Definition of Curriculum

➢ The term "curriculum" has been derived from a Latin word „currere‟ which means "a race course” or „a
runway on which one runs to reach a goal”. Accordingly, a curriculum is the instructional and the educative
program following which the pupils achieve their goals, idealsand aspiration in life. It is curriculum through
which the general aims of education receive concrete expression.
➢ Traditional concept of Curriculum
The traditional curriculum was subject centred, while the modern curriculum is student and life
centred.
➢ Modern concept of Curriculum
The modern education is the combination of two dynamic processes. One is the process of
individual development and the other is process of socialization which is commonly known as
adjustment with the social environment.

Narrow and Broader Meaning of Curriculum

In its narrow sense, curriculum means the plan reach the aims and objectives of education. It is
restricted to classroom activities concentrating on the study of a few subjects in a major field of
study. It is just a tool to achieve the aim of teaching a subject.
• It is limited to classroom activity;
• It emphasis teaching subjects;
• It works to produce certificate and degree;
• It develops only mental ability; and
• It is more under teacher and administrative control.

In its broader sense, curriculum means not only the study of academic subjects traditionally
taught in schools, but also includes the sum total of all experiences that a pupil receives through
the manifold activities in a school.
• It includes total experiences given by manifold activities;
• Includes both curricular and co-curricular activities;
• It works to develop the personality of the child;
• It has a more creative and forward outlook; and
• It is child-centred

DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM:
➢ According to Cunningham,
“Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupils),
according to his ideas (aims and objectives) in his studio (school).”
➢ According to Morroe,
“Curriculum includes all those activities which are utilised by the school to attain the aims of
education.”
➢ According to Crow and Crow,
 “The curriculum includes all the learners‟ experience in or outside school that are included in a
programme which has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially and
morally.”
➢ According to John Kerr, a curriculum is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups,
individually inside or outside the school.
➢ The curriculum is a total learning experience provided by the school. It includes the content of courses
(Syllabus), the method employed (Strategies) and other aspects like norms and values, which relate to the way
schools are organized.
➢ Thus a curriculum is neither development nor a sequence of experiences. It is a plan for facilitating learning for
students.
➢ This plan starts with where the child is. It enumerates all the aspects and dimensions of learning that are
considered necessary. It gives a reason why such learning is considered necessary and what educational aims it
would serve.
➢ In a nutshell, the curriculum is a means followed by the teachers and students for achieving the set goals and the
aims or objectives of education being provided in the school.
Curriculum, in every sense, is supposed to be used for all experiences. These may becurricular or co-curricular,
imparted by the school for the realization of the stipulated aims and objectives of the school education.

Nature of Curriculum

• The instructional programme as indicated by the course offering to meet the variousrequirements of
a vast heterogeneous population
• The courses of study, embodying outlines of knowledge to be taught
• All the experiences provided under the guidance of the school
• Makes a difference between maturity and immaturity, between literacy and illiteracy,between sophistication
and simplicity
• Accumulated heritage of man‟s knowledge filtered through the prisms of contemporarydemands and
pressures
• Wisdom considered relevant to any age in any given location
• Chooses vast amount of heritage of wisdom to make a difference in the life of man

Scope of Curriculum
Curriculum is very comprehensive in its scope. It touches all aspects of the life of the pupils- the need and
interest of the pupils, environment which should be educationally congenial to them, ways and manners in
which their interests can be handled and warmed-up, the procedures and approaches which cause effective
learning among them, the social efficiency of the individuals and how they fit in with the community around.
It is intimately related with the individual as a member of the society. It embodies the educational
philosophy, the values which it aims to achieve, the purposed it wants philosophy, the values it aims to
achieve purposes it wants to realise and the specific goals that it wants to achieve. The emphasis is on the
child. In the total education of the child, all the subjects like history, geography, science and language are but
tools. These are the means and therefore the children must not be made to fit in such study.

i. Realisation of Educational Objectives:- An organisation of education is based on the curriculum. The

curriculum development is done in view to realize the objectives of education. Thus the curriculum is the
means for achieving the educational objectives.
ii. Proper use of Time and Energy:- It provides the guidelines to the teachers as well as to students, what a
teacher has to learn.
iii. Acquisition of Knowledge:- The curriculum is the means for the acquiring knowledge. Actually, human
knowledge is one but is divided into subjects for the convenience and organisation point of view. Thus, the
curriculum is designed for the different subjects.
iv. Determining Structure of Content:- Every subject’s content has its wide structure which is to be taught
lower level to the higher level. Thus the main task to the higher level. Thus the main task of curriculum
development is determining structure of content for a particular stage teaching. Thus the curriculum of
different subjects is designed from primary level to university level.
v. Development of Personality:- The curriculum is also important and significant from personality
development of student. The curriculum is designed which helps in development in good qualities in
students. It helps in developing physical, social and moral qualities of learners.
vi. Preparation of Textbook:- The curriculum provides the guideline and bases for preparing textbook for
the use of students and subject teacher. If the curriculum is changed or modified, the textbooks are also
changed. A good textbook has wide coverage of curriculum content of subjects.
vii. Conducting Examination:- Our education system is examination oriented. The students have forced to
obtain good marks in the examination. Thus examination paper is prepared as per the curriculum of the
subject and students also prepare the content for the examination. Thus, curriculum is the basis of teaching,
learning and testing.
viii. Organising Teaching and Learning Situation:- The teaching and learning situations are organised in
view to the curriculum. Teaching work is also assigned with the help of curriculum.
ix. Decision about Instructional Method:- The instructional method is selected and used in view of the
curriculum. The same content is taught from memory to reflective level. It may be teacher centred or learner
centred.
x. Development of Knowledge, Skill and Attitude:- The nature of curriculum provides the basis for the
developing knowledge, skills, attitude and creative ability. It also helps in development leadership qualities.
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM
1).Curriculum Aims and Objectives:
i. Aims and objectives are decided at all the levels central, state, and local considering philosophy, sociological and
psychological foundations.
ii. Aims and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”.
iii. The subject’s content structure, levels of students, and type of examination components are considered in the
identification of objectives of teaching and learning.
iv. These objectives are specific and written in behavioral terms so as to develop learning structures and conditions.
v. It tries to capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives.
2).Curriculum Content or Subject Matter:
i. It clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what to drive at.
ii. In the same manner, Curriculum has a frame work guideline. Here, it contains information about all the aspects
to be learned in school.
iii. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished.
iv. A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in distilled form to a new
generation of young learners.
v. In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity form a sound
content.
vi. The content of any subject is usually broad. It is analysed into subcontent and further into its elements.
vii. This elements are arranged in a logical sequence.
viii. The behavioural objectives are written with the help of these elements of the content.
ix. It is also known as logic of teaching.
3).Curriculum Experience:
 i. Curriculum experience means what Instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed in teaching-
learning.
ii. The specific objectives of teaching are attained with the help of appropriate teaching strategy.
iii. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in order to
produce and outcome.
iv. These would convert the written curriculum to instruction.
v. The behavioural objectives provides the awareness and insight about the specific learning conditions.
vi. The strategy is employed for providing learning experiences and bringing desirable behavioural change.
Moreover, mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
4).Curriculum Evaluation:
i. For the fourth elements, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum.
ii. Curriculum evaluation means what methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
iii. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum.
iv. The level of students attainment is evaluated by employing criteria referenced test.
v. It shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components.
vi. The interpretation of evaluation provides the feedback to the curriculum and its components.
vii. Curriculum evaluation is also important so that one could assess whether the objectives and aims have been meet
or if not, he could employ another strategy which will really work out.
viii. Curriculum evaluation is an empirical basis for the ‘curriculum development’
ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM
• Curriculum aim, goals, and objectives- The curriculum aims, goals, and objectives spell out what is to be
done it tries to capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy.

• Curriculum content or subject matter- Curriculum has a framework guideline it contains information about
all the aspects to be learned in school. The primary concern of all education is to transmit organised
knowledge which is to be transmitted to the young learners. In organising the learning content, balance
articulation, sequence integration and continuity form a sound content.

• Curriculum Experience- The curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are the core of the
curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in
order to produce an outcome. These could convert the written curriculum to instruction.

• Curriculum Evaluation- is an element of an effective curriculum. It identifies the quality effectiveness of the
program, process and product of the curriculum. These are essential ingredient to have in an effective
curriculum. In a curriculum, evaluation is important in order to know whether the objectives and aims have
been met or not and accordingly use curriculum experience would not be effective if the content has been met
or not been defined clearly. Curriculum evaluation therefore serves as the barometer to measure how far and
how much the learner has imbibed and understood can their educational journey.

Types of Curriculum

1. Subject-centred Curriculum Teacher centred

Used for courses like Maths, Biology, etc. The curriculum
is designed as per the subject being taught. Each topic in
the subject is taught as per the examples. This design Subject centred
TYPES OF CURRICULUM

model doesn‟t take into the picture the capabilities of the

students taking up the course and hence may not be
suitable for all. Learner centred
2. Learner-centred Curriculum
This design aims to customize the curriculum as per the
needs of the student. Its core philosophy is that each Disciplinary
student is unique and there is no standard curriculum
which can fit all of them. Differentiated instruction plans
Interdisciplinary

Transdisciplinary
 can be prepared to suit each student as per their
requirement. But since there is a constraint of time and
also to figure out what each student needs uniquely this
method also has its disadvantages.
3. Teacher-centred Curriculum
Refers to a body of assumptions about the purposes of education, beliefs about knowledge,
learners, and learning observable in Teacher behaviours and classroom practices. In teacher
centred education students put all of their focus on the Teacher. The teacher talks while
students exclusively listen.
4. Disciplinary Curriculum
A discipline-based curriculum approach characterizes teaching practice within one subject and
encourages teachers for specialization, depth of content knowledge, and integrity to the
conventions of their discipline.
5. Interdisciplinary Curriculum
Interdisciplinary curriculum involves using the knowledge view and curricular approach that
consciously applies methodology and language from more than one discipline to examine a
central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience.

6. Transdisciplinary Curriculum
An approach to curriculum integration which dissolves the boundaries between the
conventional disciplines and organizes teaching and learning around the construction of
meaning in the context of real-world problems or themes.
Transdisciplinary education brings integration of different disciplines in a harmonious manner
to construct new knowledge and uplift the leaner to higher domains of cognitive abilities and
sustained knowledge and skills. It involve better neural networking for lifelong learning.
Transdisciplinary education brings integration of different disciplines in a harmonious manner
to construct new knowledge and uplift the leaner to higher domains of cognitive abilities and
sustained knowledge and skills. It involve better neural networking for lifelong learning.

Thus we have learnt that an instructor must follow the proper guidelines and frameworks to design a
curriculum because the curriculum is very important to guide the student on his journey on acquiring
knowledge about a subject and also speaks on the teaching capability of an instructor.

Issues and problems of existing curriculum –

Some of them are discussed below:

• Issues in curriculum development.
• Curriculum is outdated.
• Involvement of government officials.
• Lack of academic research.
• Absence of school teachers' involvement.
• Result of weak academic skills of researchers.
Bases/Foundations of Curriculum

Bases are the pillars upon which the building lies. Curriculum development also has several bases.
When planning for curriculum, two categories of basis are
1. Those that are instructional in nature
2. Those that affect people directly
• The instructional bases of curriculum planning include planning domains, the context or characteristics of the
 school situation, the impact of current trends and issues, and the use of strategic planning.
• Those bases of curriculum planning that affect people directly include student and teacher needs, local
curriculum problems to be addressed, competencies of planners, etc.
• All these bases affect the curriculum planning process in various ways and to differing degrees. The curriculum
should enable all young people to become successful learners who enjoy learning, make progress and achieve
→ confident individuals who are able to live safe, healthy and fulfilling lives.
→ responsible citizens who make positive contributions to society.
• Let us now learn about some other bases that should be considered while developing the curriculum.

The foundations of curriculum, which include philosophical, sociological, and psychological foundations, are crucial
in shaping the content, structure, and methods of educational programs. Let's delve into each of these foundations:

1. Philosophical Foundation: The philosophical foundation of curriculum is concerned with the fundamental
questions about the nature and purpose of education. It influences the values, goals, and principles that underpin the
curriculum. Three prominent educational philosophies often guide curriculum development:
• Perennialism: Perennialists believe in the importance of a traditional, classical education that emphasizes the
study of timeless and universal knowledge, such as literature, mathematics, and philosophy. They advocate for
a strong core curriculum and a focus on intellectual and moral development.
• Essentialism: Essentialists emphasize the mastery of essential knowledge and skills as the core purpose of
education. They favor a structured curriculum that focuses on fundamental subjects and aims to equip students
with a well-rounded education.
• Progressivism: Progressivists stress experiential learning and the active involvement of students in the learning
process. They view education as a means to develop problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and social
interaction, often favoring a more student-centered and inquiry-based curriculum.
2. Sociological Foundation: The sociological foundation of curriculum considers the social and cultural context
in which education takes place. It takes into account the influence of society, culture, and community on the
curriculum. Key aspects include:
• Cultural Diversity: A curriculum should recognize and embrace the cultural diversity of students, addressing
their unique needs and perspectives. It should also promote cultural understanding and tolerance.
• Socioeconomic Factors: The socioeconomic status of students and their families can impact educational
outcomes. Curriculum may address issues related to equity and social justice to ensure equal opportunities for
all students.
• Societal Values: The curriculum should reflect the values and norms of society. This involves considering the
changing values of a society and how they influence the goals and content of education.
3. Psychological Foundation: The psychological foundation of curriculum is rooted in theories of human
development, learning, and cognition. It informs curriculum development by understanding how students learn
and how instructional strategies can be tailored to their needs. Key psychological theories include:
• Behaviorism: Behaviorist theories emphasize observable behaviors and conditioning. In curriculum
development, this might involve structured and repetitive teaching methods to reinforce learning.
• Cognitivism: Cognitivist theories focus on cognitive processes, such as memory, problem-solving, and
information processing. Curriculum design often involves emphasizing the development of thinking skills and
knowledge acquisition.
• Constructivism: Constructivist theories highlight the active role of learners in constructing their own
knowledge. Curriculum based on constructivist principles encourages hands-on learning, problem-solving, and
collaborative activities.

These three foundations are interconnected, and curriculum designers often draw from elements of each to create a
well-rounded educational program. An effective curriculum should reflect a balanced consideration of philosophical
principles, societal context, and psychological insights to best meet the needs and aspirations of both individual
students and society as a whole.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF CURRICULUM IN INDIA
 The historical perspective of curriculum in India has evolved over centuries and has been influenced by
various cultural, philosophical, and political developments. Here's an overview of the historical evolution of
curriculum in India:

1. Ancient India:
• Ancient India had a well-developed educational system, with a curriculum that emphasized a holistic
and comprehensive approach to learning.
• The curriculum included the study of Vedas, Upanishads, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy,
grammar, and the arts and sciences.
• The Gurukul system was the prevalent mode of education, with personal guidance from gurus
(teachers) playing a central role.
2. Buddhist and Jain Period:
• During the time of the Mauryan and Gupta Empires, Buddhist and Jain monasteries were centers of
learning.
• The curriculum expanded to include Buddhist and Jain scriptures, along with other subjects like
grammar, logic, and medicine.
3. Medieval India:
• The Islamic rule and the establishment of Madrasas introduced Persian and Arabic influences into the
curriculum.
• Madrasas focused on Islamic theology, Arabic language, and Persian literature.
• Persian became a significant medium of instruction in some regions.
4. Mughal Era:
• Under the Mughal Empire, there was a fusion of Indian and Persian culture.
• The curriculum included Persian literature, Islamic studies, and various arts and sciences.
5. British Colonial Period:
• The British introduced a Western-style education system during their colonial rule.
• English became the medium of instruction in schools and colleges.
• The curriculum was restructured to include subjects like English literature, mathematics, and science.
6. Post-Independence (1947 onwards):
• After gaining independence, India went through various educational reforms.
• The government aimed to provide free and compulsory education for all through policies and acts like
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All) and the Right to Education Act.
• The curriculum was expanded to include a broader range of subjects, including vocational and
technical education.
7. Contemporary Times:
• In contemporary India, the curriculum has continued to evolve to meet the changing needs of society
and the demands of the job market.
• Various educational boards and authorities, such as the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
and the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), play a significant role in
shaping the curriculum.
8. Diverse Curriculum Offerings:
• India's curriculum now includes a wide range of subjects, from traditional areas like mathematics and
science to modern subjects like information technology and environmental science.
• The curriculum aims to provide a well-rounded education while addressing issues of social equity and
inclusion.
 The historical perspective of curriculum in India reflects a dynamic and complex journey that has evolved
through diverse cultural, political, and social influences. The curriculum has adapted over the centuries to
meet the evolving needs of society and the changing paradigms of education. Today, India's education
system strives to provide a comprehensive and contemporary curriculum to prepare students for the
challenges of the modern world.

ROLE OF SOCIETY
Society plays a crucial role in curriculum development, influencing the goals, content, and structure of
educational programs. The relationship between society and curriculum development is dynamic and
interconnected. Here are some key ways in which society influences curriculum development:

1. Reflecting Societal Values and Priorities:

• Curriculum development must align with the values, beliefs, and priorities of the society in which it
operates. It should reflect the cultural, ethical, and moral norms of the community.
2. Addressing Economic and Workforce Needs:
• Societal changes, such as shifts in the economy and labor market, impact curriculum. When certain
industries or sectors are in demand, the curriculum may emphasize relevant skills and knowledge to
prepare students for those careers.
3. Fostering Social Cohesion:
• Curriculum can promote social cohesion by addressing issues like citizenship, social justice, and
diversity. It can help students develop a sense of belonging and responsibility to their communities
and the larger society.
4. Meeting Legal and Regulatory Requirements:
• Societal laws and regulations, such as education policies and standards, have a direct impact on
curriculum. Curriculum developers must adhere to legal requirements while designing educational
programs.
5. Responding to Technological Advancements:
• As technology advances, society's expectations for digital literacy and technical skills in education
evolve. Curriculum development must incorporate these advancements to prepare students for the
digital age.
6. Embracing Environmental and Health Concerns:
• Growing environmental and health concerns influence curriculum development, leading to the
inclusion of topics related to sustainability, environmental science, and health education.
7. Addressing Social Issues:
• Societal issues such as gender equality, social justice, and inclusivity play a role in curriculum
development. Curricula may include content that educates students about these issues and fosters a
sense of responsibility to address them.
8. Encouraging Civic Engagement:
• Curriculum can encourage civic engagement and active participation in society. Social studies and
civics curricula often aim to develop informed and engaged citizens.
9. Adapting to Cultural and Linguistic Diversity:
• In culturally diverse societies, curriculum developers must consider the needs of various cultural and
linguistic groups. Multilingual and multicultural education may be incorporated to address these
diversities.
10. Promoting Lifelong Learning:
 • The changing nature of work and society requires curricula to emphasize lifelong learning and
adaptability. Curricula may focus on fostering skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and
creativity to prepare students for the future.

Curriculum developers, educators, policymakers, and stakeholders must continually assess and adjust
curriculum content and goals to ensure that education remains relevant and responsive to the evolving
needs and values of society. The relationship between society and curriculum is a two-way process: while
society influences curriculum development, education can also play a role in shaping the future direction of
society by preparing students to become informed, responsible, and active citizens.
ROLE OF CULTURE

Culture plays a vital and multifaceted role in curriculum development, influencing the content, objectives, and instructional
approaches of educational programs. The integration of culture into the curriculum is essential for creating a relevant and
meaningful learning experience for students. Here are some key roles that culture plays in curriculum development:

1. Cultural Relevance:
• Culture informs the selection of content that is meaningful and relevant to the lives of students. This can include
literature, history, and examples that resonate with their cultural backgrounds.
2. Inclusion of Cultural Heritage:
• Curriculum development should incorporate and celebrate the cultural heritage of the community it serves. This
may involve studying local history, traditions, folklore, art, and language, enabling students to connect with their
own cultural roots.
3. Promoting Cultural Diversity:
• Curriculum should expose students to a variety of cultures from around the world, fostering an appreciation of
cultural diversity.
• Encouraging cultural diversity helps students develop open-mindedness, empathy, and an understanding of
different perspectives, which is essential in an increasingly globalized society.
4. Fostering Cultural Sensitivity:
• Curriculum can educate students about cultural norms, values, and practices, promoting cultural sensitivity and
understanding.
• This education helps students recognize and respect cultural differences, contributing to social harmony and
effective cross-cultural communication.
5. Language and Communication:
• Language is an integral part of culture. Curriculum may include the study of multiple languages, not only to help
students become proficient in their own language but also to emphasize the importance of language in preserving
culture.
• Effective communication skills within one's culture and with individuals from other cultures are often emphasized in
curriculum.
6. Historical and Social Context:
• Historical events and social contexts play a significant role in shaping culture. Curriculum typically includes the
study of history and social sciences to provide students with a contextual understanding of how cultures have
evolved over time.
7. Cultural Arts and Creative Expression:
• Art, music, dance, and other forms of creative expression are essential components of culture. Curriculum can
include the study of these art forms to encourage creativity and self-expression.
• Exposure to the arts helps students understand the aesthetic aspects of culture and their significance in society.
8. Cross-Cultural Competence:
• Curriculum development can aim to develop students' cross-cultural competence, equipping them with the skills to
work effectively and respectfully in diverse cultural settings.
• This skill is particularly important in a globalized world, where students may interact with people from various
backgrounds in their personal and professional lives.
9. Cultural Values and Ethics:
 • Curriculum may incorporate discussions about cultural values and ethics, including issues related to morality, social
justice, and cultural responsibility.
• This enables students to understand how cultural values shape individuals' ethical decision-making.
10. Inclusive Education:
• Culturally inclusive education ensures that all students, regardless of their cultural backgrounds, have equal access
to educational opportunities.
• The curriculum should accommodate diverse learning styles, languages, and cultural perspectives, creating an
inclusive and equitable learning environment.
11. Preserving Endangered Cultures:
• In regions where cultures are at risk of extinction, curriculum development can include efforts to preserve and
revitalize cultural traditions and languages.
• Educational programs may play a crucial role in cultural preservation and revival.

In summary, the role of culture in curriculum development is to create a holistic and well-rounded educational experience
that respects and celebrates the diversity of human cultures. It fosters cultural understanding, respect, and empathy among
students, preparing them to be informed, culturally competent, and responsible citizens in an increasingly interconnected
world.

How do Culture & Society play the role in evolving a theory of the curriculum?

1st type: Society and culture have a significant influence on curriculum development. The curriculum is a reflection of
the values, beliefs, and priorities of a society.
For example, a society that values individualism may have a curriculum that emphasizes self-expression and
creativity, while a society that values conformity may have a curriculum that emphasizes obedience and discipline.
Culture also plays a role in curriculum development by shaping the way in which knowledge is passed on. Different
cultures have different ways of teaching and learning, and this is reflected in the curriculum. For example, some
cultures may value rote learning, while others may value more hands-on, experiential learning.
Additionally, societal issues and concerns can also impact curriculum development. For example, if there is a high
incidence of a particular health problem in a society, the curriculum may include more information on that topic.
Similarly, if a society is concerned about environmental issues, the curriculum may include more information on
environmental science and conservation.
Overall, the curriculum is a reflection of the society and culture in which it is developed. It is shaped by the values,
beliefs, and priorities of that society and culture, as well as by societal issues and concerns.

2nd type: Culture and society play a significant role in curriculum development. Culture influences curriculum
development in the following ways:
Goals and objectives: Culture helps determine what goals and objectives are important for students to learn.
Instructional methods and materials: Culture shapes the instructional methods and materials used in classrooms.
Content: Culture drives the content of every curriculum.
Relevance and contextualization: The social and cultural context influences what knowledge, skills, and values are
considered relevant and important for learners.
Socioeconomic factors: Cultural factors related to socioeconomic status, such as income, occupation, and social class,
can significantly impact education.
Society influences curriculum development in the following ways:
Cultural and social changes and expectations: Cultural and social changes and expectations can affect the
implementation of the curriculum.
Ideas of what is important: Society and culture form the ideas of what is important, and these ideas determine
curriculum.
Sociological foundation: Issues from society have an influence on curriculum.

ROLE OF CHILD AND KNOWLEDGE IN EVOLVING A THEORY OF CURRICULUM

 The child and knowledge are fundamental elements in the development of a theory of curriculum. They influence the
design, goals, content, and instructional methods within the curriculum. Here's how each of these elements contributes to
the evolution of a curriculum theory:

1. Role of the Child:

• Understanding the developmental stages, needs, and interests of students is essential in curriculum development. Different age
groups and individual learners have varying learning styles and abilities.
• A curriculum theory should take into account the cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development of the child, ensuring
that the curriculum is developmentally appropriate and engaging.
• Inclusive education principles must be applied to accommodate the diverse needs and backgrounds of students, ensuring that
all children have equitable access to educational opportunities.
• Encouraging active participation, critical thinking, and student-centered learning approaches can empower children to take
ownership of their education and engage in self-directed learning.
2. Role of Knowledge:
• The nature and purpose of knowledge are central to curriculum theory. Curriculum development involves selecting what is
worth knowing and teaching.
• Curriculum theorists consider the epistemological foundations of knowledge, such as empiricism, rationalism, constructivism,
and postmodern perspectives, to shape how knowledge is structured and transmitted.
• The curriculum should reflect the evolving nature of knowledge in various fields, including the latest developments in science,
technology, the arts, and humanities.
• Curriculum designers often integrate interdisciplinary knowledge to help students make connections between different subject
areas and apply their learning to real-world situations.

In curriculum theory, the child and knowledge interact in several ways:

1. Knowledge-Centered Curriculum:
• A knowledge-centered curriculum emphasizes the acquisition of subject-specific content and skills. It focuses on ensuring that
students have a strong foundation in core academic disciplines and are well-prepared for higher education or specific careers.
• Curriculum designers select and sequence knowledge based on its perceived importance and relevance to students' academic
and professional development.
2. Learner-Centered Curriculum:
• A learner-centered curriculum places the child at the center of the educational process. It takes into account the individual
needs, interests, and prior knowledge of each student.
• Curriculum development in a learner-centered approach involves differentiated instruction, personalized learning plans, and
the integration of students' perspectives and experiences.
3. Culturally Responsive Curriculum:
• A culturally responsive curriculum recognizes the cultural backgrounds, languages, and experiences of students. It
incorporates diverse perspectives and content to make learning more inclusive and relevant.
• Curriculum designers aim to ensure that the curriculum reflects the cultural identity and heritage of students while fostering
cross-cultural competence.
4. Inquiry-Based Curriculum:
• An inquiry-based curriculum emphasizes active exploration, problem-solving, and critical thinking. It encourages students to
question, investigate, and construct knowledge through inquiry.
• Curriculum development focuses on creating opportunities for students to engage in research, experimentation, and self-
directed learning.

The child and knowledge are integral components of curriculum theory, and their dynamic relationship influences the development of
educational programs. Effective curriculum theories strike a balance between meeting the diverse needs and interests of students and
providing them with a well-rounded, relevant, and challenging knowledge base that prepares them for future success.

PERSPECTIVES OF CURRICULUM - TRADITIONALISTS, CONCEPTUAL-EMPIRICISTS, CONCEPTUALISTS,

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISTS,

let's explore the perspectives of curriculum from the standpoint of four key educational philosophies: traditionalists,
conceptual-empiricists, conceptualists, and social constructivists:

1. Traditionalists:
• Traditionalists advocate for a structured and teacher-centered approach to education.
 • They believe in a curriculum that emphasizes the transmission of established knowledge, often in core subjects
like mathematics, science, and literature.
• Traditionalists prioritize discipline, memorization, and mastery of foundational content and skills.
• They typically favor a standardized and prescriptive curriculum that ensures a common set of knowledge for
all students.
2. Conceptual-Empiricists:
• Conceptual-empiricists combine abstract conceptual thinking with empirical experiences.
• They emphasize the importance of both theoretical knowledge and practical, hands-on experiences.
• This approach encourages students to develop a deep understanding of concepts while also gaining real-world
skills.
• Conceptual-empiricists value experiential learning, problem-solving, and the application of knowledge.
3. Conceptualists:
• Conceptualists focus on the development of students' ability to think critically and understand abstract
concepts.
• They emphasize teaching students to analyze, synthesize, and apply knowledge in various contexts.
• This perspective values intellectual inquiry, problem-solving, and the exploration of underlying principles.
• Conceptualists often seek to foster students' creative and analytical thinking skills.
4. Social Constructivists:
• Social constructivists believe that knowledge is constructed through social interaction and collaboration.
• They advocate for a learner-centered approach where students engage in cooperative activities to build their
own understanding.
• This perspective values active participation, peer learning, and the development of problem-solving and
critical thinking skills through interaction with others.
• Social constructivists encourage students to construct knowledge rather than passively receive it.

These four curriculum perspectives represent different educational philosophies and approaches to teaching and
learning. Educators and curriculum developers may draw from these perspectives to design and implement curriculum
based on their pedagogical beliefs, the needs of their students, and the educational goals of their institutions. The
choice of curriculum perspective can have a significant impact on the content, methods, and outcomes of the
educational experience.

CONCEPT AND CORE CURRICULUM, HIDDEN CURRICULUM, SPIRITUAL CURRICULUM, INTEGRATED

CURRICULUM AND THEIR RELATIVEICULUM,
Let's explore the concepts of core curriculum, hidden curriculum, spiritual curriculum, and integrated curriculum, and understand their
relative roles in education:

1. Core Curriculum:
• The core curriculum refers to the essential subjects and content areas that are considered fundamental and necessary for all
students to learn.
• It typically includes subjects like language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and sometimes physical education.
• The core curriculum forms the basis of a well-rounded education and provides students with essential knowledge and skills
that are widely recognized as important for their overall development.
2. Hidden Curriculum:
• The hidden curriculum consists of unspoken or implicit lessons that students learn through the school environment,
interactions, and culture.
• It includes values, attitudes, and social norms that are transmitted indirectly to students while they are engaged in formal
education.
• The hidden curriculum can encompass societal expectations, behavior norms, and socialization processes that are not part of
the official or explicit curriculum.
3. Spiritual Curriculum:
• The spiritual curriculum addresses the moral, ethical, and values-based education within the educational system.
• It aims to nurture students' spirituality, character, and moral development.
• The spiritual curriculum may include teachings on principles such as empathy, compassion, integrity, and ethical decision-
making.
4. Integrated Curriculum:
• An integrated curriculum combines different subject areas into a cohesive and interconnected learning experience.
 • It promotes interdisciplinary learning, allowing students to see the connections between various topics and explore the
relationships between different subject areas.
• Integrated curriculum often focuses on real-world, project-based learning and emphasizes problem-solving and critical
thinking.

Relative roles of these curriculum concepts:

• Core Curriculum provides the foundational knowledge and skills that students need to succeed in various academic and professional
pursuits.
• The Hidden Curriculum can influence students' values, attitudes, and behaviors, sometimes reinforcing or challenging the principles
taught in the core curriculum.
• The Spiritual Curriculum may intersect with the hidden and explicit curriculum, contributing to students' character development and
ethical decision-making.
• Integrated Curriculum can incorporate elements of the core curriculum while emphasizing interdisciplinary connections, critical
thinking, and problem-solving skills.

In practice, educators and curriculum developers must consider how these curriculum concepts interact and shape the overall
educational experience for students. The core curriculum provides a strong academic foundation, while the hidden curriculum and
spiritual curriculum influence students' personal and ethical development. An integrated curriculum approach can help bridge these
concepts, fostering critical thinking, problem-solving, and a deeper understanding of the connections between academic subjects and
personal values.

HIDDEN CURRICULUM
The hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken or implicit lessons, values, behaviors, and norms that students learn in the educational
environment, even though they are not part of the formal or explicit curriculum. These hidden elements are typically transmitted
through the school's culture, social interactions, and the structure of the educational system. Here are some key points to understand
about the hidden curriculum:

1. Unintentional Learning: The hidden curriculum consists of unintended lessons that students absorb as they navigate the educational
system. These lessons are often not planned or formally taught by educators.
2. Socialization: It plays a significant role in socializing students into the broader society. It includes learning about expectations for
behavior, attitudes, and values that may not be explicitly taught.
3. Cultural Norms: The hidden curriculum can reflect cultural norms and values, such as gender roles, social hierarchies, and ethical
standards. Students may adopt these norms through observation and interaction.
4. Implicit Bias: The hidden curriculum can unintentionally perpetuate bias and discrimination. For example, students may learn certain
stereotypes or biases through the school culture.
5. Conformity: It often encourages conformity to the norms and values of the school or society. Students may feel pressure to fit in and
adhere to established norms, even if they differ from their personal beliefs.
6. Preparation for Adult Life: The hidden curriculum can prepare students for life beyond school by teaching them about societal
expectations and unwritten rules.
7. Critical Thinking: It can be a double-edged sword. While some aspects of the hidden curriculum may promote critical thinking and
independence, others may discourage questioning or dissent.
8. Challenges: The hidden curriculum can create challenges, particularly for students from diverse backgrounds. They may feel like
outsiders if they don't conform to the dominant culture's norms.
9. Cultural Awareness: Recognizing and addressing the hidden curriculum is important for promoting cultural awareness, inclusivity,
and equitable education.

Educators and administrators can play a role in addressing the hidden curriculum by fostering an inclusive and culturally responsive
school environment. This can involve acknowledging and discussing implicit biases, promoting open dialogue, and creating a
supportive atmosphere that values diversity and respects individual differences. It is essential to ensure that the hidden curriculum
aligns with the school's goals for educating well-rounded, empathetic, and responsible citizens.

SPIRITUAL CURRICULUM
A spiritual curriculum, also known as a values-based or moral education curriculum, focuses on the development of a student's spiritual
and moral dimensions. It aims to foster a sense of ethics, character, and values, helping students grow into responsible, compassionate,
and socially conscious individuals. Here are some key aspects of a spiritual curriculum:
1. Moral and Ethical Education: A spiritual curriculum is rooted in teaching and instilling moral and ethical principles. This may
include lessons on integrity, honesty, kindness, empathy, responsibility, and respect for others.
2. Values and Virtues: It emphasizes the importance of values and virtues in daily life. Students may be encouraged to reflect on and
develop virtues such as gratitude, humility, patience, and love.
3. Character Development: A spiritual curriculum focuses on character development, helping students become principled individuals
who make ethical decisions in their personal and social lives.
4. Cultural and Religious Sensitivity: It often includes teachings about various cultural and religious traditions to promote cultural
sensitivity and respect for diversity.
5. Service and Compassion: Students may be encouraged to engage in acts of service and acts of kindness, fostering a sense of
compassion and responsibility towards others and the community.
6. Self-Reflection and Mindfulness: A spiritual curriculum often includes activities that promote self-reflection, self-awareness, and
mindfulness. This may involve practices like meditation and journaling.
7. Empathy and Social Responsibility: The curriculum encourages students to develop empathy for others and a sense of social
responsibility. They learn how to make a positive impact on their communities and the world.
8. Conflict Resolution and Peace Education: Students are taught conflict resolution skills and the importance of promoting peace and
harmony in their relationships and communities.
9. Critical Thinking: It may include discussions on ethical dilemmas, encouraging students to think critically about moral issues and
make well-informed decisions.
10. Integration with Academic Curriculum: Some schools integrate spiritual or values-based education into the academic curriculum,
infusing moral and ethical teachings into subjects like literature, history, and social studies.
11. Ethical Leadership: A spiritual curriculum often emphasizes the development of ethical leadership skills and the importance of
responsible and principled leadership in various contexts.
12. Parent and Community Involvement: Schools may involve parents and the community in shaping and reinforcing the spiritual
curriculum, creating a collaborative approach to values education.
13. Assessment of Character Development: Assessment in a spiritual curriculum may involve evaluating a student's character
development and moral decision-making abilities, which can be a qualitative and ongoing process.

Spiritual education can take place in both religious and non-religious school settings, with the focus being on universal values and
ethics that transcend specific religious beliefs. The goal is to help students become morally responsible and compassionate individuals
who contribute positively to their communities and society as a whole.

The hidden curriculum, spiritual curriculum, and integrated curriculum are distinct concepts in the field
of education, each with its own unique characteristics and objectives. Let's explore their relevance and
how they can intersect:

1. Hidden Curriculum:
• Relevance: The hidden curriculum is highly relevant as it addresses the unspoken lessons, values,
behaviors, and norms that students absorb in the educational environment. It plays a significant
role in shaping students' character, attitudes, and social awareness.
• Intersecting with Other Curricula: The hidden curriculum can intersect with both the spiritual
and integrated curricula. For example:
• Spiritual Curriculum: The hidden curriculum can reinforce or challenge the moral and
ethical values promoted in the spiritual curriculum. It can either support or undermine the
values and character development goals of the spiritual curriculum.
• Integrated Curriculum: The hidden curriculum can influence the culture of
interdisciplinary learning by either promoting or discouraging collaboration, empathy, and
open-mindedness. In an integrated curriculum, it's essential to address the hidden
curriculum to foster a positive learning environment.
2. Spiritual Curriculum:
• Relevance: The spiritual curriculum is relevant for students' character development and moral
education. It aims to instill ethical values, empathy, and social responsibility.
• Intersecting with Other Curricula: The spiritual curriculum can intersect with the hidden and
integrated curricula in the following ways:
 •Hidden Curriculum: The spiritual curriculum can address the influence of the hidden
curriculum by explicitly teaching students to be aware of implicit biases, promoting cultural
sensitivity, and encouraging them to question and challenge societal norms that may
contradict their spiritual or ethical values.
• Integrated Curriculum: An integrated curriculum can incorporate the principles of the
spiritual curriculum by emphasizing moral and ethical considerations in interdisciplinary
learning. It can encourage students to explore the ethical dimensions of complex real-world
issues.
3. Integrated Curriculum:
• Relevance: Integrated curriculum promotes holistic understanding, critical thinking, and real-
world relevance by connecting different subject areas. It encourages students to see the
interconnectedness of knowledge and develop problem-solving skills.
• Intersecting with Other Curricula: The integrated curriculum can intersect with the hidden and
spiritual curricula as follows:
• Hidden Curriculum: In an integrated curriculum, teachers can be more conscious of
addressing the hidden curriculum to ensure that it promotes values of collaboration, respect,
and open-mindedness. This approach can help create a positive learning environment.
• Spiritual Curriculum: An integrated curriculum can incorporate moral and ethical
considerations as central themes in interdisciplinary learning. It can encourage students to
explore the connections between subjects and the ethical implications of various topics.

In summary, these curricular concepts are interconnected and can complement each other to create a
well-rounded educational experience. Addressing the hidden curriculum can help ensure that the values
and norms students absorb align with the goals of the spiritual and integrated curricula. By fostering
awareness, moral development, and interdisciplinary learning, educators can work toward a more
inclusive, ethical, and meaningful education for students.

Meaning of curriculum framework

A Curriculum framework is a supportive structure to help schools to plan and develop their own curriculum. It comprises a set of
interlocking components, including essential learning experiences, generic skills, values, attitudes, and key-learning areas.
Curriculum framework is one of the most important tools in ensuring consistency and quality in a curriculum system.
Curriculum is usually a document or a set of documents that sets standards for curriculum and provides the context in which
subject specialists develop syllabuses. A curriculum framework is an organized plan or set of standards or learning outcomes that
defines to be learned in terms of clear, definable standards of what the student should know and be able to do.

Definition of curriculum framework Curriculum frame work is a document that sets standards for curriculum and provides the
context (available resources) capabilities of teachers and system support in which subject specialist develop syllabuses. It is
usually a single document which is supplemented by other materials to guide the implementation of specific parts of framework.
These may give more detailed specification or guidance by individual year, subject or learning area, addressing the requirements
of the school system, individual schools and the classroom. The documents may include syllabuses, programmes of study, year
plan and lesson plans. They may be developed locally or by individual teachers, and may have the status of support material or
official documents which must be used. A curriculum framework describes the educational environment in which syllabus (or
subject specific outlines of objectives, outcomes, content and appropriate assessment and teaching methodologies) can be
developed. Curriculum framework defines a set of curricular standards which enables a range of curriculum to co-exist, on the
provision that each curriculum implies with specific criteria. A curriculum framework is therefore a very useful mechanism for
allowing flexibility and diversity among countries within an affiliation of or ethnic groups within a single state each individual
system can maintain the identity of its own curriculum while ensuring consistency and quality through compliance with a set of
agreed standards expressed in the framework. A curriculum framework is most commonly developed at a national level, but a
form of curriculum framework could be developed at the international level by a group of countries with similar goals and
educational environments.
Need for curriculum framework
• To develop qualities that make a child socially effective and happy in various social settings such as friendliness,
 cooperativeness, self-disciplines, self-control, loves for social justice etc.
• To develop pre-vocational/vocational skills, willingness to work hard, dignity of manual work and job satisfaction.
• For understanding of the environment and its limited resources and the need for conservation of natural resources and energy.
• To develop ability to appreciate and discover beauty in various life situations and integrate it into ones own personality.
• To develop knowledge of scientific methods of inquiry and its use in solving problems. • To facilitate schools and teachers to
make decision about choice of content, pedagogy, teaching, and learning material, evaluation etc, at school level.
• To give schools and teachers flexibility and ownership to plan and develop alternative curriculum modes to meet their varied
needs.
• To help to review school curriculum, learning and teaching strategies and to develop school assessment policy.
• To help the teacher in becoming reflective practitioner who learns from their own experience.
• To emphasize learning with understanding and learning to learn, and helps children develop their own understanding based on
their life experiences.
• To set out what students should know, value, and be able to do at the various stages of schooling. We also see few functions of
curriculum framework in the field of school education.
Functions of curriculum framework
Few functions of curriculum frame works are as follows—
• It defines a set of curriculum standards that enable a range of curricula to coexist on the provision that each curriculum
compiles with specific criteria.
• It functions as a tool that may assist teacher to put the national policy on education—educating our future into practice.
• It develops certain quality standards for curriculum, evaluation is also needed.
• Gives guidance to syllabus and text book writers.
Once a curriculum framework is agreed, other documents can be developed including most importantly subject or learning area,
syllabuses and text books. It determines the detail of a range of other policy and funding priorities. In curriculum framework, we
see few related factors that build the relationship between curriculum and aims of education. The structure demands workable
principles and criteria in most of the areas such as selection and organization of content, ways of interacting with children and
classroom organization, type of teaching learning material, etc. The fundamental assumptions a curriculum framework uses,
needs to be internally consistent, as clearly articulated as possible, and acceptable to all stake holders. 110 Finally, operational
definitions have also been placed for consideration to facilitate the process of curriculum development. We see that, curriculum
framework is part of an outcome-based education or standards based education reform design. The framework is the second step-
defining clear, high standards which will be achieved by all students. The curriculum is then aligned to the standards and
students are assessed against the standards. NCERT is the official agency in India for deciding the curriculum framework for
schools. In India during 2005 National Curriculum framework (NCF-2005) the new policy was drafted (NCF-2005, 2012). NCF
is a needful feature of national education system. National education system is a common education system at a different level.
This aims to bring minimum level of learning at all levels providing minimum facilities to all schools of nation so that specific
quality of education can be provided to children. It is an approach to minimize the provincial inequalities among children. NCF
2005recommends • Bringing arts, work, peace, health, physical education into the domain of the curricular infusing them in all
areas of learning, while giving them an identity of their own at relevant stages. Enable learners to find their voices, nurture their
curiosity to think, ask questions, integrate their experience with school knowledge rather than reproduce textual knowledge. •
Shift from content-based testing to problem-solving and competency-based testing. • Use of technology in teaching-learning •
Shift from teacher centric to learner centric with flexible designs, processes providing wider social context to learning as well as
multiple and divergent exposures.

ADMINISTRATIVE CONSIDERATION
Administrative considerations of a curriculum framework are critical for its successful implementation and
management within an educational institution or system. Administrators play a key role in overseeing, organizing, and
facilitating the implementation of the curriculum framework. Here are some important administrative considerations
related to curriculum frameworks:

1. Alignment with Educational Goals: Administrators must ensure that the curriculum framework aligns with the
broader educational goals and mission of the institution or district. It should support the vision and objectives of the
educational organization.
2. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with state and national educational standards and regulations is a
fundamental administrative consideration. Administrators need to ensure that the curriculum framework adheres to
legal requirements and standards set by educational authorities.
3. Resource Allocation: Administrators are responsible for allocating resources, including budgets, textbooks,
instructional materials, technology, and personnel, to support the curriculum framework. Effective resource allocation
is essential for successful implementation.
4. Professional Development: Administrators should plan and provide professional development opportunities for
teachers and staff to ensure they are well-prepared to implement the curriculum framework effectively. This includes
training on new teaching methods, technologies, and assessment practices.
5. Timetable and Scheduling: Creating a master timetable and scheduling system that aligns with the curriculum
framework is crucial. It should ensure that sufficient time is allocated for instruction, assessment, and teacher
collaboration.
6. Monitoring and Evaluation: Administrators must establish a system for monitoring and evaluating the
implementation of the curriculum framework. This includes regular assessments of student progress, teacher
effectiveness, and curriculum alignment.
7. Data Management: Effective data management systems should be in place to collect and analyze data related to
student achievement, curriculum alignment, and the impact of the curriculum framework. This data can inform
decision-making and improvement efforts.
8. Communication: Administrators are responsible for clear and consistent communication with various stakeholders,
including teachers, parents, students, and the community. Communication should address the objectives, progress, and
expectations related to the curriculum framework.
9. Adaptation and Revision: Curriculum frameworks should not be static. Administrators need to be open to feedback
and be willing to adapt and revise the framework when necessary to address changing needs and educational trends.
10. Equity and Inclusivity: Administrators should ensure that the curriculum framework promotes equity and inclusivity.
This involves addressing the needs of diverse student populations and providing appropriate support and resources.
11. Leadership and Support: Effective leadership from administrators is crucial to garner support for the curriculum
framework among teachers, staff, and other stakeholders. Administrators should provide guidance and support to
educators in implementing the framework successfully.
12. Strategic Planning: Administrators should incorporate the curriculum framework into the institution's strategic
planning process. This ensures that curriculum development is aligned with the long-term goals and vision of the
educational organization.
13. Parent and Community Involvement: Administrators can facilitate parent and community involvement in
curriculum-related decisions and activities. They should provide opportunities for input and feedback from these
stakeholders.
14. Assessment and Accountability: Administrators should establish assessment and accountability mechanisms to
ensure that the curriculum framework is meeting its objectives and standards. This may involve setting performance
benchmarks and reviewing results.
15. Quality Assurance: Administrators play a role in quality assurance by conducting regular evaluations of the
curriculum framework to identify areas for improvement and maintain high standards of education.

In summary, administrative considerations are crucial for the effective management and implementation of a
curriculum framework. Administrators need to ensure alignment with goals and standards, resource allocation,
professional development, monitoring, communication, and ongoing support for teachers and students to create a
successful educational environment.

GRASS ROOT PLANNING

Grassroots level planning in education is a technique that helps identify the developmental needs of a
community and prioritize them. It is prepared for a small community or village so that their needs or
demands are taken into account in the educational planning.
The grass-roots model of curriculum refers to an approach in which the design, development, and
implementation of the educational curriculum.
The objective of perspective planning is to set up a logical and consistent set of inter-related targets for
the accepted objectives of development.

The grass-roots model of curriculum refers to an approach in which the design, development,
and implementation of the educational curriculum are driven by the needs, experiences, and
perspectives of teachers, students, and other stakeholders who are directly involved with the use
of curriculum. This is a bottom up approach. This model is characterized by a decentralized
approach, in which decision-making authority is distributed among different stakeholders. The
goal of the grass-roots model is to create a curriculum that is relevant, meaningful, and according
to the needs of the community, rather than being imposed from above.

Stages of curriculum development

In developing either a teaching/learning unit or an integrated curriculum, varied decisions are made to work out a
realistic curriculum by incorporating all the principles of good curriculum.
The methodology to plan either a unit or total curriculum is to break down the systematic steps to ensure orderly
thinking, to make possible a systematic study of the elements that compare such a plan, and to provide for a precise
and careful study and application of the relevant principles and facts.
According to Hilda Taba, the steps followed in developing a unit or curriculum is as follows:
1. Diagnosing needs
2. Formulating specific objectives
3. Selecting content
4. Organising content
5. Selecting learning experience
6. Organising learning experience
7. Evaluating
8. Checking for balance and sequence
Step 1: Diagnosing Needs
Before planning curriculum, diagnosis helps in general analysis of problems, conditions and difficulties. The purpose
is to generate a new emphasis and new ideas about the curriculum, by knowing thoroughly from various sources such
as students’ cumulative records, teacher’s recordings, parents’ interviews, children’s cases and their IQ achievement.
This kind of analysis of various aspects would lead to come out with a new conception of curriculum. Diagnosis leads
to understand the prime needs at different stages of curriculum.

Step 2: Formulating Specific Objectives

The objectives will be very comprehensive on the following:
1. Concepts or ideas to be learnt
2. Attitudes, sensitivities and feelings to be developed
3. Ways of thinking to be reinforced, strengthened or initiated
4. Habits and skills to be mastered
Based on the diagnosis, the specific objectives are related to the concepts, ideas necessary to learn at a stage, particular
aspect of thinking, attitudes, skills and so on.
Step 3: Selecting the Content
Based on the diagnosis of needs and tentative projection of objectives, it is much easy to go for the content selection.
The objectives and needs provide a basic idea and guidance to select the relevant content.
While selecting the content, the following to be planned meticulously:
1. Selecting the topic
2. Selecting the basic ideas
3. Selecting the specific content
The first task is to select the relevant topics through which the objectives formulated can be achieved unit by unit; the
topics have to be finalized.
What are different topics which can be covered under each subject, class and level. Then the idea needs to pay
attention to incorporate into the broad content. To suit the idea and topics, the specific content is planned to finalize
the broad areas under the curriculum.
Step 4: Organising the Content
Once the content is finalized, the content has to be organised systematically by keeping in view the following:
1. Sequential order
2. Concrete to abstract
3. Simple to complex
4. Known to unknown
 5. Immediate to remote
6. Easy to difficult
In other words, it should follow inductive logical arrangement of the content and a psychological sequence. There
should be connection between ideas, facts and relationships.
Step 5 and 6: Selecting and Organizing learning Experiences
With the content in hand, it is easy to plan for learning experiences or activities.
The criteria with which the content is drawn should provide/plan/visualize what students need to experience in order
to acquire certain behavioural competencies and sequence of the experiences.
Care must be taken to include a variety of learning –reading, writing, observing, doing research, analysing, discussing,
tabulating, painting and absorption.
The learning experiences are expected to be:
1. Introduction, Opener, Orientation- Generally, viewing at learning experiences, at least 3 main stages should be
involved. The learning strategies/activities introduced are essentially (1)introductory, (2)for opening up and (3)for
orientation. These include the following activities:
2. Provide diagnostic evidence for the teacher
3. Help the students make a connection with their own experience
• Arouse interest
1. Provide concrete descriptive data
2. Create involvement and motivation
By following the above approach, learning experience can be selected and organized to facilitate learning.
While teaching, any unit, students can be involved actively and help them to make a connection to their personal
experiences, connect to the community or share the experience of their parents. Thus the teacher plans learning
experiences by allocating tasks which are useful for the students and discuss the method by which to do.
2. Development, Analysis, Study- Here the teacher plans learning experiences by developing various dimensions of
the subject, for instance, reading, researching, then analysing the data, studying various kinds and finding the
answers to their questions planned for their study.
3. Generalization- After developing the skills of analysis and study, students will be able to generalize by putting
together all the ideas and reformulate them in their own way.
4. Applications, Summary, Culmination- Finally, the activities are designed to apply what has been learnt, to asses
and evaluate and set into a larger framework.
5. Rhythm of learning activities- In some of the curriculum patterns, some or the other mental activity is defectively
developed that creates problems in intake period, assimilation without integration, inhibits new learning and
burdens memory. A balanced curriculum is one where learning is balanced, which offers opportunities for
mastery of knowledge and helps in internalization. It requires disciplined knowledge, analysis and reflection.
Thus, the rhythm of building feelings and meanings is also important.
Step 7: Evaluating
Evaluation is determining the objectives, diagnosis or establishment of baseline for learning and appraising progress
and changes, there are varied approaches and methods of evaluation to know the progress of the child. Mostly,
evaluation is in a way continuous diagnosis along with the comparison of results. Even several informal devices can
also be used to evaluate the outcomes of the unit and curriculum on the whole. Finally, whether the objectives of the
curriculum are achieved needs to be evaluated.
Step 8: Checking for Balance and Sequence
After completing unit by unit and the whole curriculum, it is necessary to check the overall consistency among its
parts or individual aspects. Every aspect needs to be checked-whether the core ideas are reflected in the content,
whether the suitable learning experiences are planned for the content and whether the overall achievement of
objectives is planned for the overall progress of the topic.
Thus these are the basic steps necessary while designing a unit or the whole curriculum related to a subject or
discipline, etc.
Summing up
The Curriculum Development (CD) process encompasses the design and development of integrated plans for learning,
the design of implementation of the plans, and of the evaluation of the plans, their implementation and the outcomes
of the learning experience. The fundamental purpose of curriculum development is to ensure that students receive
integrated, coherent learning experiences that contribute towards their personal, academic and professional learning
and development.
SIX CRITERIA IN SELECTING CONTENT OR SUBJECT MATTER
In selecting the subject matter content or knowledge for designing a curriculum, here are some criteria:
•Significance - It is significant if fundamental ideas, concepts, principles and generalization are supplied in the
subject matter to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
•Validity - the genuineness of a content selected is by its legality. The subject matter to be selected has to be
legal to avoid selecting the obsolete ones.
•Interest - the learner’s interest is a major factor in selecting the content.
•Utility - deciding on subject matter, its usefulness is considered to be essential.
•Learnability - if there is a quotation to “live within our means” then there is also the consideration of “teaching
within the means of the learners.”
•Feasibility - content selection takes into thought the possibility, the practicability and the achievability
of the subject matter in terms of the availability of the resources, proficiency of the teachers, and the personality
of learners especially within the framework of the society and the government.

Principles of Content Organization

After having decided on the content, the next step is organizing the content in a form that will facilitate learning. In this case, curriculum is
what to be taught while instruction is how it is taught. The relationship between curriculum and instruction is a partnership. The content to
be taught along with the learning experiences and instruction may be taught of as methodology, teaching and accessing of achievement.
Olivia (1982) described curriculum and instructions as two entities. In his model,
‘curriculum and instructions relationship’ (1982), showed that process is continues, repeated and never
-ending.

The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organization; scope,sequence, continuity, integration, articulation
and balance (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).Based on these coursework, I have to choose three aspects of this curriculum design
dimensions.
(i) Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences and organizing threads found in the
curriculum plan. Scope not only to cognitive learning but also affective learning and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland &
Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometime the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and activities. For
examples, ‘the mathematics syllabus is overloaded’, and ‘scientific literacy of secondary school students is low’.
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with such
questions like ‘How much science should students in primary school know? Another one, ‘What is the level of mathematics required of
students before
they graduate from secondary school? In this case, when curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should be
included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum. According to Ornstein & Hunkins (1998), when deciding about the scope of
curriculum, the following guidelines maybe useful; the usefulness of the content selected, students abilities, amount of content, and balance
inthe content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
(ii) Sequence
Sequence refers to the organization of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous earning. Curriculum developers
should know, ‘Do student have opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content?’ it is important that the
sequencing of content lead to cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes. The sequence of content and experiences
should be based on the logic of the subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological
principal and understanding of human development and learning. The following are some principles indentified as a guidelines
insequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein & Hunkins,1998, Taba, 1962, Bruner, 1960).
a) Simple to complex - content is organized going from simple components to complex components depicting interrelationships among
components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete and to more difficult and abstract content.
b) Spiral –in ‘spiral curriculum’ concepts may be introduced on a simple level in early grades, and then revisited with more and more
complexity and applications later on (Bruner, 1960).
c) Prerequisites - It works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be
understood.
d) Whole to part - content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts.
e) Chronology- This is a useful organizer for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history, political science and world events.
f) Vertical organization- This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the
general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later.
 g) Horizontal organization - It involves how skill and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. For
example, in a social science course, we might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of view.
(iii) Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to reinforce each other. Information from
different subject areas are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. Much curriculum
planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they are learning in their minds. It’s something that happens within
the individual learner. The idea of integration was popularized in the 60s by Halida Taba because of concern that school curriculum was too
disjointed, fragmented and detached. In this case, I saw that the need to examine phenomena drawing from various disciplines has
intensified interest in the integrated curriculum. Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and reading
across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve
practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local
community.
.In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high school are not directly involved in the selection of subject-matter because
there are already lesson plans made by the Department of Education. All they have to do is to follow it. However, they can also customize
the lessons if their department heads or principals allow them.

FLEXIBLE CURRICULUM CONTENT:

Flexible curriculum content refers to educational materials and instructional resources that can be adapted,
customized, or adjusted to meet the diverse learning needs, preferences, and circumstances of students. This approach
acknowledges that learners have varying backgrounds, abilities, interests, and learning styles, and it aims to provide a
more inclusive and responsive educational experience. Here are some key features and benefits of flexible curriculum
content:

Features of Flexible Curriculum Content:

1. Adaptability: Flexible curriculum content can be modified or adjusted to accommodate different learning
preferences, abilities, and readiness levels.
2. Customization: Teachers or students can tailor the content to align with individual or group learning objectives and
interests.
3. Diverse Resources: It offers a range of resources, including digital content, textbooks, multimedia materials, and
hands-on activities that cater to different learning styles.
4. Multimodal Learning: Flexible content supports various modes of learning, such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and
tactile, allowing students to engage in ways that suit them best.
5. Differentiated Instruction: It provides the foundation for differentiated instruction, where teachers can adapt content
to meet the specific needs of each student.

The Broad Fields Curriculum Design. The broad fields design combines two or more related subjects into a single
broad field of study, for example, Language Arts combines the separate but related subjects of Reading, Spelling,
Writing, Speaking, Listening, and Composition. The Broad Fields, commonly found in elementary and middle grades,
is an attempt to overcome the fragmentation and compartmentalization characteristic of the subject-centered design.
The intent is to achieve a greater integration of learning experiences.

Use of the broad fields design cuts down on the amount of factual detail often found in subject-centered designs but
still allows little integration between the broad fields themselves. The design stresses content coverage and acquisition
of information. The school library will be used more extensively than in the subject-centered design and can help
reinforce the interrelationships among the subject areas within a broad field of study.

A diagram of this design follows:

Elucidate credit based system:
What is a Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)?
In 2020, an innovative approach to learning prompted the government to introduce significant changes in
the National Education Policy. To maximize skill-based learning and improve learning outcomes, the NEP
2020 modified the traditional teaching-learning system to create the Choice Based Credit System.

What is the Meaning of a Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)?

The choice-based credit system for higher education redefines the learning approach and makes it more
student-centric. The choice-based credit system is a flexible teaching-learning system that offers students
the freedom to opt for different courses and chart their learning journey. Students can choose from a list of
elective, core, and soft skill courses every semester. Evaluation in a choice-based credit system is based
on grading.

Categories of Courses in Choice-Based Credit System

1. Core Courses – Core courses are the subjects that all students have to study compulsorily. These are the
core subjects they need to meet the program’s requirements in the discipline they are pursuing.
2. Elective Courses – The students choose elective courses to add to their core subject knowledge. Students
can choose from –
a. Core Discipline Related Courses – These are subjects related to the core subjects.
b. Generic Elective – General subjects can be studied to improve general skills, such as language
courses.
c. Project – Projects are a popular choice of elective among students who wish to gain experience and
industry exposure.
d. Ability Enhancement Courses – Ability enhancement courses are helpful to gain additional skills
such as programming, coding, or courses related to MS office products.
e. Skill Enhancement Courses – Skill enhancing electives can be related to life skills, sports or arts. It
includes courses like singing, dancing, football, hockey etc.
3. Soft Skill Courses – Soft skills include courses related to personality development, communication skills,
writing skills, and etiquette.
Features of CBCS
 This is a uniform CBCS for all central and state and other recognised universities.
 There are three main courses: Core, Elective and Foundation.
 There are also non-credit courses available which will be assessed as ‘Satisfactory’ or “Unsatisfactory’. This is not
included in the computation of SGPA/CGPA.
 All the three main courses will be evaluated and accessed to provide for an effective and balanced result
Features of CBCS
 Here are some of the noteworthy features of the choice-based credit system –

• Credit Transfer – If a student chooses to change their branch of study, their credits are transferred.
• Grading System – Evaluation in the choice-based credit system in higher education follows grades instead of
marks.
• Minimizes the Stigma – By moving to a grading system, CBCS helps reduce the stigma of failure. The
CBCS marking scheme uses alphabets or grades instead of marks to change the culture of toppers and
failures.
• Student Mobility – The CBCS helps mobilize students and improves inter-disciplinary interaction. It also
enables students to experience exchange programs in other institutions across India and some cases, even
across the globe.
Improves Employability – Potential employers find assessing a student’s academic accomplishments
easier based on the choice-based credit system.

Advantages of the CBCS system

1. Inter/Multi-Disciplinary Course – Students have the freedom to choose inter-disciplinary and multi-
disciplinary courses at the graduation level. It enables students to develop various peripheral skills that
complement their core knowledge and improves their job prospects.
2. Mentorship – Mentors are assigned to students to help them select courses based on their IQ level. Mentors
can offer sound advice to students and help them make the right choices to carve out a career that suits their
skills.
3. Promotes Student Interaction – The choice-based credit system encourages group work, community
involvement and research. Interaction among students gives them a chance to learn from each other and
builds a sense of belonging.
4. The Walk-in/Walk-out Approach – Learners can earn a degree or certification through multiple entry and
exit approach. It enables those with jobs to pursue higher education with ease.
5. Flexibility – Students can choose courses with greater freedom and flexibility
6. Course Levels – Students may choose to pursue basic or advanced level courses
7. Job Oriented Skills – Learners can gain job-oriented skills. It prepares them to compete in the corporate
sector or find lucrative government jobs by honing their skills.
8. Customized Pace of Learning – Students are free to progress at their own comfortable pace. Highly
motivated students can go faster and gain extra credits every semester. In contrast, others can take their time
and learn at their own pace.
Higher education serves as a launchpad for learners to gain their place. Whether they choose to take a job
or start a business, their education should prepare them for challenges. A choice-based credit system in
higher education allows learners to get more out of their learning. It enables them to build a bouquet of
skills that makes them valuable assets in any organization.

Since the NEP 2020 was announced, several higher education institutions have revamped their grading
systems and credit systems to conform to CBCS. The need of the hour is that educational institutions must
adopt the right technology to create a flexible learning environment for their students. CollPoll offers NEP
compliant Academic Management System (AMS) and help institutions adopt Choice based credit system
(CBCS) quickly and effectively.

1. Choice-Based Subjects: In a choice-based subject system, students have the flexibility to select certain
subjects or courses based on their interests, career goals, or academic strengths. It allows for a more
customized educational experience.
2. Credit-Based System: A credit-based system assigns credits or units to courses or subjects. Students earn
credits upon successful completion of a course. Accumulated credits determine a student's progress and
eligibility for graduation.
3. Grouping Variation: Grouping variation refers to the practice of grouping students based on their abilities,
interests, or needs. This may include tracking, where students are placed in different classes or programs
according to their academic performance.
4. Grade Placement and Distribution: Grade placement refers to the level or grade at which a student is
assigned based on their age or academic abilities. Grade distribution refers to the distribution of students
across different grade levels in a school.
5. Allotment of Time: The allotment of time in education refers to the allocation of time for specific subjects,
courses, or activities within the school day or academic year. It involves creating schedules that balance
instructional time among different subjects.
6. Non-Gradedness: Non-gradedness or ungraded education is an approach where students are not assigned
traditional grades or ranking. Instead, the focus is on personalized learning, self-assessment, and a more
holistic approach to evaluating student progress.

Grouping variation

Within effective classrooms students are assembled and reassembled, sometimes as a total group of 30 or
35, sometimes into smaller groups of varying size, sometimes in to teams of two or three. The particular
focus of this article is on this flexible classroom grouping that makes for sound learning.

Teacher-Assigned Groups

1. Turn your row and talk to the person next to you. Rows of students turn their desks to face one another.
This is a very quick way to have students share ideas, listen or team up with a partner.

2. Randomly mixed up pre-assigned groups. You might not need specific students together, but you do
want speed. Pre-assign groups of students so that they just have to get together without long transition
time.

3. Grouped according to same skill level. Perfect for differentiation. You can have ability-specific tasks
assigned to each group.

4. Grouped to mix skill levels. Students learn well when different skills and levels are mixed. With this you
can make sure your strongest students are intermingled with others.

5. Grouped for classroom management.We all know those friends who are more likely to get off task than
create a quality product. Pre-assign groups and make sure students who need to be separated are kept
apart.

6. Grouped according to interest. If you’re aware of different interests of your students via discussion or a
survey, you might want to put them together and have them connect their common interest to the task.

7. Rotational system. Instead of having one partner or group, students can set up in a circle and a portion
of each group rotates clockwise while the other portion stays in place.

8. Alphabetical rotation system. Group students based on the alphabetical order of their names; and if you
choose, rotate them based on their names as well. You can go down your attendance roster listing A1, B1,
C1, A2, B2, C2, etc., and reorganize groups based on letter or number. Get creative!

9. Day-of-the-week group. Assign each student to a specific partner or group for each day of the week. So
if it’s a Tuesday, have them get together with their Tuesday group, which is different from the other days.
Students can also create each day’s defined group.

Students Choose Groups

10. Students select own group. The simplest way could just be to tell students to get into groups and trust
them to do it.

11. Students select own group, with exceptions. A variation from above, you can let them choose their
groups but add, “Don’t join with the last person you were with,” or “No more than this many people.”

12. Students given options. Try describing what different group tasks are available, then letting students
choose which task they’d like to join.

13. Students choose an option, and mix with others. You could also try letting students choose which task
they’d like to do, but then creating a group consisting of students with each of the other tasks. In a reading
class, you might have one student be a “vocab finder,” one be a “summarizer,” etc.

14. Students choose based on random interest. Have students mix based on something they are personally
interested in. You can give them suggestions or categories of interests, and design their task to include that
interest.

15. Students grouped based on responses. Give a survey or quiz, and group students according to what
they think or how they score.

16. Clock partners. Give each student a clock chart, and have them go around assigning themselves a
partner for each time of day. They’ll have a one o’clock partner, a two o’clock partner, etc. Then you just
say “Get with your ________ o’clock partner.”

17. Contact list. Like the clock partners, have students create their own contact list of classmates like they
might on their phones. Then tell them, “Get with your third contact.”

Randomized Group Work

18. Use sticks or names from a hat. Write students’ names on popsicle sticks, shake them up in a cup, and
pop out the number of names you want in a group. Much like casting lots. Or you can literally pull names
from a hat.

19. Use a grouping app or website. Many good apps or websites exist for randomly assigning groups. Try
an app like Team Shake ($0.99) or a website like Group Sort.

20. Use colored index cards. Let students choose colored index cards from a stack, and sort them based
on the colors they picked up. You can even write items on the cards that further indicate tasks or topics.

21. Count off. Of course you can count off by numbers, but maybe try something fun. If you want four
groups, then count off by “Shakespeare, Dickens, Chaucer and Swift,” for example.

22. “Left Out” Game. Have your students stand up, and then you shout out a number. Students must
immediately cluster themselves according to that number. Anyone left out gets a bonus task.

23. Use a pack of cards. Playing cards are effective and versatile. Pass out cards and group students
based on having similar or different suits, black or red cards, cards in a specific order, the same numbers,
or any other values you assign to the deck.

24. Use synonym vocab word cards. Have sets of synonyms written on different index cards and randomly
pass them out. Then have students find the other person in the room who has the word that means the
same as their card. Also try antonyms!
25. Famous pairings. A variation on the synonym cards, pass out cards that have various pairs of duos that
pertain to your course. Have a “Huck Finn” and a “Mark Twain” cards, or “Einstein” and “E=MC2” cards.

26. Puzzle pieces. Take small puzzles and have students randomly select a piece. Then have them find the
other students who have the rest of that puzzle’s pieces.

27. Arrange desks. If students have assigned desks, confuse them by rearranging the desks before they
come in for the day.

28. Birthday buddies. Who has their birthday in the same month as you? Ask students that question, and
group them accordingly.

29. Pick colored pencils/markers. When creating a poster or colorful project, have students grab one
colored utensil and ask them to mix with others with different colors.

30. Line it up and fold it. Ask students to line up in response to a question or trait. They could line up by
height, or perhaps line up based on a spectrum of how much they know about the day’s topic. Then fold the
line in half, so the least knowledgeable student is paired with the most knowledgeable student, and so on.

Grade placement and distribution

The Course Grade Distribution Report is an aggregation of final grades given in each course and section.
For courses with more than one section, the report also provides totals for all sections. Department,
College and University totals reflect composite grade distributions.

In order to protect student privacy, grade distributions for groups of five or fewer students have been
redacted. Faculty and staff who require non-redacted grade distribution data in order to fulfill job duties can
request access to a pre-written query available through the Query Library (query name: Grade Distribution).

Tests are scored on a 1 to 5 scale as follows:[17]

5 – Extremely well qualified
4 – Well qualified
3 – Qualified
2 – Possibly qualified
1 – No recommendation
Allotment of time

An example of an allotment is when a government leases out portions of land to individuals for farming.
Allotment is defined as the portion or share of something. An example of an allotment is the specific
amount of time a teacher gives their students to take a test. Time allocation is the allotment of time that has
been used within different activities and specific exercises. Time allocation can measure how natural and
effective the human behaviour is towards completing tasks and activities within a particular timeframe.

Non-graded classes
Non-graded classes are offered to meet the identified needs of students who demonstrate
significant needs for organization and comprehension of subject expectations. Our small class
sizes and individualized programming allow for students to advance or remediate in specific
subjects at a pace that suits their personal learning style and trajectory of skill acquisition.
Students are grouped by ability rather than age or grade level and receive both small group and
individualized instruction daily. Helping students to identify areas of strength and talent is an
important goal for our faculty. We provide opportunities for students to stretch their interests in
specific subjects, an extracurricular area, or through social leadership.
 Academic supports are numerous and varied. Individual student needs are assessed to determine
which appropriate accommodations and modifications will be implemented to promote student
success. Our brain-based, multi-sensory approach to learning has proven to build confidence and
increase motivation in the classroom. From read-alouds to role plays…yoga breaks to
vocabulary games, this integrative model of learning and movement provides instruction in ways
that our students may have never experienced at previous schools.
Social maturity is supported with several, integrated curricula addressing friendships, social
problem-solving, self regulation, and perspective-taking. Weekly topics offer activities to
support Theory of Mind, Social Thinking ™, and the Six Pillars of character development. Our
faculty carefully monitors each student’s abilities and performance level to determine a suitable
post-secondary track and strategic plan.

Student social life is an essential and dynamic component to the overall school experience in the
Summit School. Outreach, afterschool clubs, sports, and recreational activities encourage
friendships, confidence, and a sense of community. We recognize that these opportunities
nurture academic, social, and personal growth. We also know that our students may not have had
the opportunity to explore their interests in activities outside of the classroom in past schools.
We believe that a positive sense of belonging can counterbalance a student’s stress and promote
a social-emotional energy that is evident in the classroom and in life.

UNIT III
Basis of Curriculum Construction
It is clear that curriculum is positively correlated with the needs and requirements of the society
for which it is formulated, organised and developed. There are four important basis of
curriculum construction.
1. Philosophical Basis It is the philosophy of a society that determines the ultimate aims of its
education. The social structure and its economics organisations are also based on philosophical
foundations. Philosophy considers such fundamental and profound issues such as man’s place in
the universe, the aims of nature, the aims of society, the relationship between man and society,
and so on. Various philosophies such as idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism etc. have
different views on these issue.
(i) Realism : It includes those activities in curriculum through which knowledge can be obtained
in real situations of life. Realistic curriculum is developed according to utility and needs.
Subjects concerning day to day activities are included in realistic curriculum.
(ii) Idealism : The main aim of curriculum assumes thoughts, eternal values and ideas of man.
Idealism provide principal place to literature art, music etc. in curriculum. In idealistic
curriculum humanistic subjects are emphasized.
(iii) Naturalism : Free development of individuality of child is one of the major aim of education.
Due to this reason, naturalists are supporters of providing unlimited liberty to the child for self-
expression. In naturalistic curriculum science subjects occupy main place.
(iv) Pragmatism : Pragmatic curriculum is based on subjects of utility. Construction Of
pragmatic curriculum is done according to interests of child. They build curriculum of
elementary classes on the basis of curiosity practical interest, sophisticated expression, interest
of mutual exchange of thoughts. Its main principle being utilitarian.
2. Psychological basis : Psychological basis emphasizes that the education of the child should be
based on psychological methods and principles. According to this base formulation of
curriculum is done according to interest of child, natural tendencies, requirements, capabilities
and abilities of child. It emphasizes that the child is the center of education, so both education
and curriculum is meant for the child. Hence child should be imparted education according to his
abilities and capacities.
3. Sociological Basis : The main aim of social tendency is to develop society. According to this
base those subjects and activities are included in the curriculum, which provide assistance in
developing appreciation of sociability. This tendency emphasizes inclusion of social qualities in
children so that they also contribute their best to social welfare and advancements.
4. Scientific Basis : According to this base, more importance is given to the scientific subjects in
curriculum. Its supporters hold the view that it is only after the study of scientific subjects that
man can lead a complete life. It opposes literary education and proposes practical and useful
knowledge. It promotes scientific attitude towards life and society.

The Concept of Epistemology

Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge and knowing, and the validity of knowledge claims
(Zais, 2010). It also deals with the question of discovering the truth and
authenticity of knowledge as well as limits of knowledge. Recent developments in epistemology have now
shifted from the belief that knowledge is absolute and static to the current postmodern views, which emphasize
its continuous development and evolutionary nature. Therefore, epistemology and curriculum are interrelated,
reflects our conceptualization of the epistemological aspects of curriculum development and implementation.
Curriculum contents exist in order to transmit knowledge and to lay a foundation to facilitate knowing or
meaning construction. Ornstein and Levine (1993) consider epistemology to be at the pillar of curriculum
development. Curriculum development entails decision-making on the nature and the level of content, level of
skills, values and attitudes that learners should acquire
through education (Okello & Ocheng, 1996). Educators’ understanding of the various forms of knowledge and
patterns of knowing influence their decisions concerning content selection
and its organization during curriculum design and implementation. The curriculum implementation processes
may include teaching, learning and assessment of learning (Sowell, 2010).
Knowledge
Knowledge is what is perceived to be reality or truth argues that knowledge is a mix of framed experiences,
values, contextual information, and expert insight. The notion of knowledge can be objective, observable and
communicable to one individual and likewise knowledge can be subjective, unique, and internal to another
individual. Knowledge as being explicit, implicit, tacit, procedural, declarative, strategic, conceptual, logical-
mathematical, physical, automatized,
semantic and social. The term knowledge has various uses depending on the perspective in which it is used.
Explicit knowledge is formal, systematic and codified usually digitized in form of documents such as books,
and reports. Thus, it is articulated in form of text that may contain specifications and scientific formulas. In
laboratory practice like in other areas of practice, explicit knowledge
is the most commonly used knowledge. It is used in routine teaching and learning.
Implicit knowledge is reflected in observable behaviour or even in performance of tasks. It can be teased out
from the individual’s performance by experts using task analysis.
Tacit knowledge refers to the knowledge that people have but is not written down. It is thus difficult to
articulate and tends to be shared through interactions, storytelling and discussions with individuals having this
knowledge and expertise. Tacit knowledge is acquired as a result of individuals’ experience and some
individuals may not even be aware that they have this knowledge. The utility of tacit knowledge is not as broad
as that of explicit knowledge.
Procedural knowledge refers to understanding of how to carryout procedures normally based on implicit
memory or long-term memory of specific skills and procedures (Nickols, 2000a). It denotes knowledge of how
to complete tasks. Procedural knowledge is the understanding of how to control relevant factors for examining
phenomenon, knowing methods of manipulating specific conditions or the technique for implementing tasks. It is
obscure,
process-oriented and it is not extendible to other uses.
Declarative knowledge like procedural knowledge, declarative knowledge, refers to the ability to describe,
interpret and explain how to perform certain tasks. Declarative knowledge helps learners to develop procedural
knowledge. It is easy to validate, identify, transfer, and slow to acquire as it
requires interpretation of its acquisition process.
Strategic knowledge is the ability to perceive the right time and the right reason for doing things. It is used by
Laboratory managers in their routine day-to-day activities as well as in planning. In clinical laboratories,
strategic knowledge is used when making decisions. It helps laboratory professionals in identifying which
operations are of emergency nature and those that are routine.
Conceptual knowledge refers to the manner in which one represents major concepts in a system. It explains
relationships and understandings of a system. Conceptual knowledge involves making sensory observations,
logical correlation of data, abstractions, assimilations, problemsolving, reasonable judgement and understanding
of humans.
Logical-mathematical knowledge involves quantification of observations such as counting, measuring,
precision and accurate communicating of facts. It is the ability to think about objects or variables and existing
relationships between them. Logical-mathematical knowledge also entails the ability to demonstrate
problemsolving skills, good understanding of critical issues and sketching out the way forward in deciding what
steps to take. It is mainly applied in experimental and quantitative research.
Physical knowledge refers to ability to demonstrate a clear understanding of the physical properties of objects or
events. Physical knowledge is needed to have a good understanding of facts and features such as size, shape,
texture, weight, volume, and dimensions. It enhances understanding of phenomena and predicting emerging
phenomena.
Automatized knowledge is the knowledge that involves construction and understanding of concepts and
analysing issues. It is acquired without necessarily using rote memory.
Semantic knowledge refers to highly organised knowledge found in long-term memory and includes major
concepts, vocabulary, facts and relationships.
Practical-technical knowledge refers to what people know and can do. It includes the understanding of the
structure of work activities in organizations. It is the knowledge that individual use when deciding to take some
action basing on their beliefs and values. Practical-technical knowledge is learned on the job through experience
and adaptation to the working environment.
Social knowledge involves the enhancement of cultural or social groups to come to agree by convention. It is
based on the belief that knowledge can be acquired through social interaction
especially when people engage into dialogue, conversation, copying, practicing, having feelings and establishing
connections and relationships with others. Social knowledge is therefore socially mediated and is community
bound. It promotes shared meaning and creation of new knowledge as a result of agreement between people of
different backgrounds. Professions are in themselves specialised communities or societies. The senior
professionals influence the young ones who copy
good practices as they grow into the profession.
Knowing
The notion of knowing refers to one’s ability to construct meaning as a result of internalization and experiences.
It involves internal mental cognitive changes within the individual as a result of learning. Knowing emerges
through various forms such as empirical-analytical, interpretive-hermeneutical, self-awareness, ethical, self-
reflective, and aesthetic.

Ways of Knowing and Forms of Understanding

Means ofKnowing Modes ofKnowing Forms of Understanding/Type of Knowledge

Senses Experience Perception;

Description of facts ofmatter;
Perceptual knowledge;
Empirical knowledge.
Mind Reason Reasoning;Rational Knowledge
;Conceptual Knowledge;
Causal knowledge;Knowledge
of Relationships;Interpretative Knowledge

DISCIPLINE

What is a Discipline?
An academic investigation of the concept of ‘disciplinarity’ starts off with an exploration of the etymology of the term
‘discipline’. The term ‘discipline’ originates from the Latin word ‘discipulus’- which means pupil, and ‘disciplina’ - which
means teaching (noun). As a verb it means training someone to follow a rigorous set of instructions, but also enforcing
obedience.
A discipline is an organised body of knowledge with a logical structure. It is a network of concepts and generalisations which
explain the relationships among a body of facts.
A discipline is an organised body of knowledge, characterized by a domain, a method, and a tradition. Academic discipline has
been seen as a form of specific and rigorous scientific learning that will turn out practitioners who have been ‘disciplined by their
discipline’ for their own good.
In addition, ‘discipline’ also means policing certain behaviours or ways of thinking.
Characteristics of a Discipline
The characteristics of a discipline are the following:
 Every discipline has a history. It implies the development of that particular discipline and the chronology of its growth and
modification.
 Each discipline has certain domain of knowledge (cognitive, affective and psychomotor).
 Discipline has a particular object of research, though the object of research may be shared with another discipline.
 Discipline has a substantial body of knowledge and research, which is specific to it and not generally shared with another
discipline.
 Discipline has theories and concepts that organise the accumulated knowledge effectively.
 Discipline uses specific terminologies or a specific technical language to define and explain the concepts and facts included in
that discipline.
 Discipline has developed specific research methods according to its specific research requirements.
 Discipline must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught at universities or colleges, respective
academic departments and professional associations connected to it.
 A discipline has a group of intellectual followers, who have strong belief in that discipline. They conduct new researches in
that discipline, and bring changes in that discipline with new facts and innovations. In short, a discipline must have a body of
accumulated knowledge which is specific to that discipline and not generally shared with another discipline. But in many cases,
many forms of knowledge keep overlapping across the disciplines; like Science and Mathematics; and even Science and Social
Sciences. Also, a discipline must have theories and concepts that can organise the accumulated knowledge effectively and use
specific terminologies or a specific language to explain its disciplinary body of knowledge. A discipline must have some
institutional manifestation in the form of a specified body of knowledge.

STRUCTURE OF DISCIPLINE:
A discipline is characterized by its structure which includes domain, method and history.
 First, it has a domain, a field of phenomena (subject matter), with which it deals. This may refer to different aspects of reality –
scientific, logical (Science and Mathematics) or with different degrees of overlapping between them.
 Second, every discipline has its own methods and modes of inquiry and also a set of rules to validate the knowledge. The use
of methods again implies the form/type of knowledge it deals with. The rules of one discipline cannot be applied to other, but
similar practices of methods in different contexts can be used across the disciplines.
 Third, a discipline has its own history which describes its domain of knowledge, rules and philosophy.

Curriculum design

Curriculum design includes consideration of aims, intended learning outcomes, syllabus, learning and teaching methods, and
assessment. Each of these elements is described below. It also involves ensuring that the curriculum is accessible and inclusive,
i.e. that student with disabilities, and from all backgrounds, can participate in it with an equal chance of success.
Components of Design “To design a curriculum, we must consider how its parts interrelate,” The question, why do we educate,
allows one to examine their own visions and philosophies. Curriculum design today has been molded by our past and has
intentions to shape our future.
DESIGN DIMENSIONS Curricularist must, when considering design, view it on several dimensions; scope, integration,
sequence, articulation, balance and continuity.
Scope: When considering curriculum design, educators need to address the breadth and depth of its content. Some refer to this as
the horizontal organization of the curriculum. Scope means not only the depth and range of content provided to students, but also
all the varieties and types of educational experiences that are created to engage students in their learning. The challenge of
determining scope goes back to the basic question posed by Herbert Spencer, “What knowledge is of the most worth?”.
Integration: Integration refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum plan. It
is essentially a design feature to bring into close relationship all the bits and pieces of the curriculum in ways that enable the
student to comprehend knowledge as unified, rather than individualized. In schools today, many argue that the curriculum
integration, educators should arrange curricular phenomena such that the students’ intellects and hearts, and perhaps their souls,
are addressed.
Sequence: When considering sequence, curricularists are challenged to deal effectively with curricular elements so that the
curriculum fosters cumulative and continuous learning, or what is referred to as the vertical relationship among curricular areas.
Specifically, curricularists must decide how content and experiences will occur and reoccur so that students have opportunities to
connect and enrich their understanding of the curriculum presented or experienced. There is long standing controversy over
whether the sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter or on the way in which
individuals process knowledge. Several sequence patterns to keep in mind include the following: simple to complex learning,
whole to part learning, and chronological learning.
Articulation: Articulation refers to the interrelatedness of various aspects of the curriculum. The relation can be either vertical or
horizontal. Vertical articulation depicts the relationships of certain aspects in the curriculum sequence to lessons, topics, or
courses appearing late in the program’s sequence. For instance, a teacher might design introductory or ninth grade algebra so that
concepts in the algebra class are related to key concepts in a geometry course. The key reason for addressing vertical articulation
is to assure that students receive those leanings that are prerequisite to information presented later in the curriculum. Horizontal
articulation refers to the association between or among elements occurring simultaneously. Horizontal articulation takes place,
for instance, when curriculum designers attempt to develop interrelationships between eight-grade social studies and eighth-
grade English courses. Articulation is difficult to achieve. Curricula arranged by subjects often pay no attention to connections
with any other subject matter. Another reason for the difficultly is that we are not as far along in cooperative curriculum
development as our educational talk might indicate.
Balance: When designing a curriculum educators are also concerned that appropriate weight be given to each aspect of the
design so that distortions do not occur. Balance is problematic because we are constantly striving to localize and individualize
the curriculum in its content and experiences while at the same time addressing a tradition that plans curriculum for the masses.
Educational policies also have an impact. Keeping the curriculum ‘in balance’ requires continuous fine-tuning of the curriculum.
Continuity: Continuity deals with the vertical manipulation or repetition of curriculum components. For example, if reading
skills are an important objective, then it is necessary to see that there is recurring and continuing opportunity for those skills to be
practiced and developed. Over time, the same kinds of skills need to be reinforced. Continuity is most evident in Bruner’s notion
of the ‘spiral curriculum’. According to Bruner, basic ideas and structures need to be developed and redeveloped in a spiral
fashion-increasing in depth and breadth as students move through school.
Learning should be designed on the basis of the following principle:
• Challenge and enjoyment
• Breadth
• Progression
• Depth
• Coherence
• Relevance
• Personalisation and choice.
The principles must be taken into account for all children and young people. The principles will help
teachers and schools in their practice and as a basisfor reviewing, evaluating and improving the learning
and teaching. Although all should apply at any onestage, the principles will have different emphases asa
child or young person learns and develops.

What do the principles mean for children and young people?

Challenge and enjoyment
Children and young people should find their learningchallenging, engaging and motivating. The
 curriculum should encourage high aspirations and ambitions for all.. At every stage, children and young
people should experience an appropriate level of challenge, to enable each individual to achieve his or
her potential. They should be active in their learningand have opportunities to develop and
demonstrate their creativity. There should be support to enable children and young people to sustain
their efforts.
Breadth
All children and young people should have the opportunities for a broad range of experiences. Their
learning should be planned and organised so that they will learn and develop through a variety of
contexts within both the classroom and other aspects of school life.

Progression
Children and you people should experience continuous progression in their learning from 3 to 18years.
Each stage should build upon earlier knowledge and achievements. Children and young people should
be able to progress at a rate which is
meets their individual needs and aptitudes.
Depth
There should be opportunities for children andyoung people to develop their full capacity for
different types of thinking and learning, exploringand achieving more advanced levels of
understanding.
Coherence
Children and young people’s learning activities should combine to form a coherent experience. There
should be clear links between different aspects of learning. Such links should be discussed with children
and young people in order to bring different strands of learning together
Relevance
Children and young people should understand thepurpose of their learning and related activities.
They should see the value of what they are learning and its relevance to there lives, present and future.

Personalisation and choice

The learning planned for children and young people should respond to their individual needs and
support particular aptitudes and talents. It should provide opportunities for exercising responsible
personal choice. Once children and young people have achieved suitable levels ofattainment across a
wide range of areas of learning,the choice should become as open as possible.

Depth

Breadth

Coherence

Relevance

Progression
Challenge and enjoyment

Personalisation and choice

Approaches of curriculum designing-Piaget & their contribution

Jean Piaget and Child Psychology:

According to Jean Piaget, the understanding thoughts of a child are constructed through a number
of channels, which include, listening, reading, experiencing, and exploring the place they live in or
the environment they grow up in. The work of Jean Piaget has been labeled as constrictive and
interacting. Before the time of Jean Piaget, child psychology was not given that much importance.
You can also say that, before the time of Jean Piaget, there was no such thing as child psychology.

Most Popular Work by Jean Piaget:

One of the most admirable additions to the child psychology by Jean Piaget is his cognitive theory.
The four stages of cognitive development is the best-known work model of Piaget. For Piaget, the
biological growth also had an extension that was the cognitive growth. Therefore, according to him,
this growth is also governed by the same laws and rules that govern the biological growth as well.
According to Jean Piaget, the intellectual development of a person controls other developmental
aspects of the person such as moral, social, and emotional.

The Four Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Jean Piaget, children reason and think differently during different times in their
lives. Jean Piaget believed that everyone boy or a girl, pass through an invariant sequence. This
sequence comprise of four qualitatively distinct stages divided in the life of the person. Although,
all children will pass these stages, but the ages at which they pass or enter these stages is still a
variable. The four cognitive stages are:

➢ Sensorimotor (from birth to two years of age): During this stage, the mental structure of the child
is mainly focused towards mastering the concrete objects.
➢ Preoperational (from age two to age seven): During this stage, the child masters all the symbols.
➢ Concrete (Seven to Eleven years of age): During this stage, children learn about how to reason,
and master the classes of numbers and relations.
➢ Formal Operation or Abstract Thinking (from eleven years of age and so on): The fourth
stage deals with the mastery of the thought. Jean Piaget made considerable
contributions to the field of psychology that are still used today. But like all the great people, he
also faced a lot of criticism at that time by people who were more comfortable living inside the
box.

Every experience and interaction has an impact on development in early childhood. Swiss biologist
and psychologist Jean Piaget recognized this when he studied and researched his own theories of
cognitive development. Some of his research led to the belief that every interaction establishes
cognitive structure in children. This is especially important in the classroom environment.
Jean Piaget made note of certain stages of development that allowed children to learn better.

“He saw these transitions as taking place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This has
been taken to mean that before these ages children are not capable (no matter how bright) of
understanding things in certain ways,” Learning and Teaching Information said.

STRUCTURED DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget’s theories of development centered on structure. The concept of structure introduced
four stages of development, according to Teacher Education:
➢ Sensorimotor stage – 0-2 years: imitation, memory and thought begin to be utilized
➢ Preoperational stage- 2-7 years: language development and recognizing symbolic form
➢ Concrete operational stage- 7-11 years: able to solve hands-on problems logically
➢ Formal operational stage- 11-15 years : able to solve abstract problems in a logical fashion

APPLYING JEAN PIAGET IN THE CLASSROOM

To apply Jean Piaget’s theories in the classroom, the University of Arkansas suggests these six
steps to structure preoperational development:
1. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.
2. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words.
3. Do not expect the students to consistently see the world from someone else’s point of view.
4. Be sensitive to the possibility that students may have different meanings for the same word or different
words for the same meaning. Students may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.
5. Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more
complex skills like reading comprehension.
6. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language.

Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget’s theories have had a major impact on the theory and practice of education (Case, 1998).
First, the theories focused attention on the idea of developmentally appropriate education—an
education with environments, curriculum, materials, and instruction that are suitable for students
in terms of their physical and cognitive abilities and their social and emotional needs (Elkind,
1989). In addition, several major approaches to curriculum and instruction are explicitly based on
Piagetian theory (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984), and this
theory has been influential in constructivist models of learning, which will be described in Chapter
8. Berk (2001) summarizes the main teaching implications drawn from Piaget as follows:
1. A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products. In addition to checking the
correctness of children’s answers, teachers must understand the processes children use to get to the
answer. Appropriate learning experiences build on children’s current level of cognitive functioning,
and only when teachers appreciate children’s methods of arriving at particular conclusions are they
in a position to provide such experiences.
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in learning activities. In
a Piagetian classroom the presentation of ready-made knowledge is deemphasized, and children are
encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment.
Therefore, instead of teaching didactically, teachers provide a rich variety of activities that permit
children to act directly on the physical world.
3. A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in their thinking. Piaget referred to the
question “How can we speed up development?” as “the American question.” Among the many
countries he visited, psychologists and educators in the United States seemed most interested in what
techniques could be used to accelerate children’s progress through the stages. Piagetian-based
educational programs accept his firm belief that premature teaching could be worse than no teaching
at all, because it leads to superficial acceptance of adult formulas rather than true cognitive
understanding (May & Kundert, 1997).
 4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget’s theory assumes that all
children go through the same developmental sequence but that they do so at different rates.
Therefore, teachers must make a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and
small groups of children rather than for the total class group. In addition, because individual
differences are expected, assessment of children’s educational progress should be made in terms of
each child’s own previous course of development, not in terms of normative standards provided by
the performances of same-age peers.

Approaches of curriculum designing Bruner & their contribution

The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience
"generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful
predictions” Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent
regularities" in their environment.
So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts, categories, and
problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to "invent"
these things for oneself. Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities
and "culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities."
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).
In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three
modes of representation:
• Enactive representation (action-based)
• Iconic representation (image-based)
• Symbolic representation (language-based)
Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in
memory.
Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated
and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.

Enactive
(0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For
example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.
The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will “shake a rattle” which
has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to produce the
accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to children.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower)
that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

Iconic
(1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind’s
eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when
we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany
verbal information.

Symbolic
(7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as
language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed
relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the user isn’t
constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words,
mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a
progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult
learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very
young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately,
in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a
child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations.
Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.
In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text
was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.
Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying to
match the complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means
students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too difficult to understand and
must be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive
maturity.
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding
complex information: 'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject
can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development'.
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This
involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level
first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at
levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his way
should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing
and categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effective way
to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher. The concept of
discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also
known as a constructivist approach).
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to
facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help student
discover the relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give students the
information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid
the process of discovery learning

'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task
so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring'

Bruner and Piaget

Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but an important difference is that
Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. Whilst
sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they coexist.
Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual development is the extent to which the
child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience. So - the right
way of presentation and the right explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only
understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and the adult.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as representing
different separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget). Instead, he
sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated “adult”
cognitive techniques.
Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development and since language is
our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in
determining cognitive development.

BRUNER AGREES
BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET
WITH PIAGET

1. Children are PRE- 1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS – not a

ADAPTED to learning series of stages

2. Children have a 2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a

NATURAL CURIOSITY consequence of cognitive development
 3. Children’s COGNITIVE
3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You
STRUCTURES develop over
don’t have to wait for the child to be ready
time

4. Children are ACTIVE 4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE

participants in the learning KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference
process

5. Cognitive development
5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE
entails the acquisition of
EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION
SYMBOLS

JEROME BRUNER’S SPIRAL APPROACH

Learning should not only take us somewhere; it should allow us later to go
further more easily.

(Bruner, The Process of Education, 1977,)

As reflected in his book The Process of Education first published in 1960,

Jerome Bruner subscribes to the theory of constructivism. Constructivism is the
theory that learners construct their own knowledge based on the things they
currently know and have known in the past.

He argues that the curriculum should revisit basic ideas and repeatedly build
upon these ideas until the learner understands fully. He suggests that the early
teaching of a subject should put emphasis on grasping the basic ideas intuitively.
He advises that the curriculum should revisit these principal ideas repeatedly,
building cumulatively upon them, gradually making connections between
fundamental ideas and new ones until the students understand them fully.
Bruner recommends that the curriculum be built upon the natural thinking
processes of the learner. He argues that the child
should be presented with ideas that are not too distant from his or her natural
way of thinking.

THE SPIRAL APPROACH AND THE K TO 12 CURRICULUM

In the K to 12 Education Program, the spiral progression approach by John
Bruner will be used in teaching Science, Mathematics, Araling Panlipunan (Social
 Studies), MAPEH (Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health) and Edukasyon
sa Pagpapakatao (Values Education).
Mathematics
In the old curriculum, learners were taught Science and Mathematics using the
discipline-based approach. In the K to 6 Mathematics curriculum, the subject
had to be learned comprehensively and with much depth. On the other hand, in
the new Mathematics curriculum, there is a continuity of learning from K to
Grade 10 (p. 37). On top of this, the spiral approach is followed, in lieu of the
discipline-based approach utilized in the old curriculum.

Science
The new Science curriculum ‘strongly links science and technology, including
indigenous technologies to preserve the country’s distinct culture’ (p.39). In the
old curriculum, Science was taught using the discipline-based approach in the
most part of high school (Biology in 2nd Year, Chemistry in 3rd Year, Physics in
4th Year). In the new curriculum, spiral approach will be applied in teaching
science concepts and applications in all subjects. SEAMO INNOTECH’s K-to-12
kit states further that ‘concepts and skills in Life Sciences, Physics, Chemistry,
and Earth Sciences are presented with increasing levels of complexity from one
grade level to another, thus paving the way for deeper understanding of key
concepts’ .

Integrated Language Arts

The Integrated Language Arts aims for the ‘development of oral and written
communicative competence of learners in three languages: Mother Tongue,
Filipino, and English’ (SEAMO INNOTECH, 2012: 36). In the new curriculum,
the spiral progression of the competencies across the levels should be observed.
However, there is ‘greater emphasis on reading comprehension of various texts,
writing and composition, study and thinking strategies which are all in support
of critical and creative thinking development’ in the high school level.
Music, Arts, Physical Education, and Health (MAPEH)

With regard to the new Music and Arts curricula, the learner both receives and
constructs knowledge, skills, and values necessary for cultural literacy and
artistic expression. The curricula have a student-centered design which is based
on John Bruner’s spiral progression. In addition to this, the curricula are also
grounded on performance-based learning. The learner, therefore, is
‘empowered, through active involvement and participation, to effectively
correlate music and art to the development of his/her own cultural identity and
expand his/her vision of the world’

The K-12 education program, as previously mentioned in this article, serves a

 response to the urgent need to improve the quality of Philippine basic education.
The aim of this reform is to decongest and enhance the curriculum so as to
facilitate the mastery of basic competencies. This paper concludes that the spiral
approach by John Bruner can contribute to the achievement of this aim.
Integrated and seamless learning, as one of the salient features of the K to 12
Education Program, is indeed not impossible because the new curricula of the
subjects follow a spiral progression where learning of skills, values, knowledge
and attitudes increase in both breadth and depth.

Bruner approached the study of cognitive development from a psychological-

experimental frame of reference. He, his colleagues and his students involved
much greater number of individuals than used by Piaget, under controlled
experiments.Bruner studied the means by which human beings interact with the
environment cognitively.

He observed the initial emergence of the means of acting on the environment and
representing experience, and also the continuity of development. Bruner agrees
with Piaget regarding the description of internal representation of experience.
But Bruner emphasized continuity, the importance of language and the
importance of education in cognitive development more than Piaget. ,

Bruner conceived three ways of knowing something: through actually

performing it (through doing it), through sensing it and through a symbolic
means such as language. He used three special terms to designate these three
actions. Knowing and Representing experiences are according to him “enactive”,
“ikonic” and“symbolic”. They denote not only representing internally but also
operational on the environment.

APPROACHES OF KOHLBERG – MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development posits that individuals go through a

series of stages in their moral reasoning as they progress from childhood to adulthood.
Kohlberg's theory is based on the work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and extends his
ideas about cognitive development to the domain of morality. Kohlberg identified six
stages of moral development, which are grouped into three major levels, each
representing a different level of moral reasoning:

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality

• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: At this stage, individuals focus on

avoiding punishment and following rules out of self-interest. They see rules as fixed and
absolute.
• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: In this stage, people recognize that there is more
than one point of view, and they make decisions based on self-interest and the possibility
of reciprocity. Morality is viewed as a matter of mutual benefit.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

• Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships: At this stage, individuals are concerned with
maintaining positive relationships and conforming to the expectations of society. They
seek approval and avoid disapproval.
• Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: In this stage, people become concerned with obeying
the law, maintaining social order, and respecting authority figures. They understand the
importance of societal rules.

Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality

• Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: At this stage, individuals recognize that rules
and laws are social contracts that can be changed for the greater good. They consider
individual rights and democratic principles.
• Stage 6: Universal Principles: In this final stage, people develop a moral code based on
universal ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and human rights. They are willing to
disobey laws that violate their deeply held principles.

It's important to note that not everyone reaches the highest stages of moral development,
and progression through the stages is not guaranteed. Kohlberg's theory describes a
developmental sequence, but individuals may vary in their moral reasoning and may not
always exhibit consistent stage behavior.

Kohlberg's theory has been influential in the fields of psychology, education, and ethics. It
has been used to inform moral education and discussions about ethical dilemmas.
However, it has also been criticized for its Western cultural bias and its assumption that
higher stages of moral development are inherently superior.

Curriculum design
Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and
systematic organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or
course. In other words, it is a way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers
design curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will do it, and what
schedule to follow.

Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The
ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ
curriculum design as well. For example, designing a curriculum for middle school
students with both elementary and high school curricula in mind helps to make sure
that learning goals are aligned and complement each other from one stage to the
next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge
from elementary school or future learning in high school into account it can create
real problems for the students.

Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

• Subject-centered design
• Learner-centered design
• Problem-centered design

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or
discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or
biology. This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the
individual. It is the most common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in
states and local districts in the United States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it

should be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design that
can be standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In
standardized core curricula, teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things
that they need to teach their students, along with specific examples of how these
things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large college
classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not

student-centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed
without taking into account the specific learning styles of the students. This can
cause problems with student engagement and motivation and may even cause
students to fall behind in class.

Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs,
interests, and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that
students are not uniform and adjust to those student needs. Learner-centered
curriculum design is meant to empower learners and allow them to shape their
education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving

students the opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities.
This can motivate students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are
learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor-intensive.

Developing differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create
instruction and/or find materials that are conducive to each student's learning
needs. Teachers may not have the time or may lack the experience or skills to create
such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that teachers balance
student wants and interests with student needs and required outcomes, which is not
an easy balance to obtain.
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is
also a form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on
teaching students how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the
problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which helps them develop
skills that are transferable to the real world.

Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and

allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to
this form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into
consideration.

Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the
curriculum design process.

• Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the

curriculum design process. This can be done through needs analysis, which
involves the collection and analysis of data related to the learner. This data
might include what learners already know and what they need to know to be
proficient in a particular area or skill. It may also include information about
learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
• Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you
to focus on the intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan
instruction that can achieve the desired results. Learning goals are the things
teachers want students to achieve in the course. Learning outcomes are the
measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should have
achieved in the course.
• Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example,
time is a common constraint that must be considered. There are only so many
hours, days, weeks or months in the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver
all of the instruction that has been planned, it will impact learning outcomes.
• Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum
matrix) so that you can properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of
instruction. Curriculum mapping provides visual diagrams or indexes of a
curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of the curriculum is a good way
to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies or alignment
issues in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on
paper or with software programs or online services designed specifically for
this purpose.
• Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the
course and consider how they will work with student learning styles. If
the instructional methods are not conducive to the curriculum, the
instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered
accordingly.
 • Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the
school year to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation
will help you determine if the curriculum design is working or if it is failing.
Examples of things that should be evaluated include the strengths and
weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement rates related to learning
outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and summative.
• Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process;
continuous improvement is a necessity. The design of the curriculum should
be assessed periodically and refined based on assessment data. This may
involve making alterations to the design partway through the course to
ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be
achieved at the end of the course.

SUBJECT-CENTRED DESIGN

Subject-Centered Design is an educational approach that places a significant emphasis on

subject areas or disciplines within the curriculum. It is also known as subject-based or
discipline-based design. The primary goal of Subject-Centred Design is to facilitate a
thorough understanding of the subject matter and the development of expertise in specific
disciplines. It integrates subject-specific teaching methods and assessment strategies, such
as lectures, demonstrations, hands-on activities, discussions, and problem-solving
exercises. While Subject-Centred Design offers advantages such as a thorough
understanding of the subject matter and the development of expertise, there is a potential
challenge of knowledge fragmentation and a lack of interdisciplinary connections. To
address this, educators can incorporate interdisciplinary projects, activities, or themes to
promote connections between different subjects and real-life contexts. Let's explore core
principles and approaches in more detail:

Core Principles:

• One of the key principles of Subject-Centred Design is the comprehensive coverage of the
subject matter. Educators choose and include all necessary topics, concepts, and abilities
within the discipline. This ensures that students are exposed to a diverse range of
information and gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject.
• The hierarchical structuring of content is another principle. The curriculum is organized
logically and sequentially, with themes and concepts put in a specific order. This
hierarchical structure enables a systematic development of learning, with essential concepts
introduced before more advanced or complex ones. This guarantees that students build on
existing knowledge and have a thorough comprehension of the subject.

However, subject-centredness may have limitations in terms of increasing student

engagement, critical thinking, and knowledge application beyond the subject area. To
address these restrictions, educators frequently incorporate components of learner-
centred or problem-centred approaches, which allow for greater student interaction,
investigation, and application of subject matter to real-world contexts.

Characteristics and Approaches:

Subject-Centred Design emphasizes curriculum structure, the development of basic
knowledge and abilities within specific disciplines, and the integration of subject-specific
teaching methods and evaluation procedures. Let us take a closer look at each quality and
approach:

1. Subject-Centred Design employs a structured curriculum that follows a predetermined

sequence of topics within specific disciplines. This means that the content is organized
logically and progressively, with each topic building on the one before it. The curriculum
could be organized into units or modules, each concentrating on a different subject or
discipline. This method ensures that students acquire a well-rounded education in all
subjects.
2. In Subject-Centred Design, there is a strong emphasis on building a solid foundation of
knowledge and skills in subject areas. The goal is for students to get a thorough
understanding of essential concepts, theories, and principles in each discipline. This method
emphasizes mastery and proficiency in certain disciplines, allowing students to acquire a
solid academic foundation in their chosen field.
3. To improve student learning, Subject-Centred Design incorporates subject-specific teaching
methods and evaluation procedures. Various instructional approaches, such as lectures,
demonstrations, hands-on activities, conversations, or problem-solving exercises, may be
required for different disciplines. The teaching methods used are suited to the specific
qualities and needs of each subject. Similarly, the assessment methodologies employed are
focused on evaluating subject-specific knowledge, skills, and competencies, ensuring that
student’s comprehension of the subject matter is effectively examined.

Subject-Centred Design offers several advantages as well as considerations. Let's explore

them in detail:

Advantages:

1. A structured curriculum, an emphasis on laying a solid foundation in subject areas, and the
use of subject-specific teaching methods and assessment procedures are all characteristics of
the subject-centred design.
2. This strategy emphasises subject mastery to give students a thorough education in particular
areas, preparing them for further study or careers in those fields.
3. One of the main benefits of subject-centred design is that it encourages in-depth
comprehension of subject matter and makes it easier to gain expertise in particular areas.
4. Students get the chance to delve thoroughly into the concepts, ideas, and guiding principles
of each field by concentrating on a single subject.
5. It may result in a greater degree of knowledge and skill in a certain field, which is beneficial
for further study, research, or professional jobs.

Considerations:

1. One of the primary concerns of Subject-Centred Design is the possibility of knowledge

fragmentation and a lack of multidisciplinary links.
2. Students may see knowledge as fragmented and isolated from other topics or real-life
circumstances if the curriculum is organised around subject categories.
3. This method may impair students' capacity to connect disparate disciplines, which is critical
for tackling complex, interdisciplinary challenges in the real world.
4. It is critical to discover strategies to foster interdisciplinary links and highlight the relevance
and interdependence of various curriculum disciplines.
Thus, Subject-Centred Design is a structured and focused approach to education that
prioritizes subject areas or disciplines within the curriculum. It emphasizes building a
strong foundation of knowledge and skills within each subject, allowing students to
acquire a deep understanding of key concepts, theories, and principles. It also integrates
subject-specific teaching methods and assessment strategies, ensuring that instruction and
evaluation align with the unique characteristics and requirements of each subject.
However, it is important to address potential challenges associated with subject-centred
approaches, such as knowledge fragmentation and a lack of interdisciplinary connections.
By striking a balance between subject mastery and interdisciplinary connections, Subject-
Centred Design can create a strong educational foundation while promoting a broader
understanding of the interconnectedness of knowledge across various disciplines.

Activity-centered curriculum
 According to M.K. Gandhi, education is the development of all the aspects i.e. body, mind and spirit. So
mind without activities can not develop the personality perfectly.
 Rousseau, Montessque, Dewey and Gandhiji all headed this movement.
All pleaded to relate activity with curriculum. Activity is used as a means for imparting knowledge, skills,
habits and attitudes. The basic elements of activity curriculum are the activity of the child. His interest and
needs are the prime concern. The modern methods like project method, Heuristic method, Montessori
Method, Dalton plan, Source method, etc. are developed with the principle of activity method
Activity under Activity-centered Curriculum: both physical and mental activities.
 (a) Physical activities: It includes physical training, games and sports, action songs, hygienic activities,
activities.
 (b) Environmental activities: These activities include nature study, excursion, survey, social visit. These
activities develop civic sense and love for nature may be developed in children.
 (c) Constructive activities: With these activities love for work, dignity of labor, productive efficiency and
scientific attitude may be developed. Handwork, science activities, craft, repairing of tools belong to this
category of activities.
 (d) Aesthetic activities: Music, art, creative craft are included in this type of activities. These provide
opportunities for self-expression and development of inborn creative faculties.
 (e) Community activities: These activities aim at community development and include community
projects, self-government., first aid, social services, etc.

Characteristics of a Activity-centered Curriculum

 The activity-centered curriculum is focused on the needs and interests of individual students by giving the
freedom to choose activities and projects.
The curriculum is designed to provide students with opportunities to engage in real-world experiences that
promote active learning.
Students are encouraged to participate in hands-on activities, experiments, and projects that allow them to
apply what they have learned.
Assessment methods may include projects, presentations, portfolios, and other performance-based
evaluations. Merits of Activity-centered curriculum
 (i) Activity makes life dynamic. Education is preparation for dynamic life. Solife is the by-product of
activities.  (ii) Education is the integral part of day-to-day life. If children can do something, it leads to
happiness.
 (iii) The school can provide knowledge not only introducing some subjects, but also through many life-
related activities.
 (iv) Kindergarten education and Montessori auto-instruction are based on activity curriculum.
 (v) Kothari Commission (1964-66) introduced work-experience as an integral part of school education.
Demerits of Activity-centered curriculum
 (i) It neglects other activities, which are needed for intellectual development of the child.
 (ii) Personal supervision is needed for every activity which, not possiblein school.
 (iii) Activity curriculum is not applicable to all stages of education.
 (iv) Abstract knowledge is neglected in activity curriculum.
 CRITICAL ISSUES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT : ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS, GENDER
DIFFERENCES, INCLUSIVENESS, VALUE CONCERN ISSUES, SOCIAL SENSITVITY
Critical issues in curriculum development, such as those related to environmental concerns, gender
differences, inclusiveness, value concern issues, and social sensitivity, play a significant role in shaping
educational programs and ensuring that they meet the diverse needs and values of students and
society. Here is an overview of these critical issues in the context of curriculum development:

1. Environmental Concerns:
• Sustainability Integration: Curriculum development should include content and experiences that
foster environmental awareness, sustainability, and a sense of responsibility for the planet.
• Interdisciplinary Approach: Incorporating environmental issues into various subjects, promoting
environmental literacy, and helping students understand the complex relationship between
humans and their environment.
• Real-World Applications: Designing curriculum that includes practical, hands-on activities and
projects related to environmental conservation and sustainable practices.
2. Gender Differences:
• Gender-Inclusive Curriculum: Developing curriculum materials that are free from gender bias
and stereotypes and that promote gender equity and diversity.
• Inclusive Language: Using gender-inclusive language and materials that reflect a wide range of
gender identities and experiences.
• Addressing Gender-Based Issues: Integrating discussions of gender-based discrimination and
disparities into relevant subjects to promote awareness and understanding.
3. Inclusiveness:
• Inclusive Curriculum Design: Creating curricula that accommodate diverse learning needs,
including those of students with disabilities, different learning styles, and various cultural
backgrounds.
• Anti-Bias Education: Developing curriculum materials that challenge stereotypes, biases, and
discrimination based on race, gender, religion, and other factors.
• Differentiated Instruction: Offering a range of instructional strategies to meet the unique needs
of all students in inclusive classrooms.
4. Value Concern Issues:
• Values-Based Education: Integrating values education into the curriculum to foster the
development of ethical and moral values, such as empathy, tolerance, respect, and social
responsibility.
• Ethical Dilemmas: Incorporating discussions of moral and ethical dilemmas into the curriculum
to encourage critical thinking and the examination of personal values.
• Balancing Perspectives: Teaching students to consider and respect diverse value systems and
worldviews.
5. Social Sensitivity:
• Social Justice Education: Embedding discussions and lessons related to social justice, human
rights, discrimination, and inequality into the curriculum.
• Diversity and Inclusion: Promoting curriculum materials that reflect the diversity of society,
addressing issues of social sensitivity, and encouraging dialogue about these topics.
• Conflict Resolution: Including conflict resolution and communication skills in the curriculum to
help students navigate societal conflicts and contribute to peaceful solutions.
6. Teacher Professional Development:
• Training and Sensitivity: Providing ongoing professional development and training to educators
to enhance their understanding of these critical issues and their ability to address them in the
curriculum.
• Curriculum Adaptation: Supporting teachers in adapting existing curriculum materials or
creating new ones to address these issues effectively.
7. Community Involvement:
 • Community Engagement: Collaborating with parents, community members, and organizations
to ensure that the curriculum aligns with community values and addresses local concerns.
8. Assessment and Evaluation:
• Assessment Alignment: Ensuring that assessments are aligned with curriculum goals related to
these critical issues, allowing for the measurement of student growth and understanding.
• Ongoing Evaluation: Regularly reviewing and evaluating curriculum materials and practices to
assess their effectiveness in addressing these issues and making necessary improvements.

Addressing these critical issues in curriculum development is essential for creating an inclusive, relevant,
and values-based educational experience that prepares students to engage with and contribute to an
increasingly diverse and complex world. Curriculum developers, educators, and educational institutions
should continually strive to incorporate these concerns into their curricular designs and instructional
practices.

EVALUATION AND RENEWAL OF CURRICULUM

The process of evaluation is undertaken to determine the strengths and weaknesses of an existing or an
under-construction curriculum so that curriculum renewal can take place..

Curriculum evaluation is a process by which we can make decisions about a curriculum in terms of course
improvement, individuals involved - teachers, students etc. and administrative effectiveness.

Curriculum renewal can occur with a regular review and reflection process and will focus on addressing
specific identified issues.

Curriculum renewal refers to the process of reviewing the curriculum plan, if it does not prove to be effective
on the following questions, then it requires revision

Need for Curriculum Evaluation

The professional response to this question stresses improvement of student learning, and hence improvement
in the quality of education. The following are the main purposes of curriculum evaluation.

i) To develop a new curriculum If you wish to develop a new curriculum for a vocational course at the
secondary stage, it would be worthwhile to evaluate a current curriculum from a different system before
adopting it to our emerging requirements. The usual practice would be to prune an existing curriculum to suit
our new requirements because at times the decisions in the planning process can be quite arbitrary. Such a
process leads to the risk of overloading the curriculum. To make objective decisions on the development of
the new curriculum, evaluation of the existing curriculum is necessary.

ii) To review a curriculum under implementation It may be required by policy planners and decision makers
to get an immediate feedback on the implementation of a curriculum in order to make amendments if
required for effective realisation of all the objectives related to it. A curriculum evaluation exercise would be
necessary for this purpose.

iii) To remove ‘dead wood’ and update an existing curriculum It is essential to remove obsolete ideas and
practices from a curriculum and include current developments in the curriculum. In order to make objective
decisions about inclusion or deletion of content or practices a curriculum evaluation exercise would again be
necessary.

iv) To find out the effectiveness of a curriculum To make an objective evaluation of the effectiveness of a
curriculum in terms of the achievement of its immediate as well as long-term objectives, a curriculum
evaluation exercise would be essential. This evaluation is different from the evaluation of the students of a
course for the purpose of certification. The difference is that curriculum evaluation is more comprehensive
and includes student evaluation plus the feelings generated among the students regarding appropriateness of
the various components of the curriculum

Why is Curriculum Evaluation Necessary?

There are several parties, or stakeholders, interested in the process and results of
curriculum evaluation.
Parents are interested because they want to be assured that their children are being
provided with a sound, effective education.
Teachers are interested because they want to know that what they are teaching in the
classroom will effectively help them cover the standards and achieve the results they
know parents and administration are expecting.
The general public is interested because they need to be sure that their local schools are
doing their best to provide solid and effective educational programs for the children in
the area.
Administrators are interested because they need feedback on the effectiveness of their
curricular decisions.
Curriculum publishers are interested because they can use the data and feedback from
a curriculum evaluation to drive changes and upgrades in the materials they provide.
Purpose of curriculum evaluation
Educational prepares future generation to take their due place in the society. It becomes
essential that substandard educational goals, materials and methods of instruction are
not retained but up-dated in consonance with the advances in social cultural & scientific
field. It is also important to ascertain how different educational institutions and
situations interpret a given or prescribed curriculum. Hence, arises the need for
curriculum evaluation.
Curriculum evaluation monitors and reports on the quality of education. Cronbach
(1963) distinguishes three types of decisions for which evaluation is used.

1. Course Improvement : deciding what instructional material and methods are satisfactory and
where changes are needed.

2. Decisions about individuals : Identifying the needs of the pupil for the sale of planning of
instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with his own deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations : Judging how good the school system is, how good individual
teachers are. The goal of evaluation must be to answer questions of selection, adoption, support and
worth of educational materials and activities. It helps in identifying the necessary improvements to
be made in content, teaching methods, learning experiences, educational facilities, staff-selection and
development of educational objectives. It also serves the need of the policy makers, administrators
and other members of the society for the information about the educational system.
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a programme.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.

4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.

5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.

 Types and Approaches of Evaluation
Types of Curriculum Evaluation
According to Scriven, following are the 3 main types
1. Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its
purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the educational programme. The merits of a
programme are evaluated during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide
information to the programme developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the
programme.
2. Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a curriculum are
evaluated on the basis of its stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully
developed and put into operations.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either
for placement of students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary
school),or to discover the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study.

Approaches of Curriculum Evaluation

Various models of curriculum evaluation have been

developed by different experts. We shall discuss four important models of curriculum

evaluation in this section.
1. Tyler's Model
Probably the best known model of curriculum evaluation is proposed by Tyler (1950) who
described education as a process in which three different foci should be distinguished. They
are educational objectives, learning experiences, and examination of achievements. Tyler’s
model is shown schematically in the following figure

In above, evaluation of this type is represented by the arrow marked with letter (c). This
model is primarily used to evaluate the achievement level of either individual learners or of a
group of learners. The evaluators working with this model are interested in the extent to
which learners are developed in the desired way. Both cognitive and affective domains are
given importance in this model.
In the Tyler’s model, the relationship between educational objectives and learner achievement
constitutes only a portion of the model. The systematic study of the other relationship is also
described in the model. The arrow (b) refers to the correspondence between the objectives and
the learning experiences suggested in the curriculum and realized in the actual school
situation. Arrow
(L) refers to the examination of the relationship between the actual learning experiences and
educational outcomes.
Tyler Model
The Tyler Model, created by Ralph Tyler, is known as the objective model. He explained a four-step
process for evaluating curriculums.
1. Determine the objectives - What do students need to demonstrate?
2. Determine what learning experiences will help meet the objectives - What must students do to learn
the objective skill?
3. Organization - What is the best order for the experiences?
4. Evaluation - How will it be determined that students have met the objectives?
To use the Tyler Model on a writing curriculum, the first step is to determine the objective - students
should be able to write a paragraph. Next, determine the experience needed to meet the objective -
practice writing sentences and paragraphs. An evaluator would then determine the order of experiences
- the teacher would give a lesson and demonstrate writing, then the students would practice. Finally,
evaluate by having students write a paragraph to determine if the objective was met.

Taba Model
The Taba Model, developed by Hilda Taba, believed that teachers are crucial to curriculum
development. While many models tend to begin with general concepts and move to specific ones, the
Taba model does the opposite with a seven-component process.
1. Diagnose the need - What are the needs of the students?
2. Formulate objectives - Based on needs, what are the specific objectives?
3. Select content - What significant and valid content will help meet objectives?
4. Organize content - What should the order of the content be?
5. Select learning experiences - How will the content be presented?
6. Organize learning experiences - What is the schedule for the learning experiences?
7. Evaluate - Which objectives have been met?
Taba’s Model
Taba’s Model emphasizes the planning of instructional strategies. Also known as the interactive
Model, it was designed in 1962 by Hilda Taba, an Estonian-American curriculum theorist, reformer,
and teacher.
It follows a Grassroots or Down-Top approach and promotes a major role for teachers. The Model
consists of seven stages of the learning and teaching system, which are mutually interactive.
They are as follows:
• Diagnosis of learners’ needs
• Formulation of objectives
• Selection of the content
• Organization of the content
• Selection of learning experiences
• Organization of learning activities
• Evaluation
This Model promotes open-ended questions rather than focusing on right or wrong responses. One
of the major benefits is that it offers scope to explore a concept at a deeper level using critical
thinking skills.
IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Curriculum evaluation can be done by an external agency or by insiders (those who are involved in the planning
and development of the curriculum) or by a combination of both the groups. A combination of outsiders and
insiders would be preferable to get a comprehensive and objective evaluation.

Assist in deciding whether to continue a program or discontinue it. The last phase of the curriculum
development process is evaluation and reporting. This is carried out to determine if evaluation of the
particular curriculum is suitable for full implementation. If the evaluation of the curriculum reveals that is
suitable for the teaching and learning process, then the curriculum implementation can continue. The
evaluation step is important in providing evidence of whether a curriculum is suitable or not
e. Collect information that may inform strategic changes and policy decisionsThe information collected
during curriculum evaluation may inform changes at a level above the schools. This is possibly the
administrative levels with the highest being the ministry where policy decisions are made. The various
levels of administration usually have a major role in the curriculum development process especially
where it concerns a national curriculum. Results of curriculum evaluation would be useful to them for
variousdecisions that need to be made for the benefit of the learners

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