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Ebook Introduction To General Organic and Biochemistry PDF Full Chapter PDF
Ebook Introduction To General Organic and Biochemistry PDF Full Chapter PDF
Ebook Introduction To General Organic and Biochemistry PDF Full Chapter PDF
General,
Organic, and
Biochemistry
T welfth Edition
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Introduc tion to
General,
Organic, and
Biochemistry
T welfth Edition
Frederick A. Bettelheim
William H. Brown
Beloit College
Mary K. Campbell
Shawn O. Farrell
Omar J. Torres
College of the Canyons
Sara Madsen
South Dakota State University
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Introduction to General, Organic, and © 2020, 2016, Cengage Learning, Inc.
Biochemistry, Twelfth Edition
Frederick A. Bettelheim, William H. Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Brown, Mary K. Campbell, Shawn O.
Farrell, Omar J. Torres, Sara K. Madsen ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
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To Carolyn, with whom life is a joy. —WB
To my family and friends, without whose support this would not have
been possible, and to all of my students, past and future, especially the
I can be —SF
you in my life. — OT
Theo, Mom, Dad, Koeen, and Mark. All of you have helped
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Contents in Brief
General Chemistry
Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement 1
Chapter 2 Atoms 26
Chapter 3 Chemical Bonds 63
Chapter 4 Chemical Reactions and Energy Calculations 104
Chapter 5 Gases, Liquids, and Solids 140
Chapter 6 Solutions and Colloids 168
Chapter 7 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 200
Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 229
Chapter 9 Nuclear Chemistry 266
Organic Chemistry
Chapter 10 Organic Chemistry 298
Chapter 11 Alkanes 316
Chapter 12 Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic Compounds 347
Chapter 13 Alcohols, Ethers, and Thiols 388
Chapter 14 Chirality: The Handedness of Molecules 413
Chapter 15 Amines 436
Chapter 16 Aldehydes and Ketones 455
Chapter 17 Carboxylic Acids 476
Chapter 18 Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides 502
Biochemistry
Chapter 19 Carbohydrates 525
Chapter 20 Lipids 555
Chapter 21 Proteins 600
Chapter 22 Enzymes 641
vi
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Chapter 23 Chemical Communications: Neurotransmitters
and Hormones 667
Chapter 24 Nucleotides, Nucleic Acids, and Heredity 697
Chapter 25 Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis 731
Chapter 26 Bioenergetics: How the Body Converts
Food to Energy 766
Chapter 27 Specific Catabolic Pathways: Carbohydrate,
Lipid, and Protein Metabolism 790
Chapter 28 Biosynthetic Pathways 820
Chapter 29 Nutrition 838
Chapter 30 Immunochemistry 864
Chapter 31 Body Fluids 902
To access this online-only chapter, search for
ISBN 978-1-337-57135-7 at www.cengage.com
and visit this book’s companion website.
vii
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Contents
viii
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5.4 Avogadro’s Law and the Ideal Gas Law 146 How To Interpret the Value of the Equilibrium
5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 148 Constant, K 216
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory 150 7.7 Le Chatelier’s Principle 218
5.7 Types of Intermolecular Attractive Forces 151
Chapter Summary 223
5.8 The Behavior of Liquids at the Molecular
Problems 224
Level 155
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
Chapter Summary 161
7A Why High Fever Is Dangerous 209
Problems 162
7B The Effects of Lowering Body Temperature 211
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS 7C Timed-Release Medication 212
5A Breathing and Boyle’s Law 143 7D Sunglasses and Le Chatelier’s Principle 221
5B Hyperbaric Medicine 149 7E The Haber Process 223
5C Blood Pressure Measurement 157
5D The Densities of Ice and Water 160
Chapter 8 Acids and Bases 229
Chapter 6 Solutions and Colloids 168 8.1 Acids and Bases 229
8.2 Defining the Strength of Acids
6.1 Introduction to Mixtures 168 and Bases 231
6.2 The Most Common Types of Solutions 169 8.3 Conjugate Acid–Base
6.3 The Distinguishing Characteristics of Pairs 233
Solutions 169 How To Name Common
6.4 Factors Affecting Solubility 171 Acids 235
6.5 The Most Common Units for Concentration 174
8.4 The Position of Equilibrium in
6.6 Water as a Good Solvent 180
an Acid–Base Reaction 236
6.7 Colloids 185
8.5 Acid Ionization
6.8 Colligative Properties 187
Constants 238
Chapter Summary 194
How To Use Logs and
Problems 194
Antilogs 239
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
8.6 Properties of Acids and Bases 241
6A Acid Rain 170 8.7 Acidic and Basic Properties of Pure Water 244
6B The Bends 173 8.8 pH and pOH 246
6C Electrolyte Solutions in Body and Intravenous 8.9 Using Titrations to Calculate Concentration 249
Fluids 181
8.10 Buffers 251
6D Hydrates and Air Pollution: The Decay of Buildings
8.11 Calculating the pH of a Buffer 255
and Monuments 184
8.12 TRIS, HEPES, and Other Biochemical Buffers 257
6E Emulsions and Emulsifying Agents 186
6F Reverse Osmosis and Desalinization 191 Chapter Summary 260
6G Hemodialysis 193 Problems 261
Chemical Connections
8A Some Important Acids and Bases 232
Chapter 7 Reaction Rates and 8B Drugstore Antacids 245
Chemical Equilibrium 200 8C Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis 258
7.1 Measuring Reaction Rates 200 8D Alkalosis and the Sprinter’s Trick 260
7.2 Molecular Collisions and Reactions 202
7.3 Activation Energy and Reaction Rate 204
7.4 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 206
Chapter 9 Nuclear Chemistry 266
7.5 Equilibrium 210 9.1 Discovery of Radioactivity 266
7.6 The Equilibrium Constant 213 9.2 Defining Radioactivity 267
ix
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x | Contents
9.3 Nucleus and Radioactivity 268 Chapter 12 Alkenes, Alkynes, and Aromatic
How To Balance a Nuclear Equation 270 Compounds 347
9.4 Nuclear Half-Life 273
12.1 Introduction to Alkenes and Alkynes 347
9.5 Detecting and Measuring Nuclear Radiation 276
12.2 Structures of Alkenes and Alkynes 348
9.6 Radiation Dosimetry and Human Health 279
12.3 Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 349
9.7 Nuclear Medicine 282
12.4 Physical Properties of Alkenes and Alkynes 354
9.8 Nuclear Fusion 287
12.5 Characteristic Reactions of Alkenes 355
9.9 Nuclear Fission and Atomic Energy 289
12.6 Important Polymerization Reactions of Ethylene
Chapter Summary 291 and Substituted Ethylenes 364
Summary of Key Reactions 292 12.7 Structure of Benzene 368
Problems 292 12.8 Naming Aromatic Compounds 370
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS 12.9 Reactions of Benzene and Its Derivatives 372
9A Radioactive Dating 275 12.10 Phenols 374
9B The Indoor Radon Problem 281 Chapter Summary 377
9C How Radiation Damages Tissues: Free Radicals 283 Summary of Key Reactions 378
9D Magnetic Resonance Imaging 285 Problems 379
9E Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Accidents 291 Chemical Connections
12A Cis-Trans Isomerism in Vision 355
Chapter 10 Organic Chemistry 298 12B Recycling Plastics 366
12C DDT: A Boon and a Curse 372
10.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 298 12D Iodide Ion and Goiter 373
10.2 Obtaining Organic Compounds 300 12E Capsaicin, for Those Who Like It Hot 376
10.3 Writing Structural Formulas of Organic
Compounds 302
10.4 Functional Groups 304
Chapter 13 Alcohols, Ethers, and
Chapter Summary 310 Thiols 388
Problems 310
13.1 Structures, Names, and Physical Properties of
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
Alcohols 389
10A Taxol: A Story of Search and Discovery 301
13.2 Characteristic Reactions of
Alcohols 393
Chapter 11 Alkanes 316 13.3 Structures, Names, and Physical
Properties of Ethers 398
11.1 Introduction to Alkanes 316 13.4 Structures, Names, and Physical
11.2 Writing Structural Formulas of Alkanes 317 Properties of Thiols 402
11.3 Constitutional Isomers 318 13.5 Commercially Important
11.4 Naming Alkanes 321 Alcohols 404
11.5 Obtaining Alkanes 325
11.6 Cycloalkanes 325
Chapter Summary 406
11.7 Shapes of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 327
Summary of Key
Reactions 407
How To Draw Alternative Chair Conformations of
Problems 407
Cyclohexane 329
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
11.8 Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes 331
13A The Importance of Hydrogen Bonding in Drug-
11.9 Physical Properties of Alkanes and
Receptor Interactions 394
Cycloalkanes 333
13B Breath-Alcohol Screening 399
11.10 Characteristic Reactions of Alkanes 336
13C Ethylene Oxide: A Chemical Sterilant 400
11.11 Some Important Haloalkanes 338
13D Ethers and Anesthesia 401
Chapter Summary 339
Summary of Key Reactions 340
Problems 341 Chapter 14 Chirality: The Handedness of
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS Molecules 413
11A The Poisonous Puffer Fish 330
14.1 Enantiomerism 413
11B Octane Rating: What Those Numbers at the Pump
Mean 336 How To Draw Enantiomers 417
11C The Environmental Impact of Freons 338 14.2 Specifying the Configuration of a Stereocenter 419
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Contents | xi
14.3 Possible Stereoisomers for Molecules with Two or 17B Esters as Flavoring Agents 491
More Stereocenters 423 17C Ketone Bodies and Diabetes 493
14.4 Optical Activity and Chirality in the Laboratory 427
14.5 Significance of Chirality in the Biological
World 428
Chapter 18 Carboxylic
Anhydrides, Esters, and
Chapter Summary 430
Amides 502
Problems 430
Chemical Connections 18.1 Carboxylic Anhydrides,
Esters, and Amides 502
14A Chiral Drugs 427
18.2 Preparation of Esters 506
18.3 Preparation of Amides 507
Chapter 15 Amines 436 18.4 Characteristic Reactions
of Anhydrides, Esters, and
15.1 Structure of Amines 436
Amides 507
15.2 Names of Amines 439
18.5 Phosphoric Anhydrides and
15.3 Physical Properties of Amines 442
Phosphoric Esters 515
15.4 Basicity of Amines 442
18.6 Step-Growth Polymerization 515
15.5 Characteristic Reactions of Amines 445
Chapter Summary 518
Chapter Summary 449
Summary of Key Reactions 519
Summary of Key Reactions 449
Problems 520
Problems 449
Chemical Connections
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS
18A The Pyrethrins—Natural Insecticides of Plant
15A Amphetamines (Pep Pills) 437
Origin 504
15B Alkaloids 438
18B The Penicillins and Cephalosporins: b-Lactam
15C Tranquilizers 443
Antibiotics 505
15D The Solubility of Drugs in Body Fluids 446
18C From Willow Bark to Aspirin and Beyond 506
15E Epinephrine: A Prototype for the Development of
18D Ultraviolet Sunscreens and Sunblocks 510
New Bronchodilators 448
18E Barbiturates 514
18F Stitches That Dissolve 518
Chapter 16 Aldehydes and Ketones 455
16.1 Aldehydes and Ketones 455 Chapter 19 Carbohydrates 525
16.2 Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 456
19.1 Monosaccharides: The Simplest
16.3 Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones 459
Carbohydrates 525
16.4 Characteristic Reactions of Aldehydes and
19.2 Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides 531
Ketones 460
19.3 Characteristic Reactions of Monosaccharides 534
16.5 Keto-Enol Tautomerism 467
19.4 Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides 539
Chapter Summary 468 19.5 Polysaccharides 544
Summary of Key Reactions 468 19.6 Acidic Polysaccharides 546
Problems 469
Chapter Summary 548
Chemical Connections Summary of Key Reactions 549
16A From Moldy Clover to a Blood Thinner 459 Problems 550
Chemical Connections
Chapter 17 Carboxylic Acids 476 19A Galactosemia 531
19B Testing for Glucose 537
17.1 Carboxylic Acids 476 19C A, B, AB, and O Blood Types 540
17.2 Names of Carboxylic Acids 476 19D Is There a Connection Between Carbohydrates and
17.3 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 480 Obesity? 546
17.4 Soaps and Detergents 481
17.5 Characteristic Reactions of Carboxylic Acids 486
Chapter Summary 494 Chapter 20 Lipids 555
Summary of Key Reactions 494 20.1 Importance of Lipids 555
Problems 495 20.2 Fatty Acids 556
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS 20.3 Triglyceride Structure 559
17A Trans Fatty Acids: What Are They and How Do You 20.4 Properties of Triglycerides 560
Avoid Them? 483 20.5 Structures of Complex Lipids 564
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xii | Contents
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Contents | xiii
Chapter 25 Gene Expression and Protein 27.6 The Energy Yield from Stearic Acid
Synthesis 731 Catabolism 805
27.7 Ketone Bodies 806
25.1 DNA Leads to RNA and Protein 731 27.8 Nitrogen Processing in Amino Acid
25.2 Transcription of DNA 733 Catabolism 809
25.3 Translation of RNA 735 27.9 Carbon Skeleton Processing in Amino Acid
25.4 The Genetic Code 736 Catabolsim 814
25.5 Protein Synthesis 738
Chapter Summary 816
25.6 Gene Regulation 746
Problems 817
25.7 DNA Mutations 751
25.8 DNA Manipulation 755 Chemical Connections
25.9 Gene Therapy 756 27A Lactate Accumulation 796
25.10 Epigenetics 760 27B Treating Obesity—Changing Carbohydrate
Metabolism 800
Chapter Summary 762
27C Ketoacidosis in Diabetes 808
Problems 763
27D Hereditary Defects in Amino Acid Catabolism:
Chemical Connections PKU 813
25A Breaking the Dogma: The Twenty-First Amino
Acid 744
25B Protein Synthesis Makes Memories 744 Chapter 28 Biosynthetic
25C Mutations and Biochemical Evolution 752 Pathways 820
25D Silent Mutations 753 28.1 The General Outline of
25E p53: A Central Tumor Suppressor Protein 754 Biosynthetic Pathways 820
25F Twenty Years of Cystic Fibrosis Trials and 28.2 Biosynthesis of
Tribulations 758
Carbohydrates 822
25G How Cancer and Aging Are Related to Epigenetic
28.3 Biosynthesis of Fatty
States 761
Acids 827
28.4 Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids 829
Chapter 26 Bioenergetics: How the Body 28.5 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids 832
Converts Food to Energy 766 Chapter Summary 835
Problems 835
26.1 The Nature of Metabolism 766
Chemical Connections
26.2 Mitochondria and Their Role in Metabolism 767
28A Photosynthesis 823
26.3 The Principal Compounds of Catabolic
28B Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase—A New Target in the Fight
Pathways 770
Against Obesity 828
26.4 The Citric Acid Cycle and in Metabolism 773
28C Statin Drugs as Inhibitors of Cholesterol
26.5 Electron and H1 Transport 777
Biosynthesis 831
26.6 The Chemiosmotic Pump and ATP Production 781
28D Essential Amino Acids 833
26.7 Energy Yield from Aerobic Metabolism 782
26.8 Conversion of Chemical Energy to Other
Forms 783 Chapter 29 Nutrition 838
Chapter Summary 786 29.1 Nutritional Guidelines 838
Problems 787 29.2 Counting Calories 843
Chemical Connections 29.3 Carbohydrate Digestion 845
26A Uncoupling and Obesity 780 29.4 Fat Digestion 847
26B ATP in Cell Signaling 785 29.5 Protein Digestion 848
29.6 The Importance of Vitamins, Minerals, and
Water 850
Chapter 27 Specific Catabolic Pathways: Chapter Summary 860
Carbohydrate, Lipid, and Protein Problems 861
Metabolism 790 Chemical Connections
27.1 The General Outline of Catabolic Pathway 790 29A The New Food Guide 841
27.2 The Reactions of Glycolysis 793 29B Why Is It So Hard to Lose Weight? 844
27.3 The Energy Yield from Glucose Catabolism 798 29C Do Hormones or Overeating Cause Obesity? 846
27.4 Glycerol Catabolism 801 29D Iron: An Example of a Mineral Requirement 856
27.5 b-Oxidation of Fatty Acids 802 29E Food for Performance Enhancement 857
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xiv | Contents
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Preface
W
elcome to the 12th edition of Introduction to General, Organic, and
Biochemistry. We wish to sincerely thank our colleagues who not
only adopted the previous editions for their courses but also offered
sage advice on suggested changes and updates to this edition.
With all the continuous advances in the field, this edition emphasizes the
inclusion of new relevant concepts and examples in this fast-growing disci-
pline, especially in the biochemistry chapters. Based on valuable feedback
from reviewers, we also strive to consolidate content in a more meaningful
and manageable manner while preserving an integrated view of chemistry.
This new edition continues with the tradition of providing a solid foundation
on which instructors can build upon, and chapter resources are conceived
and written with flexibility in mind, affording instructors the opportunity
to seamlessly select applicable topics for discussion with their students. The
wealth of problems, both practical and challenging, provide students with
numerous ways to test their knowledge from a variety of viewpoints.
From the very beginning of the book, we include organic compounds and
biochemical substances to illustrate relevant and overlapping principles.
This progression ascends from the simple to the complex. We encourage our
colleagues to advance to the chapters of biochemistry as quickly as possible,
because there lies most of the material that is relevant to the future profes-
sions of our students.
xv
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xvi | Preface
compounds.
▲
organization
5. Batteries A voltaic cell (Chemical Connections 4B)of is a the metabolism
device in which chapters has encouraged us to maintain the
order (Chapters 26–27).
electricity is generated from a chemical reaction. Such cells are often
called batteries (Figure 4.5). We are all familiar with batteries in our
Acetyl coenzyme A
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Preface | xvii
Features
●● Problem-Solving Strategies The in-text examples include a description of
the strategy used to arrive at a solution. This will help students orga-
nize the information in order to solve the problem.
●● Visual Impact We have introduced illustrations with heightened
pedagogical impact. Some of these show the microscopic and macro-
scopic aspects of a topic under discussion, such as Figures 6-3 (Henry’s
Law) and 6-10 (electrolytic conductance). The Chemical Connections es-
says have been enhanced further with more photos to illustrate each
topic.
●● [UPDATED] Chemical Connections Over 150 essays describe applica-
tions of chemical concepts presented in the text, linking the chemis-
try to their real uses. Many new application boxes on diverse topics
were added.
●● Summary of Key Reactions In each organic chemistry chapter (10–18)
there is an annotated summary of all the new reactions introduced.
Keyed to sections in which they are introduced, there is also an example
of each reaction.
●● Chapter Summaries Summaries reflect the Chapter contents. At the end
of each chapter, summary paragraphs highlight the concepts.
●● Looking Ahead Problems At the end of most chapters, the challenge
problems are designed to show the application of principles in the chap-
ter to material in the following chapters.
●● Tying-It-Together and Challenge Problems At the end of most chapters,
these problems build on past material to test students’ knowledge of
these concepts. In the Challenge Problems, associated chapter refer-
ences are given.
●● How To Boxes These boxes emphasize the skills students need to master
the material. They include topics such as, “How to Determine the Num-
ber of Significant Figures in a Number” (Chapter 1) and “How to Draw
Enantiomers” (Chapter 14).
●● Molecular Models Ball-and-stick models, space-filling models, and
electron-density maps are used throughout the text as appropriate
aids for visualizing molecular properties and interactions.
●● Margin Definitions Many terms are also defined in the margin to help
students learn terminology. By skimming the chapter for these defini-
tions, students will have a quick summary of its contents.
●● Answers to all in-text and odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems
Answers to selected problems are provided at the end of the book. De-
tailed worked-out solutions to these same problems are provided in the
Student Solutions Manual.
●● Glossary The glossary at the back of the book gives a definition of each
new term along with the number of the section in which the term is
introduced.
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xviii | Preface
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Preface | xix
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xx | Preface
leads into the trans fatty acid Chemical Connection. Then, this chapter
implements more acid base terminology.
●● Chapter 18, Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides, describes the
chemistry of these three important functional groups with emphasis on
their acid-catalyzed and base-promoted hydrolysis and reactions with
amines and alcohols. A short presentation about Green Chemistry is
presented in this chapter. In the section about characteristic reactions
of esters, the 12 Principles of Green Chemistry are introduced.
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Preface | xxi
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xxii | Preface
Supporting Materials
Please visit http://www.cengage.com/chemistry/bettelheim/gob12e
for information about the student and instructor resources for this text.
Acknowledgments
The publication of a book such as this requires the efforts of many more
people than merely the authors. We would like to thank the following pro-
fessors who offered many valuable suggestions for this new edition:
We are especially grateful for Jordan Fantini, Denison University, who
read page proofs with eyes for accuracy.
Thank you to everyone at Cengage for their support through this revi-
sion process: Learning Designer Peter McGahey, Content Manager Teresa
L. Trego, and Subject Matter Expert Dakin Sharum. Thank you to MPS
Limited for their work on this project.
We so appreciate the time and expertise of our reviewers who have read
our manuscript and given us helpful comments. They include:
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Preface | xxiii
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About the Cover
F
rom the “nanoworld” to the macroworld, chemistry and biochemistry
allow us to understand how living things work. The initial chapters of
this book help us learn about atoms, what they are, what they do, and
how they form molecules like the glucose-6-phosphate shown in the upper
left of the figure. Molecules then undergo thousands of reactions in the
body, forming new molecules and using or releasing energy. Some of these
reactions can be organized into pathways, like glycogenesis shown by the
glucose-6-phosphate forming glycogen, or like glycolysis shown by the glu-
cose-6-phosphate forming pyruvic acid or lactic acid. These pathways work
to allow tissues to function correctly. As a goose takes off from the lake, it
will need energy produced from some of these pathways to fuel its flight
muscles.
xxiv
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Health-Related Topics
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xxvi | Health-Related Topics
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Health-Related Topics | xxvii
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Matter, Energy, and Measurement
Contents
1
1.1 Chemistry and the Study of
Matter
1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 Reporting Numbers in
Science
How To . . . Determine the
Number of Significant Figures
in a Number
1.4 Making Measurements
1.5 Unit Conversions
How To . . . Do Unit
Conversions by the Factor-
Label Method
1.6 States of Matter
© Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock.com
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2 | Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
Los Angeles.
(a) (b)
How has this medical progress come about? The answer is that diseases
could not be cured until they were understood, and this understanding has
emerged through greater knowledge of how the body functions. It is progress
in our understanding of the principles of biology, chemistry, and physics
that has led to these advances in medicine. Because so much of modern
medicine depends on chemistry, it is essential that students who intend to
enter the health professions have some understanding of basic chemistry.
This book has been written to help you achieve that goal. Even if you choose
a different profession, you will find that the chemistry you learn in this
course will greatly enrich your life. ▲
The universe consists of matter, energy, and empty space. Matter is any-
thing that has mass and takes up space. Chemistry is the science that deals
with matter: the structure and properties of matter and the transformations
from one form of matter to another. We will introduce energy in Section 1.8
and discuss further in Section 4.8.
It has long been known that matter can change, or be made to change,
from one form to another. In a chemical change, more commonly called a
chemical reaction, some substances are used up (disappear) and others
are formed to take their place. An example is the burning of a mixture of
hydrocarbons, usually called “bottled gas.” In this mixture of hydrocarbons,
the main component is propane. When this chemical change takes place,
propane and oxygen from the air are converted to carbon dioxide and water.
Figure 1.1 shows another chemical change.
Charles D. Winters
Charles D. Winters
Charles D. Winters
(a)(a)
(a) (b)(b)
(b) (c)(c)(c)
Figure 1.1 A chemical reaction. (a) Bromine, an orange-brown liquid, and
aluminum metal. (b) These two substances react so vigorously that the aluminum
becomes molten and glows white hot at the bottom of the beaker. The yellow
vapor consists of vaporized bromine and some of the product of the reaction, white
aluminum bromide. (c) Once the reaction is complete, the beaker is coated with
aluminum bromide and the products of its reaction with atmospheric moisture.
(Note: This reaction is dangerous! Under no circumstances should it be done except
under properly supervised conditions.)
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1.2 The Scientific Method | 3
Kaltschmidt, photographer
use the scientific method, however, we do not believe a hypothesis just
because it sounds right. We test it, using the most rigorous testing we
can imagine.
▲
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4 | Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
be tested further. One important test took place in 1661, four years after
Harvey died. Harvey had predicted that because there had to be a way for
the blood to get from the arteries to the veins, tiny blood vessels must con-
nect them. In 1661, the Italian anatomist Malpighi (1628–1694), using the
newly invented microscope, found these tiny vessels, which are now called
capillaries.
Malpighi’s discovery supported the blood circulation hypothesis by ful-
filling Harvey’s prediction. When a hypothesis passes enough tests, we have
Theory The formulation of an more confidence in it and call it a theory. A theory is the formulation of an
apparent relationship among certain apparent relationship among certain observed phenomena, which has been
observed phenomena, which has verified to some extent. In this sense, a theory is the same as a hypothesis
been verified. A theory explains many
interrelated facts and can be used
except that we have a stronger belief in it because more evidence supports
to make predictions about natural it. No matter how much confidence we have in a theory, however, if we dis-
phenomena. Examples are Newton’s cover new facts that conflict with it or if it does not pass newly devised
theory of gravitation and the kinetic tests, the theory must be altered or rejected. In the history of science, many
molecular theory of gases, which we firmly established theories have eventually been thrown out because they
will encounter in Section 6.6. This type
of theory is also subject to testing and
could not pass new tests. For example, during the late twentieth century,
will be discarded or modified if it is two scientists claimed to have discovered that nuclear fusion, which you
contradicted by new facts. will read about in Section 9.8, could be accomplished at room temperature,
a theory known as cold fusion. However, after scientists were subsequently
unable to replicate the expected results associated with the nuclear experi-
ment, the theory of cold fusion was rejected.
One of the most important ways to test a hypothesis is by a controlled
experiment. It is not enough to say that making a change causes an effect,
we must also see that the lack of that change does not produce the observed
effect. If, for example, a researcher proposes that adding a vitamin mixture
to the diet of children improves growth, the first question is whether chil-
dren in a control group who do not receive the vitamin mixture do not grow
as quickly. Comparison of an experiment with a control is essential to the
scientific method.
The scientific method is thus very simple. We don’t accept a hypothesis
or a theory just because it sounds right. We devise tests, and only if the hy-
pothesis or theory passes the tests do we accept it. The enormous progress
made since 1600 in chemistry, biology, and the other sciences is a testimony
to the value of the scientific method.
You may get the impression from the preceding discussion that science
progresses in one direction: facts first, hypothesis second, theory last. Real
life is not so simple, however. Hypotheses and theories call the attention of
scientists to discover new facts. An example of this scenario is the discovery
of the element germanium. In 1871, Mendeleev’s Periodic Table—a graphic
description of elements organized by properties—predicted the existence of a
new element whose properties would be similar to those of silicon. Mendeleev
called this element eka-silicon. In 1886, it was discovered in Germany (hence
the name), and its properties were truly similar to those predicted by theory.
On the other hand, many scientific discoveries result from serendipity,
or chance observation. An example of serendipity occurred in 1926, when
James Sumner of Cornell University left an enzyme preparation of jack
bean urease in a refrigerator over the weekend. Upon his return, he found
that his solution contained crystals that turned out to be a protein. This
chance discovery led to the hypothesis that all enzymes are proteins. Of
course, serendipity is not enough to move science forward. Scientists must
have the creativity and insight to recognize the significance of their obser-
vations. Sumner fought for more than 15 years for his hypothesis to gain
acceptance because people believed that only small molecules can form
crystals. Eventually his view won out, and he was awarded a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1946.
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1.3 Reporting Numbers in Science | 5
One can easily see how cumbersome it would be to report numbers in this
way. A method, called exponential notation, was devised many years ago
to handle large and small numbers, based on powers of 10. In exponential
notation, the number of copper atoms in a penny is written
SuperStock/iskodonnell
2.95 3 1022
and the weight of a single copper atom is written
2.3 3 10225 pound
1. Football field ~10 meters
which is equal to
1.04 3 10222 gram
The origin of this shorthand form can be seen in the following examples:
100 5 1 3 10 3 10 5 1 3 102
1000 5 1 3 10 3 10 3 10 5 1 3 103
Tom Martin
What we have just said in the form of an equation is “100 is a one with two
zeros after the one, and 1000 is a one with three zeros after the one.” We can
2. Football field (~100 meters)
also write
1/100 5 1/10 3 1/10 5 1 3 1022
1/1000 5 1/10 3 1/10 3 1/10 5 1 3 1023
where negative exponents denote numbers less than 1. The exponent in a
When it comes to measurements, not all the numbers you can generate 3. Vicinity of stadium (~1000
in your calculator or computer are of equal importance. Only the number of meters).
digits that are known with certainty are significant. Suppose you measured
the weight of an object as 3.4 g on a balance that reads to the nearest 0.1 g.
You can report the weight as 3.4 g but not as 3.40 or 3.400 g because you do
not know the added zeros with certainty. This becomes even more important
when you use a calculator. For example, you might measure a cube with a
ruler and find that each side is 2.9 cm. If you are asked to calculate the vol-
ume, you multiply 2.9 cm 3 2.9 cm 3 2.9 cm. The calculator will then give
you an answer that is 24.389 cm3. A detailed account of using significant
figures is presented in Appendix II. The following How To box describes
the way to determine the number of significant figures in a number. You
will find boxes like this at places in the text where detailed explanations of
concepts are useful.
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6 | Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
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1.4 Making Measurements | 7
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8 | Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
however, few people could tell you what a pound or an inch is. Most countries
use the metric system, a system that originated in France about 1800 and
that has since spread throughout the world. Even in the United States, metric
measurements are slowly being introduced (Figure 1.2). For example, many
soft drinks and most alcoholic beverages now come in metric sizes. Scientists
in the United States have been using metric units all along.
▲
Around 1960, international scientific organizations adopted another sys-
tem, called the International System of Units (abbreviated SI). The SI
is based on the metric system and uses some of the metric units. The main
difference is that the SI is more restrictive: It discourages the use of certain
metric units and favors others. Although the SI has advantages over the
older metric system, it also has significant disadvantages. For this reason,
U.S. chemists have been very slow to adopt it. At this time, approximately
40 years after its introduction, not many U.S. chemists use the entire SI,
although some of its preferred units are gaining ground.
Alyssa White/Cengage Learning
In this book, we will use the metric system (Table 1.1). Occasionally we
will mention the preferred SI unit.
A. Length
The key to the metric system (and the SI) is that there is one base unit for
The label on this bottle of water each kind of measurement and that other units are related to the base unit
shows the metric size (one liter) by powers of 10. As an example, let us look at measurements of length. In
and the equivalent in quarts. the English system, we have the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile (not
to mention such older units as the league, furlong, ell, and rod). If you want
Metric system A system of units of to convert one unit to another unit, you must memorize or look up these
measurement in which the divisions to conversion factors:
subunits are made by a power of 10
5280 feet 5 1 mile
Table 1.1 Base Units in the
Metric System 1760 yards 5 1 mile
Length meter (m) 3 feet 5 1 yard
Volume liter (L)
Mass gram (g)
12 inches 5 1 foot
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K) All this is unnecessary in the metric system (and the SI). In both systems
Amount of mole (mol) the base unit of length is the meter (m). To convert to larger or smaller
substance units, we do not use arbitrary numbers like 12, 3, and 1760, but only 10,
100, 1/100, 1/10, or other powers of 10. This means that to convert from one
metric or SI unit to another, we only have to move the decimal point. Fur-
thermore, the other units are named by putting prefixes in front of “meter,”
and these prefixes are the same throughout the metric system and the SI.
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1.4 Making Measurements | 9
Table 1.2 lists the most important of these prefixes. If we put some of these
prefixes in front of “meter,” we have
For people who have grown up using English units, it is helpful to have some
idea of the size of metric units. Table 1.3 shows some conversion factors.
Table 1.3 Some Conversion Factors Between the English and Metric Systems
1 L 5 1.057 qt
Some of these conversions are difficult enough that you will probably
not remember them and must, therefore, look them up when you need
them. Some are easier. For example, a meter is about the same as a yard. A
kilogram is a little over two pounds. There are almost four liters in a gallon.
These conversions may be important to you someday. For example, if you
rent a car in Europe, the price of gas listed on the sign at the gas station will
be in Euros per liter. When you realize that you are spending two dollars
per liter and you know that there are almost four liters to a gallon, you will
realize why so many people take the bus or a train instead.
B. Volume
Jonnie Miles/Getty Images
Volume is space. The volume of a liquid, solid, or gas is the space occupied by
that substance. The base unit of volume in the metric system is the liter (L).
This unit is a little larger than a quart (Table 1.3). The only other common
metric unit for volume is the milliliter (mL), which is equal to 1023 L.
▲
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10 | Chapter 1 Matter, Energy, and Measurement
1 mL 5 1 cc
C. Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. The base unit of mass in the
metric system is the gram (g). As always in the metric system, larger and
smaller units are indicated by prefixes. The ones in common use are
The gram is a small unit; there are 453.6 g in one pound (Table 1.3).
We use a device called a balance to measure mass. Figure 1.3 shows two
types of laboratory balances.
There is a fundamental difference between mass and weight. Mass is
independent of location. The mass of a stone, for example, is the same
whether we measure it at sea level, on top of a mountain, or in the depths
of a mine. In contrast, weight is not independent of location. Weight
is the force a mass experiences under the pull of gravity. This point was
dramatically demonstrated when the astronauts walked on the surface
of the Moon. The Moon, being a smaller body than the Earth, exerts a
weaker gravitational pull. Consequently, even though the astronauts
wore space suits and equipment that would be heavy on Earth, they felt
lighter on the Moon and could execute great leaps and bounces during
their walks.
Although mass and weight are different concepts, they are re-
lated to each other by the force of gravity. We frequently use the words
interchangeably because we weigh objects by comparing their masses to
standard reference masses (weights) on a balance, and the gravitational
pull is the same on the unknown object and on the standard masses. Be-
cause the force of gravity is essentially constant, mass is always directly
proportional to weight.
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1.4 Making Measurements | 11
Charles D. Winters
liver function, the clearance of a drug from the body
is delayed, and the drug may stay in the body lon-
ger than is normal. This persistence can cause dizzi-
ness, vertigo, and migraine-like headaches, resulting
This package of Advil has a chart
in falls and broken bones. Such delayed clearance showing the proper doses for children
must be monitored and the drug dosage adjusted of a given weight.
accordingly. ■
Test your knowledge with Problems 54 and 55.
D. Time
Time is the one quantity for which the units are the same in all systems:
English, metric, and SI. The base unit is the second (s):
60 s 5 1 min
60 min 5 1 h
E. Temperature
Most people in the United States are familiar with the Fahrenheit scale of
temperature. The metric system uses the centigrade, or Celsius, scale. In
this scale, the boiling point of water is set at 100°C and the freezing point
at 0°C. We can convert from one scale to the other by using the following
formulas:
9
°F 5 °C 1 32
5
5
°C 5 (°F 2 32)
9
The 32 in these equations is a defined number and is, therefore, treated
as if it had an infinite number of zeros following the decimal point. (See
Appendix II.)
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
demasiado grandes. En los Reali el tener un pie más grande que
otro: «Aveva nome Berta del gran piè, perchè ella avea maggiore
un poco un piè che l'altro, e quello era il pié destro» (cap. I).
[251] La Gran Conquista de Ultramar, ed. de Gayangos, pp. 175-
178.
[252] Sobre las fuentes de este famoso libro, cuya primera
edición se remonta á 1491, es magistral y definitivo el trabajo de
Rajna, Ricerche intorno ai Reali di Francia (Bolonia, 1872, en la
Collezione di Opere inedite o rare dei primi tre secoli della lingua).
En la misma colección puede leerse el texto publicado por un
discípulo de Rajna: I Reali di Francia, di Andrea da Barberino,
testo critico per cura di Giuseppe Vandelli (Bolonia, 1902).
[253] Romania, julio de 1873, p. 363.
[254] No viejo ni caduco, pero sí pequeño y deforme era ya
Pipino en el poema franco-itálico: «Por que eo sui petit e
desformé». «Petit homo est, inais grosso e quarré».
[255] Aunque el desatino de hacer enamorada á Berta pertenece,
con todas sus consecuencias, á Antonio de Eslava, debe
advertirse que ya en el poema bilingüe de la Biblioteca Marciana,
seguido en esta parte por el compilador de I Reali, era Berta la
que proponía la sustitución y por un motivo verdaderamente
absurdo. Llegando á París fatigada del viaje, ruega á la hija del
conde de Maganza Belencer que la reemplace en el lecho de
Pipino durante la primera noche de bodas, pero fingiéndose
enferma para que el rey no llegue á tocarla. Con fingirlo ella
misma se hubiera ahorrado el engaño de la falsa amiga. En la
Crónica rimada de Felipe Mouskes, que escribía hacia 1243, la
reina alega un motivo obsceno para hacerse sustituir por su
sierva Alista. En el poema de Adenès, Berta consiente en la
superchería, porque su sierva Margista (el ama de la Crónica
General) la ha hecho creer que el Rey quiere matarla en la
primera noche de bodas.
[256] ¡Cuán lejano está esto de la delicadeza y elevación moral
del texto de Adenès! en que Berta, que había hecho voto de no
revelar su nombre más que cuando viese en peligro su castidad,
exclama, perseguida por el rey en el bosque de Mans: «Soy reina
de Francia, mujer del rey Pipino, hija del rey Flores y de la reina
Blancaflor, y os prohibo, en nombre de Dios que gobierna el
mundo, hacer ninguna cosa que pueda deshonrarme: antes
preferiría ser muerta, y Dios venga en mi ayuda».
[257] Vid. G. París, Histoire poètique de Charlemagne, pp. 170-
409; Guessard, en la Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes, 1856,
pág. 393 y siguientes, y muy especialmente Rajna, Ricerche
intorno ai Reali di Francia, pág. 253 y ss.
[258] Le prime imprese del conte Orlando di Messer Lodovico
Dolce, da lui composte in ottava rima, con argomenti ed allegorie.
All'Illustriss. et Eccellentiss. Signor Francesco Maria della Rovere
Prencipe d'Urbino. Vinegia, appresso Gabriel Giolito de Ferrari,
1572, 4.º.
[259] El nascimiento y primeras Empressas del conde Orlando.
Tradvzidas por Pero López Enriquez de Calatayud, Regidor de
Valladolid. Valladolid, por Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Oviedo.
Sin año, pero la fecha 1594 se infiere del privilegio.
[260] Impresa en la Parte 19.ª de sus Comedias y en el tomo XIII
de la edición académica.
[261] Historia de la linda Melosina de Juan de Arras.
Colofón: Fenesce la ystoria de Melosina empremida en Tholosa
por los honorables e discretos maestros Juan paris e Estevan
Clebat alemanes que con grand diligencia la hizieron pasar de
frances en Castellano. E despues de muy emendada la
mandaron imprimir. En el año del Señor de mill e quatrocientos e
ochenta e nueue años a XIII dias del mes de julio.
Hay otras ediciones de Valencia, 1512, y Sevilla, 1526.
[262] No conozco más que por referencias estos trabajos de
Garnett, ni aun puedo recordar á punto fijo dónde los he visto
citados. Pero como no gusto de engalanarme con plumas ajenas,
y se trata de un descubrimiento de alguna importancia, he creído
justo indicar que un inglés había notado antes que yo la analogía
entre la novela de Eslava y La Tempestad. Los comentadores de
Shakespeare que tengo á mano no señalan más fuentes que una
relación de viajes y naufragios, impresa en 1610 con el título de
The Discovery of the Bermudas or Devil's Island, y una comedia
alemana del notario de Nuremberg Jacobo Ayrer, La hermosa
Sidea (Die Schöne Sidea), fundada al parecer en otra inglesa,
que pudo conocer Shakespeare, y de la cual supone Tieck que el
gran poeta tomó la idea de la conexión que establece entre
Próspero y Alonso, Miranda y Fernando. Pero, según Gervinus, á
esto ó poco más se reduce la semejanza entre ambas obras. Vid.
Shakespeare Commentaries by Dr. G. Gervinus... Translated... by
F. E. Bunnèt, Londres, 1883, pág. 788.
Tampoco Ulrici acepta la conjetura de Tieck, y aun sin tener
noticia de las Noches de Invierno, se inclina á admitir la hipótesis
de una novela española antigua que pudo servir de fuente común
á Shakespeare y al autor de una antigua balada, descubierta por
Collier, que la publicó en la Quarterly Review, 1840. Siento no
conocer esta balada.
Vid. Shakespeare's Dramatic Art, History and character of
Shakespeare Plays. By Dr. Hermann Ulrici. Translated from the
third edition of the German... by L. Dora Schmitz. Londres, 1876
Tom. II, pp. 38-39, nota.
[263] Vid. Perott (Joseph de), The probable source of the plot of
Shakespeare's «Tempest». (En las Publications of the Clark
University Library Worcester, Mass. Octubre de 1905).
[264] No ha faltado quien sospechase, pero esto parece ya
demasiada sutileza, que este mismo título de una de las últimas
comedias de Shakespeare (Winter's tale) era reminiscencia de
las Noches de Eslava.
[265] No he podido encontrar un rarísimo pliego suelto gótico que
describe Salvá (n. 1.179 de su Catálogo) y contenía un cuento en
prosa, Como vn rustico labrador ēgaño a vnos mercaderes,
cuatro hojas, sin lugar ni año, hacia 1510, según el parecer de
aquel bibliógrafo. Sir Thomas Grenville tuvo otra edición del
mismo pliego con el título algo diverso, Como vn rustico labrador
astucioso con cōsejo de su mujer engaño a vnos mercaderes.
Supongo que hoy parará en el Museo Británico.
[266] Es el 4.º del Novellino. Notó antes que nadie esta
semejanza Morel-Fatio.
«Fra Girolamo da Spoleto con un osso di corpo morto fa credere
al popolo Sorrentino sia il braccio di Santo Luca: il compagno gli
dà contra: lui prega Iddio che ne dimostri miracolo: il compagno
finge cascar morto, ed esso oramai lo ritorna in vita; e per li doppi
miracoli raduna assai moneta, diventane prelato, e col compagno
poltroneggia».
(Il Novellino di Masuccio Salernitano, ed. de Settembrini, p. 53 y
ss.)
[267] Esta imitación fué ya indicada en la History of fiction de
Dunlop (trad. alemana de Liebrecht, p. 268). Es la novela 41 de
Masuccio (p. 425). «Due cavalieri fiorentini se innamorano de due
sorelle fiorentine, son necessitati ritornarsi in Francia. Una delle
quelle con una sentenziosa intramessa de un falso diamante fa
tutti doi ritornare in Fiorenza, e con una strana maniera godono a
fine di loro amore».
De éstas y otras imitaciones trataré en sus lugares respectivos.
Aquí basta indicarlas.
[268] Véase el primer tomo de la presente obra, pág, CCCCLVIII.
[269] Las ediciones más antiguas del Galateo que citan los
bibliógrafos son: la de Zaragoza, 1593; la de Barcelona 1595, y la
de Madrid, 1599; pero debe de haberlas algo anteriores, puesto
que la dedicatoria está firmada á 10 de enero de 1582. La más
antigua de las que he manejado es la siguiente:
—Galateo Español. Agora de nuevo corregido y emendado. Autor
Lucas Gracian Dantisco criado de su Magestad. Impresso en
Valencia, en casa de Pedro Patricio Mey, 1601. A costa de
Balthasar Simon mercader de libros.
8.º, 239 pp. (por errata 293).
Aprobación del Dr. Pedro Juan Asensio, por comisión del
patriarca D. Juan de Ribera (20 de marzo de 1601).
«Aviendo visto en el discurso de mi vida, por esperiencia todas
las reglas de este libro, me parecio aprovecharme de las más,
que para el tiempo de la juventud pueden ser de consideracion,
traduziendolas del Galateo Italiano, y añadiendo al proposito
otros Cuentos y cosas que yo he visto y oydo; los quales serviran
de sainete y halago, para pasar sin mal sabor las pildoras de una
amable reprehension que este libro haze. Que aunque va
embuelto en cuentos y donayres, no dexara de aprovechar a
quien tuviere necessidad de alguno destos avisos, si ya no
tuviere tan amarga la boca, y estragado el gusto, que nada le
parezca bien...».
Sonetos laudatorios del Licenciado Gaspar de Morales, de Lope
de Vega y de un anónimo.
Todo el libro está lleno de cuentecillos, unos traducidos del
italiano y otros originales de Gracián Dantisco.
—Galateo Español. Agora nueuamente impresso, y emendado.
Avtor Lucas Gracian Dantisco, criado de su Magestad. Y de
nueuo va añadido el destierro de la ignorancia, que es
Quaternario de auisos conuenientes a este nuestro Galateo. Y la
vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, castigado. Con licencia. En
Valladolid. Por Luis Sanchez. Año de 1603. A costa de Miguel
Martinez.
8.º, 6 hs. prls. y 295 pp. dobles.
Pág. 171. «Destierro de ignorancia. Nueuamente compuesto y
sacado a luz en lengua Italiana por Horacio Riminaldo Boloñés. Y
agora traduzido de lengua Italiana en Castellana. Con licencia.
En Valladolid. Por Luys Sanchez. Año M.DCIII.
«Es obra muy prouechosa y de gran curiosidad y artificio: porque
cifrandose todo lo que en ella se contiene debaxo del numero de
quatro, discurre con él por todo el Abecedario, començando
primeramente por cosas que tienen por principio la letra A desta
suerte...».
Fol. 217. Lazarillo de Tormes, castigado. Agora nueuamente
impresso, y emendado.
Hay reimpresiones de 1632, 1637, 1664, 1722, 1728, 1746, 1769
y otras varias.
[270] Pág. 151 de la ed. de Valencia, 1601.
[271] PP. 154-179.
Esta novelita llegó á ser tan popular, que todavía se hizo de ella
una edición de cordel á mediados del siglo xviii.
Historia del Gran Soldan con los amores de la linda Axa y
Principe de Napoles. Cordoba, Juan Rodriguez de la Torre. Sin
año.
Modernamente la refundió Trueba en uno de sus Cuentos
Populares que lleva por título El Principe Desmemoriado.
[272] PP. 179-180.
[273] La extensión que ha tomado el presente capítulo me obliga
á diferir para el volumen siguiente, que será el tercero de estos
Orígenes de la novela, el estudio de las novelas de
costumbres y de las novelas dramáticas anteriores á Cervantes.
En él se encontrarán también las noticias críticas y bibliográficas
de algunos diálogos satíricos afines á la novela, cuyo texto va
incluido en el presente volumen.
CARCEL DE AMOR
DE
COMIENÇA LA OBRA
Despues de hecha la guerra del
año pasado, viniendo á tener el
inuierno á mi pobre reposo,
pasando vna mañana, quando ya
el sol queria esclarecer la tierra,
por vnos valles hondos y escuros,
que se hazen en la Sierra
Morena, vi salir á mi encuentro
por entre unos robredales do mi
camino se hazia, vn cauallero assi
feroz de presencia como
espantoso de vista, cubierto todo
de cabello á manera de saluaie.
Leuaua en la mano ysquierda vn
escudo de azero muy fuerte y en
la derecha una ymagen femenil,
entallada en vna piedra muy
clara, la qual era de tan estrema
hermosura, que me turbaua la
vista; salian della diuersos rayos
de fuego que leuaua encendido el
cuerpo de vn onbre quel cauallero
forciblemente leuaua tra si. El
qual con un lastimado gemido de
rato en rato dezia: en mi fe se
sufre todo.
Y como empareió comigo, dixome
con mortal angustia: caminante,
por Dios te pido que me sigas y
me ayudes en tan grand cuyta. Yo
que en aquella sazon tenia más
causa para temor que razon para
responder; puestos los oios en la
estraña vision estoue quedo,
trastornando en el coraçon
diuersas consideraciones. Dexar
el camino que leuaua pareciame
desuario, no hazer el ruego de
aquel que assi padecia
figurauaseme inumanidad. En
siguille auia peligro, y en dexalle
flaqueza. Con la turbacion no
sabia escojer lo meior. Pero ya
que el espanto dexó mi alteracion
en algund sosiego, vi quanto era
más obligado á la virtud que á la
vida: y empachado de mi mesmo
por la dubda en que estuue, seguí
la via de aquel que quiso
ayudarse de mi. Y como apresuré
mi andar, sin mucha tardança
alcancé a él y al que la fuerça le
hazia, y assi seguimos todos tres
por vnas partes no menos
trabaiosas de andar, que solas de
plazer y de gente, y como el
ruego del forçado fué causa que
lo siguiese, para acometer al que
lo leuaua faltabame apareio y
para rogalle merescimiento, de
manera que me fallecia conseio.
Y despues que reboluí el
pensamiento en muchos
acuerdos, tomé por el meior
ponerle en alguna plática, porque
como él me respondiese, así yo
determinase. Y con este acuerdo
supliquéle con la mayor cortesia
que pude, me quisiese dezir quien
era, á lo qual assi me respondió:
Caminante, segund mi natural
condicion, ninguna respuesta
quisiera darte porque mi oficio
mas es para secutar mal que para
responder bien; pero como
siempre me crié entre onbres de
buena criança, vsaré contigo de la
gentileza que aprendi y no de la
braueza de mi natural. Tú sabras
pues lo quieres saber. Yo soy
principal oficial en la casa de
amor, llamanme por nombre
Deseo. Con la fortaleza deste
escudo defiendo las esperanças,
y con la hermosura desta ymagen
causo las aficiones y con ellas
quemo las vidas, como puedes
ver en este preso que lieuo á la
carcel de Amor donde con solo
morir se espera librar.
Quando estas cosas el
atormentator cauallero me yba
diziendo, sobiamos vna sierra de
tanta altura, que á mas andar mi
fuerça desfallecia: y ya que con
mucho trabaio llegamos á lo alto
della, acabó su respuesta. Y
como vido que en más pláticas
quería ponelle yo que començaua
á dalle gracias por la merced
recebida, supitamente
desaparecio de mi presencia. Y
como esto pasó a tienpo que la
noche venia, ningund tino pude
tomar para saber donde guió: y
como la escuridad y la poca
sabiduría de la tierra me fuesen
contrarias, tomé por propio
conseio no mudarme de aquel
lugar. Allí comence á maldezir mi
ventura, allí desesperaua de toda
esperança, allí esperaua mi
perdimiento, allí en medio de mi
tribulacion nunca me pesó de lo
hecho; porque es meior perder
haziendo virtud, que ganar
dexandola de hazer. Y assí
estuue toda la noche en tristes y
trabaiosas contemplaciones: y
quando ya la lumbre del día
descubrio los canpos, vi cerca de
mí, en lo mas alto de la sierra,
vna torre de altura tan grande,
que me parecía llegar al cielo; era
hecha por tal artificio, que de la
estrañeza della comence á
marauillarme. Y puesto al pie,
avnque el tienpo se me ofrecia
más para temer que para notar,
miré la nouedad de su lauor y de
su edificio.
El cimiento sobre que estaua
fundada, era vna piedra tan fuerte
de su condicion y tan clara de su
natural, qual nunca otra tal iamás
auia visto: sobre la qual estauan
firmados quatro pilares de vn
marmol morado muy hermoso de
mirar. Eran en tanta manera altos,
que me espantaua como se
podian sostener. Estaua encima
dellos labrada vna torre de tres
esquinas, la más fuerte que se
puede contemplar. Tenia en cada
esquina, en lo alto della, vna
ymagen de nuestra umana
hechura, de metal, pintada cada
vna de su color; la vna de
leonado, y la otra de negro, y la
otra de pardillo. Tenia cada vna
dellas vna cadena en la mano
asida con mucha fuerza. Ví más
encima de la torre vn chapitel
sobrél qual estaua vn aguila que
tenia el pico y las alas llenas de
claridad de vnos rayos de lumbre
que por dentro de la torre salían á
ella. Oya dos velas que nunca vn
solo punto dexauan de velar. Yo
que de tales cosas iustamente me
marauillaua, ni sabia dellas qué
pensase, ni de mí qué hiziese; y
estando conmigo en grandes
dubdas y confusion, ví trauada
con los mármoles dichos vn
escalera que llegaua á la puerta
de la torre, la qual tenia la entrada
tan escura, que parescia la sobida
della á ningund onbre posible.
Pero ya deliberado quise antes
perderme por sobir, que saluarme
por estar, y forçada mi fortuna,
comencé la sobida. Y á tres
pasos del escalera hallé vna
puerta de hierro, de lo que me
certificó más el tiento de las
manos que la lumbre de la vista,
segund las tinieblas do estaua.
Allegado pues á la puerta, hallé
enella vn portero, al qual pedí
licencia para la entrada, y
respondiome que lo hacia, pero
que me conuenia dexar las armas
primero que entrase; y como le
daua las que leuaua, segund
costumbre de caminantes,
díxome:
Amigo, bien paresce que de la
usança desta casa sabes poco.
Las armas que te pido, y te
conuiene dexar, son aquellas con
que el coraçon se suele defender
de tristeza, assí como Descanso,
y Esperança, y Contentamiento,
porque con tales condiciones
ninguno pudo gozar de la
demanda que pides.
Pues sabida su intencion, sin
detenerme en echar iuyzios sobre
demanda tan nueua, respondile
que yo venía sin aquellas armas,
y que dello le dava seguridad.
Pues como dello fue cierto, abrió
la puerta: y con mucho trabajo y
desatino llegué ya á lo alto de la
torre donde hallé otro guardador
que me hizo las preguntas del
primero, y despues que supo de
mí lo que el otro, diome lugar á
que entrase. Y llegado al
aposentamiento de la casa, ví en
medio della vna silla de fuego en
la qual estaua asentado aquel
cuyo ruego de mi perdicion fue
causa. Pero como allí con la
turbacion descargaua con los
oios, la lengua más entendía en
mirar marauillas que en hazer
preguntas, y como la vista no
estaua despacio, ví que las tres
cadenas de las ymágines que
estauan en lo alto de la torre
tenían atado aquel triste que
sienpre se quemaua y nunca se
acabaua de quemar. Noté más,
que dos dueñas lastimeras con
rostros llorosos y tristes le seruían
y adornauan, poniendole con
crueça en la cabeza vna corona
de vnas puntas de hierro sin
ninguna piedad, que le
traspasauan todo el celebro. Y
después desto miré que vn negro
vestido de color amarilla venia
diuersas vezes á echalle una
visarma, y ví que le recebía los
golpes en vn escudo que
supitamente le salia de la cabeça
y le cobria hasta los pies. Ví más,
que quando le truxeron de comer
le pusieron vna mesa negra, e
tres seruidores mucho diligentes,
los quales le dauan con graue
sentimiento de comer. Y bueltos
los oios al vn lado de la mesa, ví
vn vieio anciano sentado en vna
silla, echada la cabeça sobre vna
mano en manera de onbre
cuidoso, y ninguna destas cosas
pudiera ver segund la escuridad
de la torre, sino fuera por vn claro
resplandor que le salía al preso
del coraçon, que la esclarecía
toda. El qual como me vió atónito
de ver cosas de tales misterios,
viendo como estaua en tienpo de
poder pagarme con su habla lo
poco que me deuia, por darme
algund descanso, mezclando las
razones discretas con las
lágrimas piadosas, començo en
esta manera á dezirme:
EL PRESO AL AUCTOR
Alguna parte del coraçon quisiera
tener libre de sentimiento por
dolerme de tí, segund yo deuiera
y tú merecías. Pero ya tu vees en
mi tribulacion, que no tengo poder
para sentir otro mal sino el mio.
Pidote que tomes por satisfacion
no lo que hago, mas lo que
deseo. Tu venida aquí yo la
causé. El que viste traer preso yo
soy, y con la turbacion que tienes,
no as podido conoscerme. Torna
en tí tu reposo, sosiega tu iuyzio
porque estés atento á lo que te
quiero dezir. Tu venida fué por
remediarme, mi habla será por
darte consuelo puesto que yo dél
sepa poco. Quien yo soy quiero
dezirte; de los misterios que vees
quiero informarte. La causa de mi
prision quiero que sepas, que me
delibres quiero pedirte si por bien
lo touieres. Tú sabras que yo soy
Leriano, hijo del duque Guersio,
que Dios perdone, y de la
duquesa Coleria. Mi naturaleza,
es este reyno do estás, llamado
Macedonia. Ordenó mi ventura
que me enamorase de Laureola
hija del rey Gaulo que agora
reyna, pensamiento que yo
deviera antes huyr que buscar;
pero como los primeros
mouimientos no se puedan en los
onbres escusar, en lugar de
desuiallos con la razon,
confirmelos con la voluntad, y assi
de amor me vencí, que me truxo á
esta tu casa la qual se llama
Carcel de Amor. Y como nunca
perdona, viendo desplegadas las
velas de mi deseo, púsome en el
estado que vees, y porque
puedas notar meior su
fundamiento y todo lo que has
visto, deues saber que aquella
piedra sobre quien la prision está
fundada, es mi Fé que determinó
de sofrir el dolor de su pena por
bien de su mal. Los quatro pilares
que asientan sobre ella son mi
Entendimiento y mi Razon, y mi
Memoria, y mi Voluntad. Los
quales mandó Amor parescer en
su presencia antes que me
sentenciase; y por hazer de mi
iusta iusticia, preguntó por si á
cada vno si consentía que me
prendiesen, porque si alguno no
consentiese me absoluería de la
pena. Á lo qual respondieron
todos en esta manera. Dixo el
Entendimiento: yo consiento al
mal de la pena por el bien de la
causa, de cuya razon es mi voto
que se prenda. Dixo la Raçon: yo
no solamente do consentimiento
en la prision, más ordeno que
muera; que meior le estará la
dichosa muerte que la
desesperada vida, segund por
quien se ha de sofrir. Dixo la
Memoria: pues el Entendimiento y
la Razon consienten, porque sin
morir no pueda ser libre, yo
prometo de nunca oluidar. Dixo la
Voluntad: pues que assi es, yo
quiero ser llaue de su prision y
determino de sienpre querer.
Pues oyendo Amor que quien me
auia de saluar me condenaua, dió
como iusto esta sentencia cruel
contra mí. Las tres ymágines que
viste encima de la torre cubiertas
cada vna de su color, de leonado
y negro y pardillo, la vna es
Tristeza, y la otra Congoxa, y la
otra Trabaio. Las cadenas que
tenian en las manos son sus
fuerças, con las quales tiene
atado el coraçon porque ningund
descanso pueda recebir. La
claridad grande que tenia en el
pico y alas el aguila que viste
sobre el chapitel, es mi
Pensamiento, del qual sale tan
clara luz por quien está en él, que
basta para esclarecer las tinieblas
deste triste carcel, y es tanta su
fuerça que para llegar al aguila
ningund impedimento le haze lo
grueso del muro, assi que andan
él y ella en vna conpañía, porque
son las dos cosas que más alto
suben, de cuya causa está mi
prision en la mayor alteza de la
tierra. Las dos velas que oyes
velar con tal recaudo, son
Desdicha y Desamor. Traen tal
auiso porque ninguna esperança
me pueda entrar con remedio. El
escalera obscura por do sobiste
es el Angustia con que sobí
donde me vees. El primero
portero que hallaste, es el Deseo,
el qual á todas tristezas abre la
puerta, y por esso te dixo que
dexases las armas de plazer si
por caso las trayas. El otro que
acá en la torre hallaste, es el
Tormento que aquí me traxo, el
qual sigue en el cargo que tiene la
condicion del primero, porque
está de su mano. La silla de fuego
en que asentado me vees, es mi
iusta Aficion cuyas llamas
siempre arden en mis entrañas.
Las dos dueñas que me dan
como notas corona de martyrio,
se llaman la vna Ansia y la otra
Passion, y satisfaçen á mi Fé con
el galardon presente. El vieio que
vees asentado, que tan cargado
pensamiento representa, es el
graue Cuydado que iunto con los
otros males pone amenazas á la
vida. El negro de vestiduras
amarillas que se trabaia por
quitarme la vida, se llama
Desesperar; el escudo que me
sale de la cabeça con que de sus
golpes me defiendo, es mi Iuyzio,
el qual viendo que vo con
desesperacion á matarme,
dizeme que no lo haga, porque
visto lo que merece Laureola
antes deuo desear larga vida por
padecer, que la muerte para
acabar. La mesa negra que para
comer me ponen, es la Firmeça
con que como, y pienso y
duermo, en la qual sienpre estan
los maniares tristes de mis
contenplaciones. Los tres solicitos
seruidores que me seruian, son
llamados Mal y Pena y Dolor. El
vno trae la cuyta con que coma y
el otro trae la desesperança en
que viene el maniar, y el otro trae
la tribulacion y con ella, para que
beua, trae el agua del coraçon á
los oios, y de los oios á la boca.
Si te parece que soy bien seruido
tú lo iuzga; si remedio he
menester tú lo vees; ruegote
mucho, pues en esta tierra eres
venido, que tú me lo busques y te
duelas de mí. No te pido otro bien
sino que sepa de tí Laureola, quál
me viste, y si por ventura te
quisieres dello escusar porque me
vees en tienpo que me falta
sentido para que te lo agradezca,
no te escuses, que mayor virtud
es redemir los atribulados que
sostener los prósperos. Assi sean
tus obras que ni tú te quexes de ti
por lo que no heziste, ni yo por lo
que pudieras hazer.