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INTRODUCTION TO
- I

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

INTRODUCTION TO

Rick Parker and Miriah Pace

CENGAGE
Learning·
Auslr.illa •Brazil• Mexico• Singapore• United Kingdom• United States

••
 CENGAGE
Learning·
Introduction to Food Science &
Food Systems, Second Edition
Rick Parker and Miriah Pace
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:J
.. .. .. . •.
TO MO ri ly n, wife, mother, partner, friend,
and one true love for more than 47 years, through
good times and bad, helping me enjoy the journey.
.. .. .. . •.
SECTION ONE Standard 4: Satisfy Human Need for
Fiber and Safe, Nutritious Foods 31
INTRODUCTION Standard 5: Conserve and Seek
AND BACKGROUND 3 Energy Resources 32
Standard 6: Create and Conserve
Chapter 1 Healthy Soil 33
Overview of Food Science 4 Standard 7: Conserves and Protects
Water Resources 34
Parts of the Food Industry 5
Standard 8: Recycle and Reduce
Trends 6
Waste Products 36
Allied Industries 14 Standard 9: Select Animals
International Activities 15 and Crops Appropriate for an
Responsiveness to Change 19 Environment and Available
Resources 37
Interrelated Operations 19
Standard 10: Manage Pests with
Summary 20
Minimal Environmental Impact 38
Review Questions 20
Standard 11: Encourage Strong
Student Activities 21 Communities 38
Additional Resources 21 Standard 12: Use Appropriate
References 21 Technology 39
Standard 13: Promote Social and
Chapter 2 Environmental Responsibility 39
Food Systems and Sustainability 22 Sustainable Standards Score Card 40
Food-System Definitions 23 Summary 40
Allied Industries 24 Review Questions 41
International Activities 24 Student Activities 41
Interrelated Operations 25 Additional Resources 42
Food-System Trends 25 References 42
Retail Trends 26
Chapter 3
Defining Sustainability 27
Chemistry of Foods 44
Standards of Sustainable Food
Production 28 Carbohydrates 45
Standard 1: Base Direction Function in Food 46
and Changes Based on Science 28 Monosaccharide 46
Standard 2: Follow Market Principles 30 Di saccharides 49
Standard 3: Increase Profitability Sugars in Food 50
and Reduce Risks 30
Polysaccharides 52

CONTENTS vii

C
 Proteins 54 References 67
Functions of Proteins in Foods 57 Endnotes 67
Lipids 57
Role of Fats in Food 58 Chapter 4
Fatty Acids 59 Nutrition and Digestion 68
Double Bonds 59 Nutrient Needs 69
Triglycerides 60 Water 69
Phospholipids 60 Energy 69
Cholesterol 60 Carbohydrates 71
Vitamins 60 Fiber 71
Fat-Soluble Vitamins 60 Protein 72
Water-Soluble Vitamins 61 Lipids 74
Minerals 61 Vitamins 74
Calcium 61 Minerals 75
Phosphorus 61 MyPlate 75
Potassium 62 Food Groups 75
Sodium 62 Digestive Processes Bl
Chloride 62 Ingestion 81
Magnesium 62 Digestion 81
Sulfur 62 Absorption Bl
Chromium 62 Elimination Bl
Cobalt 62 Components of the Human
Copper 62 Digestive System 81
Fluorine 62 Vegetarian Diets 83
Iodine 62 Bioavailability of Nutrients 83
Iron 62 Stability of Nutrients 83
Manganese 63 Diet and Chronic Disease 84
Molybdenum 63 Summary 84
Nickel 63 Review Questions 84
Selenium 63 Student Activities 85
Silicon 63 Additional Resources 85
Tin 63 References 85
Vanadium 63 Endnotes 86
Zinc 63 Chapter 5
Water 64
Food Composition 88
Biotin 64
Determining the Composition of Foods 89
Choline 64
Energy in Food 89
Phytochemicals 64
Summary 65
Food-Composition Tables 90
Summary 91
Review Questions 65
Review Questions 92
Student Activities 66
Student Activities 92
Additional Resources 66

viii CONTENTS

" ..
 Additional Resources 93 Mixing 117
References 93 Heat Exchanging 117
Concentration 119
Chapter 6 Drying 120
Quality Factors in Foods 94 Forming 120
Sensory Evaluation 96 Packaging 120
Appearance Factors 96 Controlling 121
Textural Factors 97 Overlapping Operations 121
Flavor Factors 98 Conserving Energy 122
Additional Quality Factors 101 Other Processes 122
Proteins 101 Summary 124
Lipids 101 Review Questions 124
Carbohydrates 101 Student Activities 124
Vitamins 102 Additional Resources 125
Chemicals and Microbiological References 125
Characteristics 102 Endnotes 125
Quality Standards 102
Quality Standards: USDA Chapter 8
and the AMS 102 Food Deterioration 126
Grading and Certification 104
Types of Food Deterioration 127
Mission 105
Shelf Life and Dating of Foods 127
Food Quality Assurance 106
Causes of Food Deterioration 129
Commercial Item Descriptions 106
Bacteria. Yeast. and Mold 129
Quality Control 106
Food-Borne Disease 130
Summary 108
Insects 130
Review Questions 109
Food Enzymes 130
Student Activities 109
Heat and Cold 132
Additional Resources 110
Oxygen 132
References 110
Postharvest Biochemical Changes 133
Endnotes 110
Postslaughter Biochemical Changes 133
Chapter 7 Principles of Food Preservation 133
Unit Operations in Food Heat 133
Processing 112 Cold 133
Drying 134
Materials Handling 113
Acid 134
Cleaning 113
Sugar and Salt 134
Separating 114
Smoke 134
Cream Separator 114
Atmosphere 135
Clarification 114
Chemicals 135
Membrane Processes 115
Radiation 135
Size Reduction 115
Summary 136
Pumping (Fluid Flow) 115
Review Questions 136

CONTENTS Ix

" ..
 Student Act ivities 136
.' . Student Activities
'i - 150
Additional11Resources
- 137 Additional. Resources
I - ·1 150
References 137 References 151

Chapter 10
SECTION TWO Cold 152
PRESERVATION 139 Refrigeration
I -· ,- - Versus
1 ·-n Freezing
· --; - 153
Refrigeration and Cool Storage
1 --· • - -·f, , 1 1 · · · • ·- --,- - 153
ChapterI 9I
Requirements ofr Refrigerated I .r j_-
Heat 140 Storage 154
Heat 141 Changes
, 1 - • in r - · During
1- Food r , ,-,-
.
Degrees of. Prese
I rvation 141 Refrigerated
- 0 i I Storage 154
Sterilization
'II" 141 Freezing
I • . I -11 and r I Frozen
I
.,
- ' Storage
- - - f· - 155
Commercial I - i I Steril
: i
ty 141 Chemical' Changes I I -
. During
r -r•- - Freezing
r--- - -' -,- 157
. -, .--
I I

Pasteurization
1' 142 - -·- I - 1Changes
Textural I I . During r ·---· -
I ·1 '1 · I Freezing 157
Blanching
11 Ii 142 Microbial
i I _, " I Growth
I in the Freezer 158
Selecting Heat Treatments 142 IFreezing
·- -- I - Methods
I 158
Heat Resis I tance of Microorganisms
I.I · , I -' I I 142 r-, -, r -
Packaging
I 158
Heat Transfer 142
INew- Developments
- - . ,, - 159
Convection-Conduction
• I 143 IHome- Freezing
I . - ·-j . I 159
Conduction-Convection 143 Rigid Containers
- - , ·, I. 159
' I I
Radiation 143 Flexible
,-· 1 1- I Bags
- • or Wrappings 160
Protective
I- rEffects
- of Food Constituents
·1 144 Freezer -- rPointers
-i I • 160
Different Temperature-Time I- Foods. .to_ Freeze
r·- -- ·for - Quality 160
ICombinations
' 144 Effect of Freezing
. I . I - on
• I Spices

Organisms 144 and Seasonings I I 160

Thermal Death Curves 145 --- ,- - Management
Freezer 161
DValue 145 Summary
I I I. 162
ZValue 145 Review Questions 162
Time-Temperature Combinations 145 Student Activities 163
low-Acid Foods 145 Additional rResources
- - 163
Heating Before or After Packaging 145 References 163
Still Retort 146
Chapter 11
Agitating Retort 146
Drying and Dehydration 164
Hydrostatic Retort 146
Aseptic Packaging 147 Dehydration 165
Home Canning 148 Drying Curve 167
Food Acidity and Processing Solute Concentration 167
__, ..... _ -
Methods 148 Binding of Water 167
Process Adjustments at Chemical Changes 168
High Altitudes 149 Drying Methods 169
Summary 149 Food Concentration 169
Review Questions 149 Reduced Weight and Volume 170

X CONTENTS

- 'ui. .,, ....- -,

• I -- •.,_ · • - • •• • ~
 Solar Evaporation 170 Uses of Fermentation 188
Open Kettles 171 Fermented Dairy Products 188
Flash Evaporators 171 Bread Making 189
Thin-Film Evaporators 171 Pickling 189
Vacuum Evaporators 172 Processed Mea1s 190
Freeze Concentration 172 Vinegar 190
Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis 172 Wine Making 191
Home Drying 173 Brewing 191
Food Dehydrators 173 Microorganisms as Foods 192
Oven Drying 173 Genetic Engineering and
Room Drying 173 Biotechnology 192
Sun Drying 173 Chymosin (Rennin) 193
Summary 175 Bovine Somatotropin (BST) 193
Review Questions 175 Tomatoes 193
Student Activities 175 Cloning 193
Additional Resources 176 GMO Debate 193
References 176 The Future 194
Summary 195
Chapter 12 Review Questions 195
Radiant and Electrical Energy 178 Student Activities 195
Food Irradiation 179 Additional Resources 196
Food Irradiation Process 179 References 196
Approved Uses for Food Irradiation 180 Endnotes 196
Applications for Food Irradiation 180
Chapter 14
Nutritional Quality of Irradiated
Foods 181 Food Additives 198
Regulation of Food Irradiation 181 Reasons for Use 199
Microwave Heating 181 Preservatives 203
Food-Processing Applications 183 Nutritional Additives 204
Ohmic (Electrical) Heating 183 Color Modifiers 205
Summary 184 Flavoring Agents 207
Review Questions 184 Texturing Agents 207
Student Activities 185 Acidulants 208
Additional Resources 185 Fat Replacers 208
References 185 Irradiation 208
Endnote 185 Hazards 209
Summary 209
Chapter 13 Review Questions 210
Fermentation, Microorganisms, Student Activities 210
and Biotechnology 186 Additional Resources 211
Fermentations 187 References 211
Benefits 187 Endnote 211
Control 187
CONTENTS xi

" ..
Chapter 15
'! Homogenization 231
Packaging 212 Beverage Milk 231
Nutritional
., 'j- - Qualities
I ' --
231
Types of
I Containers
I . i 213
Quality Control During Processing 232
Food-Packaging Materials and Forms
I - -· 213
I • (

Packaging 232
Metals 213
Milk
11· Products
I - l - r ·.I
and By-Products 232
Glass 214
Butter 233
Paper 214
Plastics 215
r ,·- · r -·,- -
Concentrated and Dried Dairy
Products 235
Laminates ..
215
'. '
Condensed Buttermilk 236
Reto
I
I table Pouches
r
I
.
216
: •I
238
Cheese
Edible
I' I Films
I 216
: •I
Yogu r t 240
Package Testing 216
: , I ,- ..
241
.. Ice
I - - Cream
I I
I-
Packages .
I 1 Features 218
:
j

I
' with Special 1 I-
.. QualIi"ity Products
I -- I ' , • 242
Environmental
•I I I I
''Considerations 218l Milk 243
ill Substitutes
' - ,.I
Innovations
11 in Packaging
I I .
219
••I
Reduced
r- I r- Products
Fat 1 - 1.
,.244..
Summary
:I 220 Milk Quality r ---
I II Evaluation
I · I and Flavor
Review Questions 220 Defects 244
Student Activities 221 FFA Milk Quality
I ' andI • 1Products
·- I - • Career

Additional
' i Resources
11 I I I 221 Development
- 1- 1 -· Event
r ·-1 · 244
References 221 Summary 245
IEndnote
1 1 I 221 - .
Review• Questions
I 245
Student Activities
'·- ,. .
246
Additional
. i'1 I I I IResources 246
SECTION THREE
I- •

References 246
FOODS AND FOOD IEndnotes
r ,- 247
PRODUCTS 223
Chapter 17
Chapter 16 Meat 248
Milk 224 Meat and Meat Products 249
- '
Fluid Milk 225 Government Oversight
- r - .-' . 250
Legal Description 225 Grading 250
Production Practices 225 Grading Formulas 251
Grades and Classes of Milk 226 Value-Based Beef Pricing 251
Factors Necessary to Produce Dressing Percentage 252
Quality Milk 226 Slaughtering Practices 252
Mastitis Detection and Control 227 Wholesale and Retail Cuts of Meat 253
,-
Quality Control on the Farm 227 Structure and Composition of Meat 256
- j"- - -
Milk Pricing Economics and Trends 229 Meat Products Formulations 256
Processing 229 Chilling 257
Pasteurizing 229 Aging of Meat 257
Identifying Diseases Transmitted to Tenderizing 258
Consumers Through Milk 230
Muscle Identification 258
Butterfat 230

xii CONTENTS

• I -- •,,_- • -
 Curing 261 Review Questions 285
Color 262 Student Activities 285
Smoking 262 Additional Resources 286
Meat Specialties 262 References 286
Freezing 262
Storage 263 Chapter 19
Cooking 263 Fish and Shellfish 288
FFA Meats Evaluation and Technology Fish and Shellfish: Saltwater
Career Development Event 263 and Freshwater 289
Meat Substitutes 265 Fishing Versus Culture 289
Summary 265 Aquaculture 289
Review Questions 265 Composition, Flavor, and Texture 290
Student Activities 266 Spoilage 290
Additional Resources 266 Processing 292
References 267 Aquaculture Processing 292
Inspection 293
Chapter 18 Quality 293
Poultry and Eggs 268 Grading 294
Poultry Production 269 Products 295
Processing 270 Preservation 295
Processing Steps 271 Shellfish 296
Meat Properties 272 Fish By-Products 296
Grading 274 Roe 296
Products 276 Storage 296
EGGS 278 New Products 297
Caged Layers in California 278 Summary 298
Processing 278 Review Questions 298
Formation and Structure 278 Student Activities 298
Composition 279 Additional Resources 299
Grading 280 References 299
FFA Poultry Evaluation Career Endnote 299
Development Event 281
Quality Factors of Eggs 282 Chapter 20
Evaluation of Egg Interior Cereal Grains, Legumes,
and Exterior Quality 283 and Oilseeds 300
FFA Meats Evaluation and
Technology Career Cereal Grains 301
Development Event 283 General Structure and Composition 301
Storage 284 Starch 302
Fertile Eggs 284 Properties of Starch 302
Organic Eggs 284 Factors Requiring Control 303
Egg Substitutes 284 Handling of Cooked Starch 304
Summary 285 Weeping 304

CONTENTS xiii

" ..
 Milling of Grains 304 Soy Nuts 322
Classes of Wheat 306 Soy Oil and Products 322
Grades of Flour 307 Soy Sprouts 322
Types of White Flour 307 Tempeh 322
Enriched Flour 308 Tofu and Tofu Products 322
Gluten 308 Soy-Based Whipped Toppings 323
Other Flours 309 Summary 323
Rice 310 Review Questions 323
Corn Refining 310 Student Activities 324
Inspection and Cleaning 310 Additional Resources 324
Steeping 310 References 324
Germ Separation 311 Endnote 325
Fine Grinding and Screening 311
Starch Separation 311 Chapter 21
Syrup Conversion 311 Fruits and Vegetables 326
Fermentation 312 Types of Fruit 327
Bioproducts 312 Vegetable Properties and Structural
Breakfast Cereals 312 Features 327
Principles of Baking 313 General Composition 328
Legumes 314 Fresh Vegetable Labels 328
Nutritional Composition 317 Fresh Fruit Labels 328
Legume Products 317 Activities of Living Systems 329
Soybeans 318 Plant Tissues 330
Green Vegetable Soybeans 318 Harvesting 331
Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein 318 Ripening 331
Infant Formulas. Soy-Based 320 Appearance 332
Lecithin 320 Texture 332
Meat Alternatives (Meat Analogs) 320 Flavor 333
Netto 320 Quality Grades for Fresh Vegetables 334
N ondairy Soy Frozen Dessert 320 Quality Grades for Canned and
Frozen Vegetables 334
Soy Cheese 320
Quality Grades for Fresh Fruit 335
Soy Fiber (Okara. Soy Bran.
and Soy Isolate Fiber) 321 Quality Grades for Canned
and Frozen Fruits 335
Soy Flour 321
Country of Origin Labeling 336
Soy Grits 321
Post-Harvest 337
Soy Protein Concentrate 321
Processing Fruits 338
Soy Protein Isolates (Isolated
Soy Protein) 321 Canned Fruits 344
Soy Protein. Textured 321 Frozen Fruits 344
Soy Sauce 322 Fruit Juices 344
Soy Yogurt 322 Processing Vegetables 344
Soy Milk and Soy Beverages 322 Canned Vegetables 351
Soy Nut Butter 322 Frozen Vegetables 351

xiv CONTENTS

"
 By-Products 351 Invert Sugar 375
Biotechnology 352 Caramelization 376
Summary 352 Corn Syrups and Other Sweeteners 377
Review Questions 353 Fructose and Fructose Products 378
Student Activities 353 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 378
Additional Resources 353 Cocoa 378
References 354 Milk Chocolate 379
Confectionery Manufacturing Practices 379
Chapter 22 Enrobing 381
Fats and Oils 356 Standards 381
Effects of Composition on Fat Properties 357 Sugar Substitutes 381
Sources of Fats and Oils 360 Labeling 382
Functional Properties of Fats 360 Summary 383
Production and Processing Methods 360 Review Questions 383
Degumming 362 Student Activities 383
Alkali Refining 362 Additional Resources 384
Bleaching 362 References 384
Winterization (Fractionation) 362 Endnotes 385
Hydrogenation 362
Deodorization 362 Chapter 24
lnteresterification 363 Beverages 386
Products Made from Fats and Oils 363 Carbonated Nonalcoholic Beverages 387
Monoglycerides and Diglycerides 364 Sweeteners 388
Fat Substitutes 364 Flavors 388
Protein-Based Fat Replacers 365 Colors 388
Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 365 Acid 388
Fat-Based Fat Replacers 365 Water 388
Lipid (Fat and Oil) Analogs 367 Carbon Dioxide 389
Tests on Fats and Oils 368 Mixing 389
Summary 369 Noncarbonated Herbal and Healthful
Review Questions 369 Beverages 389
Student Activities 369 Hi-C® 389
Additional Resources 370 Gatorade• 390
References 370 SoBe 390
Endnotes 371 Snapple• 391
Bottled Water 392
Chapter 23 Alcoholic Beverages 393
Candy and Confectionery 372 Beer 393
Sources of Sugar 373 Wine 394
Sugar-Based Confectionery 374 Coffee 396
Composition 374 Coffee Substitutes 396
Ingredients 374 Tea 397

CONTENTS xv

" ..
 Processing 397 Bacteria 421
Blended and Unblended Varieties 397 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 421
Instant Tea and Bottled Tea 397 Food 422
Herbal Tea 398 Acidity 422
Summary 400 Temperature 422
Review Questions 400 Time 422
Student Activities 400 Oxygen 422
Additional Resources 401 Moisture 422
References 401 Fat Tom 422
Endnote 402 Microbiological Methodology 425
Processing and Handling 425
Good Manufacturing Practices 426
SECTION FOUR Rodents. Birds. and Insects 427
RELATED ISSUES 405 Cleaning and Sanitizing 428
Cleaning 428
Chapter 25
Sanitation 428
Environmental Concerns
Regulatory Considerations 430
and Processing 406
HACCP and Food Safety 430
Water In Food Production 407 Biotechnology 433
Properties and Requirements Genetically Modified Foods 434
of Processing Waters 407
FFA Food Science and Technology
Environmental Concerns 407 Career Development Event 437
Disposal of Solid Wastes 408 Summary 437
Properties of Wastewaters 410 Review Questions 437
Wastewater Treatment 411 Student Activities 438
Lowering Discharge Volumes 411 Additional Resources 438
Responsibility 412 References 439
Summary 412 Endnotes 439
Review Questions 413
Student Activities 413 Chapter 27
Additional Resources 413 Regulation and Labeling 440
References 414 Federal Food. Drug. and Cosmetic Act 441
Additional Food Laws 441
Chapter 26
Legal Categories of Food Substances 442
Food Safety 416
Testing for Safety 442
Safety, Hazards, and Risks 417 Quality Assurance 443
Food-Related Hazards 417 Food Labeling 443
Cross-Contamination 418 Foods Affected 444
High-Risk Foods and Individuals 418 Exemptions 444
Microorganisms 421 Restaurant Nutritional Labeling 447
Viruses 421 Nutrition Panel Title 449
Parasites 421 Serving Sizes 449
Fungi 421

xvi CONTENTS

" ..
 Nutrition Information 450 Review Questions 477
Nutrition Panel Format 450 Student Activities 478
Daily Values-DRVs 453 Additional Resources 478
Nutrient Content Descriptions 453 References 478
Other Definitions 455 Endnotes 479
Proposed Revisions to the Nutritional
Facts Label 456 Chapter 29
USDA's Meat Grading Program 458 Food and Health 480
Health Claims 458 Food and Disease 481
Ingredient Labeling 458 Obesity 482
Formulation and Costing 460 Possible Cancer Prevention 486
Factors in Packaging Design 460 Type 2 Diabetes 489
FFA Food Science Career Development Sleep Problems 491
Event 461
Digestive Disorders 493
Summary 462
Gas 493
Review Questions 462
Heartburn 494
Student Activities 462
Lactose Intolerance 494
Additional Resources 463
Peptic Ulcer Disease 495
References 463
Diarrhea 496
Endnotes 463
Constipation 497
Chapter 28 Diverticular Disease, Celiac
Disease. Crohn's Disease.
World Food Needs 464 and Pancreatitis 497
World Food Hunger and Malnutrition 465 Eating Disorders 500
Causes of Hunger 466 Anorexia Nervosa 501
Fighting the Problem 469 Bulimia Nervosa 501
Step l: More Self-Sufficiency 470 Binge-Eating Disorder 501
Step 2: Check Farming Regulations 470 Food Allergies 502
Step 3: Proper Storage 471 Dental Caries or Tooth Decay 502
Step 4: Check Food Aid 471 Phytonutrients 503
Step 5: Work Together 471 Nutraceuticals 503
Step 6: Prevent Waste 471 Herbs 504
Step 7: Pay Off Debt 471 What Are Herbs? 504
Roles of Technology 471 Research on Herbs 504
Resource Management 471 Regulation of Herbal Supplements 507
Protection of Crops 472 Using Caution 507
Genetic Improvement 472 Nutrigenomics 508
Global Action 473 Components of Food 509
World Food Summit 473 Fruits and Vegetables 509
World Food Summit Plan of Action 473 Whole Grains 509
Hunger Agencies and Organizations 474 Protein 510
Summary 477 Fats and Oils 510

CONTENTS )(VII

" ..
 Bad Diets, Good Diets 511 Food-Industry Supervised Agricultural
What to Eat 511 Experience 532
Balancing Calories 512 Getting a Job 532
Summary 512 Application Forms 532
Review Questions 514 Letters of Inquiry and Application 533
Student Activities 514 Resume or Data Sheet 534
Additional Resources 515 The Interview 534
References 515 Follow-Up Letters 535
Occupational Safety 536
Chapter 30 Summary 538
Careers in Food Science 516 Review Questions 538
General Skills and Knowledge 517 Student Activities 538
Basic Skills 517 Additional Resources 539
Thinking Skills 518 References 540
General Workplace Competencies 519 Endnotes 540
Information Technology 520
Appendix A
Personal Qualities 521
Review of Chemistry 542
Entrepreneurship 521
Jobs and Courses in the Food Industry 522
Appendix B
Education and Experience 523
Reference Tables 552
Identifying a Job 523
Food Inspection and Safety 523
Appendix C
Food-Service Industry 524
Harvesting and Storing Fruits,
Food Retail and Wholesale Industry 528
Nuts. and Vegetables 630
Research and Development 529
Food Scientist and Related Scientists 530 Glossary/Glosario 636
Marketing and Communications 530
Index 670
Others 531

xviii CONTENTS

" ..
Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems, Second Edition, is designed for high
school agriscience and consumer science programs and for postsecondary students
enrolled in a food science course. It is an excellent overview for anyone interested in
attaining a basic understanding of food science.
As the title suggests, science is an important component of the book. Food science
as understood by humans represents a specific body of knowledge that approaches
and solves problems by the scientific method-a continuous cycle of observations,
hypotheses, predictions, experiments, and results. The science of food science is em­
phasized throughout the book.

HOW THIS TEXT IS ORGANIZED

Introduction to Food Science & Food Systems makes teaching easy. The information
is divided into four basic sections, and chapters are based on a thorough, easy-to­
follow outline.
Section I: Introduction and Back g round provides the necessary
background information for understanding the science of foods. This
includes an introduction to the industry, a new chapter on food systems
and sustainability, the chemistry of foods, nutrition and digestion, food
composition and quality, unit operations, and food deterioration. These
chapters are the foundation.
• Section II: Preservation groups the chapters that relate to methods of food
preservation, including heat, cold, drying, radiant and electrical energy,
fermentation, microorganisms, biotechnology, chemicals, and packaging.
These chapters are the basics of food science.
Section III: Foods and Food Products includes chapters on milk, meat,
poultry and eggs, fish and shellfish, cereal grains, legumes and oilseeds, fruits
and vegetables, fats and oils, candies and sweets, and beverages. These chapters
are the application of food science.

PREFACE xix

r
I I
 Section IV: Related Issues includes chapters that cover environmental
concerns, food safety, regulations and labeling, world food needs, and career
opportunities as well as a new chapter on food as it relates to health. These
chapters represent the challenges of food science.

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION OIJECTIVU

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and help learners identify key concepts and infor­ -- - .... ----·
_____
SOISORY IV.WU.TION -...__-......,.,,....
... ....
,.._,,fMI_..,,_. _ _ _
........______
...... _..._.
___ ,. ~

mation. Also included are National Agricultural

-·----
----------- __ ...-1------
__ ..........-- ,,,_
~""~---c...---.--.
_
............... . . . t--- ...

Education Standards Correlations that highlight ----.--

,. ._...
.... __ .... ... ----,.-...-r-
.......... ......,.__
1..
...... . >-------------~
.,.... __., .........
........ -. ·-
-..,.~---•
________
-......................
.......
..,..,....,..
-.--...,._ ,..
~

. .-...., -~----
.
the specific core competency that is met through .......
--~---.....-~-"' -~--"""--
-..----~--- ...-
e-------·
-----...
------ ---------­
-"' ~

successful completion of each chapter.

.............. rf""""II,.._, __ •tu.t,•1•--.....---

.... ___
_..
ICIINCl COJtH.1C1TON1

.. --........
--- __
APPLICATION is emphasized throughout with en­
...--
·----.. --------
.............
."-�-�...
-�, .. ____ "" ........ ._ --.

_--...........
� ,OCIDB

­
.. ·- .... .._
..,...,.,,,
gaging Math and Science Connection activities ,...,
.,......... �- .-.

-.
..
integrated into each chapter and a set of Review ...,...,.._,�---...-
.-. ....,.,..._ ...
-- ........... ....... ...,_ ... ..,., ::: �
_.,..a,......,_ .......----'-----------,
Questions and Student Activities to conclude
___
------
.__ .,...

.._...............
.. .. ..
__._
'
each chapter. __ ___
...,t...._..._
........ __
......
,.-.r
,_..,..
,..'"'... .. --·--------
--.-----
.,..,...._ ... __ '""

FURTHER LEARNING is encouraged, with engag­

ing articles highlighting interesting tidbits about
the industry-whether historical insights, fun facts, or a synopsis of an
emerging food trend-and a list of Additional Resources at the end of
each chapter to inspire students to learn more about specific topics. ·--------­
---··•�"""---""
----.;i ..... ,�-­
.., ........... __ _,_ ... ••'Q
•-- I ..... •qJU -1' 1:)

HIGHLY ILLUSTRATED, and now in full color, the text is accompanied by

many tables, charts, graphs, photos, and illustrations to assist further
understanding of the topics under discussion.
ROBUST APPENDICES reinforce topics learned in the chapters and of­
fer valuable reference materials. Appendix A contains a review of the
chemistry behind food science for those students who require additional learnjng in
this area. Appendix B includes a multitude of reference tables, in particular the Food
Composition Table, which provides specific nutrient information of different foods.
It also features another list oflnternet resources so that students can expand on their
learning of specific food-science topics. Appendix C covers the details of harvesting
and storing fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Also included is a combined Glossary and
Glosario that provides terms and definitions in both English and Spanish.

xx PREFACE

:J
NEW
I I TO THIS
I: IEDITION
I I
CURRENT INFORMATION,
I including new chapter
I I ; on
I the
I' food y tern and 'Iu •-
ta inability and food
I and health, along with aj new
1 ection on geneti ally engineered
fo d , will keep tudent . in ,· know about. signifi
ii the '
. cant indu try trend .
ALL-NEW,
I I FULL-COLORI DESIGN
I I . .-r'
tfea•turing photo , chart
' - , graph., and illu- tration I - •

that
I : vi · I ·1ually
• demon trate food production
l •I and pro
- :e 1 te
I - : hnique
I I- to
f . engage
I - tu­
I •

dent i .. ational Agricultural Education Standard Correlation are highlighted at

I _, , - • , r -, : 1 - r - 1 I . .
the tart
I f ea h chapter to I - address
l core- competencie
I - , whil .. MATHI and SCIENCE
- I
CONNECTION
I I ACTIVITIES throughoutI .- - the chapters encourage
I I I tudent - • to
1- demon-
' "j
trate
I the
I ' I eI kill
t 1] in
11 theI context
I I of
I food science.

I I I I · ,to FFA CAREER

ALIGNED 1 1 DEVELOPMENT
I I I - I ·1I - EVENTS
I ' I - (CDEs),
1- I wh
r r
I :, applicable,
' f •
to
1 lhelp
,- ., , • I
I ..

student focuI , OJn important

ii I ., jobI skills
'

ADDITIONAL
I I RESOURCES,
II I I I' including
I a listI of
I valuabl
• I ·: I and r levant Web ite in
_,
each chapter,I encourage
I tudent to further
, , 5 I I explore
I pecific fo d-indu try topic .

GLOSSARY
I I and GLOSARIO provides
i terms and definiti n in Engli hand panish.
I
I • T

EXTENSIVE
' I TEACHING AND LEARNING
rI 11

PACKAGE
I I

NEW! COMPANION SITE

Instructor Re ource are availableI on
t the Companion
I - ite t accompany Food
ienc & Food ystems, econd Edition, to facilitate teaching and learning. 111i ite
offer FREE, ecur acce to the following re ource :

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS includes the answer to all end-of-chapter que tion to

validate learning.

LESSON PLANS that outline the key concepts in each chapter, along with orrela­
tion t th e c rre ponding PowerPoint• presentation , pr vid t ol for classroom
in tru Ction.

POWERPOIN PRESENTATIONS map the Les on Plan and include photo and
illu tration to reinforce learning. This feature i only al availabl to tudent for
important lf-r iew.

COGNERO ONLINE TESTING system include quiz que lion for each chapter,
providing he ability to:

Author, dit, and manage test-bank content from multiple r ource

• reat e multiple te t ver ion in an in tant
Deliver te t from instructor- or institution- pecific LM r cla room

IMAGE GALLERY, c ntaining all the images from the bo k, nable in tructor to
nhanc cla r om presentation or review key concept and in£ nnation.

PREFACE XJC.I
NEW! MINDTAP FOR INTRODUCTION
TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS.
SECOND EDITION
The MindTap for I11trodu tion to Food Science & Food '}'Stems, ond Edition, fea­
ture an integrat Cd cour e offering a complete digital experience fi r b th tudent and
teacher . Thi MindTap i highly customizable and combine a ignment , video ,
interactivitie , lab exerci es and quizzes along with the enhan ed -b ok to enable
student to directly analyze and apply what they are learning as weII a all 0 w teacher
to mea ure kill and outcome with ease.
• A Guide: Rel vant interactivities combined with prescribed reading , featur d
multimedia, and quizzing to evaluate progres will guid tudent from basic
knowledg and mprehen ion to analysis and application.
Per onalized Teaching: Teachers are able to control cour ·e c ntent-hiding,
rearranging exi ting content or adding and creating their own content to meet
the need of their pecific programs.
Promote Better Outcome : Through relevant and engaging content,
a ignment , and activitie , tudents are able to build the c n.fid nce they need
to ultimately chart a cour e to uccess. Likewise, teacher are able to view
analytic and rep rt that pro V idea snapshot of cla progre , time in cour e,
engagement, and completion rates.

xxll PREFACE

"
Without the upport of my wife Marilyn, any of the writing I have d ne would still
be a dream or idea. I have di covered, writing require the goodwill and support
of an under landing pouse. Our marriage ha thrived for 47 year , and it continue
trong. Marilyn i a friend who critique ideas, type part f the manu ripts, write
qu e tion and an wer , organize artwork, take s ph 0 tograph , and che ks format.
he i a partn r in the production of a text and in all other a p ct of my life.
Finally, 1 appre iate the upport, under tanding help, and en ouragement of icole
Robin n, Jennifer tarr, and the rest of the Cengage team.
A ah ay , we wi h to expre sour sincere appreciation t tho e who have contributed
to th dev I pm nt of thi and past edition :
Daniel Andrew Diane Ryberg
Wauneta-Pali ade High School Eau Clair orth High chool
Waun ta, bra ka Eau Claire, Wi con in
R y rawford Dr. Janelle Walter
Lanca ter High School Baylor Univer ity
Lan a ter• �exa Waco, Texa

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxlll

C
 RICK PARKER
R. 0. (Rick) Parker grew up on an irrigated farm in outhern Idaho.
Hi I of agriculture guided hi education. tarting at Brigham
Y0 ung niver ity, he received hj bachelor' d gre and th n moved
to Ame , Iowa, where he fini hed hi PhD in animal phy iology at
Iowa tate Uni er ity. After completing hi PhD, he and hi wife,
Marilyn, and their children moved to Edmonton, lberta, anada,
where he completed a po tdoctorate at the Univer ity of Alberta. Hi n t mov wa
to Laramie, Wy ming, wh re he wa a re earch and teaching a o iate at the Univer­
sity of Wy ming. fter Wyoming, he moved to Clovi , alifornia, where he wrote
with Dr. M. . En minger, author of numerous early animal cience textbook .
Returning to Idah , th author erved as divi ion director and in tru tor at the College
of outh rn Idaho for 19 year . He then worked a director for AgrowKnowledge, the
ati nal enter for Agriscience and Technology Education, a project funded by the
ational cien e Foundation. Currently, he is president of th e National Agricultural
In titute and the dir tor of the North American College and Tea her f Agriculture
( A TA). In addition, he is the editor of the peer-reviewed NA TA Journal, which
focu e n the ch lar hip of teaching and learning and he teach bi logy, food
cience, and animal cience for the College of outhern Idaho. Dr. Parker i also the
author f the £ llowing engage Learning texts: Aquaculture cien Ce, Introduction to
Plant ience, Fundamentals of Plant and oil Science, and Equin e cience. He i al o the
co-author of Fundamentals of Plant cience.
IRIAH PACE
iriah Pace is currently a board memb r and a i tant editor
ational Agricultural In titute. H r r le include d V el­
oping and maintaining eb ite , d veloping Curriculum and
editing th peer-re iewed ACTA Journal for the orth American
II ge and Teachers of Agriculture. he al o rv a a tea hing
a i tant for a College of Southern Idaho cla s , Fo d y t m and

xxlv ABOUT THE AUTHORS

C
.
.r
 cienee. iriah joined the taff of the ational Agricultural In titute in July 2012
and i urrently working toward her bachelor's degree.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
For the econd edition, we were fortunate to find two talented individual to a i tin
reV i ing the ontent. We gratefully acknowledge their contribution .
FARRAH JOHNSON
Farrah J hn on i the Agriscience Educator at Deltona High ch ol in Deltona,
Florida. Ms. John on arned her BS in Agricultural Educati0 n from th Univer ity of
Florida and her M from Mi si sippi State University als in Agricultural Education.
Ms. John on began working with food-science curriculum through a grant project
with ornell Univer ity, the University of Florida, and the Univer ity of alifornia­
Davi early in her teaching career. She now teaches food- cience c 0 ur e a part of
th agri ulture program at Deltona High School. Farrah i · active in the profe sional
organization for agricultural education and works with new agriculture teacher in
Florida. he erved a pre ident of the ational As ociati 0 n of Agri ultura1 Educa­
tor in 2012-2013 and erved a 2-year term on the Nati nal F A Board of Director
a a tak eholder. he ha erved in numerou role for the Flori.da ociation of
Agricultural Educator during her teaching career.
LEVI CAHAN
Levi ahan ha a di tingui hed background in live to k production from year
of training and ducating other a we11 a being elf-employ d a a farmer. He i
the l ad Agriculture Educator at chuylerville High chool in up tate ew York,
wher he in truct and manages tudent learning in everal agri ulturaJ ubject
with a focu on animal cience. He received hi B in Animal cience and hi
M in Agricultural Education from Cornell University. H e al o tudi ed abroad in
ew Z aland at Lincoln University, specializing in animal cienc and rotational
grazing practice . Mr. Cahan stays active in agriculture and edu Cation as an FFA
advi 0 r; he ha erved on the New York State FFA Governing Board a a trustee, a
a trustee� r th e NY AAE, and currently as the chairman of the NY FFA Founda­
tion board, and he i a member of the YS Beef Council. He ha al o contributed
to other engage title , including serving as author of the Modern Livestock and
Poultry Production Lab Manual, i_nth Edition.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ltXV

" ..
 .
,...
,
\.
..
r • • �• �" .ii ffl818f llll
SECTION One
 Introduction
and Background
Chapter 1 Overview
i of Food Science
I

Chapter 2 I I r n,• --
Food System and Sustainability
r , I

Chapter 3 Chemistry of Foods

Chapter4 Nutrition and Digestion
Chapter 5 Food Composition
Chapter 6 Quality Factors rin Foods
Chapter 7 Unit Operations
in Food Processing
Chapter 8 Food Deterioration

, ..,
•• n req1u 1011
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name
' I theI four
I parts
I : of .- I ' I
' the food- iindustry
allied industry
• Describe
·1 consumerI food
' - I buying trends I
consumer
'
. IDivide
I the
. I food IIindustry
l ' J by major product
I- , • lines
I distribution

• Compare
' I I ,-
spending for food in
11 the IUnited - -,
I r· . States
,-
expenditures
to .that
I in
11 other countries manufacturi
·r ng
• List four consumption
I ' I I trends
I '
marketi
' - ng

• ,-
Discuss trends in
11 consumer meal purchases
I -
per capita
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Name
' I theI four
I parts
I : of .- I ' I
' the food- iindustry
allied industry
• Describe
·1 consumerI food
' - I buying trends I
consumer
'
. IDivide
I the
. I food IIindustry
l ' J by major product
I- , • lines
I distribution

• Compare
' I I ,-
spending for food in
11 the IUnited - -,
I r· . States
,-
expenditures
to .that
I in
11 other countries manufacturi
·r ng
• List four consumption
I ' I I trends
I '
marketi
' - ng

• ,-
Discuss trends in
11 consumer meal purchases
I -
per capita
production
• Identify allied industries
tariffs
• Explain the international scope of the food industry
trends

NATIONAL AFNR STANDARD

FPP.04
Explain lhe scope of the food industry and the historical and
current developments of food product and processing.
 .
N
o ImatteIr Iwhere people Ilive- or whatr jthey
I many. I .. I6I Id" ;are. Ibeing . ' .- Iproces
.- - ed into ready-to­
do. they are food consumers - . We con­
- t -
Ieat
., jpr- duCl', t , Imore . . · 1 - . manufacturing i
-r !specialized
'
sume food on ia Idaily basis so- 'we- Imake I• 1required.
- lDistribution deals with tho- fe ;-aspect ---
choices every day about what 1foods - to- IpuIr·­ conduciv- Ito Iproduct .. lale
r - ),, iincludi
- n.-g r-product .-· Ifor. ­
chase and consume based on a 'variety - .., r' of -· '
mation, weighing and- lbulk, ,transportation, ------- and
,-
needs and wants. Consumers vote eveIry• Iday -
,-
..
-, . I . IMarketing- ·' - r - -
• - 1 -

torag Irequjrem . r- lnt and stability

in the marketplace with their dollars, and the
'
market Ilistens
' carefully to their votes. A Icontinu­
I I

-1 ' I
i 1th Iel,.ling
i)
.,
I
of Ifil ds and iinvolves __ , -- - •. 1 r r ;; r.
whole ale, rre­·-

ous feedback exists from consumers rrespond­ - tail, in titutional,

I . and 1- re 1· taurant
· - -, · :-·· ales ,-i-··r-
(Figure -.-· 1-1).
ing to Iofferings by marketers who rare trying
, I - I • Markw!ting Iii 1'th Iegment
I I .-1 -- that consumers are mo•ft
1· -· 1· · - r · - - ; r· ..
ived 'wants ..
irinvolved with. Adverti ing through television, print,
to meet the lperce of Iconsumers.
.
IPrice. availabil i
I
I i i ty.
l health,
I ' 'and
- 1

I l
-1
convenience and .
ial mediaI ·1 i; ,a :multibill
l J ~ J ion-dollar effort 1that
- - _,--r -ri-•--r· ' _,

are all factors that affect personalI Ipurchas­ r-' food companie . l i - 1use: - Ito r·reach-' 1consumers.
- · · T · ·· · .

ing choices. Changes i n the makeup- Iof the

'
population. lifestyles. iincomes.
I

' I I and
I
I
I
att itudes The ·,
' Ie four divi ion are not clear-cut and often
- : - - J I . I - - - . ,- ·•' ; -1 I_, .. -r

l overlap n another. For example, ·- r-~·-. ·when ' -- Ifarmers

-- -
on food safety, hea th. and convenience j- I -
have
l i r- take th ir rop to a farmer's market, distribu­
--': -- . J - -j ' ,• •
drastical y altered the cond tions facing the
I - - ."
- I
I
producers and Imarketers I of 'food - ,-
I
Iproducts. I - ti n and marketing merge
I' -- ,,into · - r'the same
---- 1--1category.
-
r' -
Food manufacturers and distributors- Iwork - e erth l the food industry require planning
·r· r· · ' -
hard to meet 'changing
I Iconsumer
-I demands.

PARTS OF THE FOOD

INDUSTRY
The fi d indu try i divided into four major
egm nt

1. Pr du ti n
2. Manufacturing and processing
3. Di tribution
4. Mark ting

Production i the raising or growing of plant

and animal pr du t for food consumption. It in­
clude uch indu trie a farming, ranching, orchard
management, fi hing, and aquaculture. TechnoJ­
ogie involved in the production of raw materials
include the ele tion of plant and animal varietie ;
their ultivati n, grO\ th, harvest, and laughter;
and th torage and handling of raw materiaJ .
Manufacturing convert raw agricultural prod­
u t t more r fined or fini hed product . For ex­
ample, peanut are manufactured into hw1dreds of
differ nt pr0 du t , only one of which is peanut but­ FIGURE 1-1 School meals are just another exam­
ter. Manufa turing require many unit operation ple of consumer products that are influenced by
and pr c se that are at the core of food technology. food industry marketers.

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 5

Coiiynght 20 I ""1!'18• L• nu,

...
.... __ ..
... - ~- .
and synchronization in all its divisions to be suc­
cessful. When the entire food system is analyzed,
additional divisions are often included. These are
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
Another way to divide the food industry is
along major product lines:
• at home (Figure 1-3). This compares with 10% for
Cereals and bakery products
Meats, fish, and poultry
•
for food: As income rises, the proportion spent for
food declines (Figure 1-2). The expenditures for
food require a large share of income when income
is relatively low-in any country.
Americans spent only about 6% of their per­
sonal consumption expenditures for food eaten
Canada and 11% for Switzerland. In less developed
countries, such as Kenya and the Philippines, at­

• Dairy products home food expenditures often account for more

• Fruits and vegetables
• Sugars and other sweets
Fats and oils
• onalcoholic beverages
• Alcoholic beverages
These divisions are typically where consumer
consumption is measured and reported.
TRENDS
Although consumers' food spending has increased
considerably over the years, the increase has not
matched the gain in disposable income. As a re­
sult, the percentage of income spent for food has
declined. The decline is the direct result of the
income-inelastic nature of the aggregate demand
than 40% of a household's budget (Table 1-1).
Americans do not have the highest per
capita income (the average Swiss income is
higher). In relation to total per capita personal con­
sumption expenditures, however, Americans spend
the lowest percentage on food. Factors other than
income alone influence food expenditures in de­
veloped nations. Thanks to abundant arable land
and a varied climate, Americans do not have to
rely as heavily on imported foods as do some other
nations. The American farm-to-consumer distri­
bution system is highly successful at moving large
amounts of perishable food over long distances with
a minimum of spoilage or delay. Finally, American
farmers use a tremendous wealth of agricultural in­
formation and state-of-the-art farming equipment.
This allows them to produce food more efficiently.

Food spending and share of income spent on food across

U.S. households, 2013
O Bllreau f Labo,

12,000 40
to d

0
ng,

0
:s
C:
10,000 Spending (left axis)
D Share (right axis) 32 C: .,;
0
d pe

nt

UJ 8,000 Cl.I �"'

0. "'
24 UJ .,,
g I

0 UJ
0 ..
·� �
-..!l! E "'"'
e

6,000
iSo
�,,
-
d,N
0 ·� it
16 (J - >
C: �"" "'�
C:
cu 4,000 u"'
0 «i 5
Average

� -5
C: "" g
�
CX)

2,000 Cl.I -�
...Cl.I
E""'
(J Q -
""'
0. ��
<i.§
0 0 "' �-
0(.)

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest ::,

(11"�
� -E
Income quintile ��
"'"'
FIGURE 1-2 As income rises the proportion spent on food declines.

6 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

e:..
 20
18

16 -�

u•
tu,o Sn
14

l]
Inc me
Total Food
0
12
0 10 ;;:;
C: Food at Home �
Q)
8 ·�
ere

Cl. Jl
6 .c
Food Away from Home

Re.io.,c
4
·�

OA. Econo
2
0L..C.-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'-L-L-'--'-'--'--'--"-'-'-L...L-"-''--'-L...L-"-''--'--'--'--'-'--'--'--'--'-L..C.-'--'-'-L...L-'--'-'-L...L-'--'--'-'�
��*�����������&��
� � � � � � �
� � � � � � � � � � �
�!o.:
FIGURE 1-3 Percent of Disposable Income Spent on Food, 1960-2011. The percentage of income spent on
food at home has steadily declined in recent years.

MATH CONNECTION!
Track your food consumption tor a day. What is the average cost of your consumption in the United
States? Research and compare those costs with another county. How much would it cost for the same
food in that other country?

TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food, Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

United States 6.6 1.9 34,541 2,273

ERS estimate 6,4 1.9 34,541 2,215

Singapore 7.3 2.1 19,398 1.422

United Kingdom 9.1 3.8 24,260 2,214

Canada 9.6 3.4 27.761 2,679

Austria 10.1 3.3 25,908 2,617

Ireland 10.l 5.4 20,093 2,037

(Continues)

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 7

e:..
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages. and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

Australia 10.2 3.6 37.492 3,814

Germany 10.9 3.0 22,762 2.481

Switzerland 11.0 3.5 44,899 4,943

Denmark 11.l 3.8 27,306 3,036

Netherlands 71.6 3.3 20,625 2,388

Finland 12.0 4.7 24.927 3,001

Qatar 72.l 0.3 11,799 1,361

Sweden 12.2 3.7 26,146 3,193

South Korea 72.2 2.2 12.002 1.468

Norway 13.2 4.3 37.146 4,885

France 13.2 3.3 22,945 3,037

Czech Republic 13.3 9.3 9,643 1,279

Hong Kong, China 73.4 1.0 24,060 3,224

Taiwan 13.5 2.1 72.247 7,657

Japan 13.8 2.5 27,761 3,818

Belgium 73.8 3.8 22,208 3,075

Bahrain 73.9 0.4 10,200 7,422

Spain 14.0 3.0 17,713 2.483

Italy 14.2 2.8 20,362 2.892

United Arab Emirates 14.3 0.2 21.206 3,024

New Zealand 14.6 3.0 22.448 3,284

Slovenia 15.3 5.6 13,858 2,125

Brazil 15.9 1.4 7,063 7,723

Israel 15.9 2.6 17,491 2,783

Hungary 16.2 7.5 6,972 1,127

(Continues)

B INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

:J
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages, and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries, 2012 1

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

Chile 16.2 3.0 9,566 1,546

Greece 16.5 4.4 16,652 2,740

Portugal 16,5 3.0 13,473 2,225

Slovakia 16,8 4.9 9,556 1,603

Uruguay 18.3 3.4 10,272 1,878

Colombia 18.4 3.3 4,744 872

Kuwait 18.6 0.5 7,284 1,352

Venezuela 18.6 3.6 7,421 1,378

Latvia 18.8 6.8 8,612 1,619

South Africa 19.4 6.1 4,524 877

Malaysia 19.5 2.5 5,557 1,084

Poland 19.6 6.5 7,773 1,521

Estonia 19.6 8.6 8,923 1,753

Argentina 20.9 4.5 6,595 1,381

Bulgaria 21.2 4.0 4,718 999

Ecuador 21.9 0.9 3,526 771

Turkey 22.2 4.6 7,705 1,708

Costa Rica 23.3 0.4 6,754 1,577

Turkmenistan 23.5 2.0 2,503 589

Dominican Republic 24,5 4.2 5,192 1,272

Mexico 24.9 2.2 6,518 1,625

India 25.2 3.0 871 220

Iran 25.5 0.4 2,744 699

Lithuania 25.7 8.5 9,067 2,331

Saudi Arabia 25.8 0,6 6,220 1,607

China 26.9 3.6 2,149 577

(Continues)

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 9

:J
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages. and Tobacco
Consumed at Home. by Selected Countries. 2012 1

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES

ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE
FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2

COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON

Romania 28.6 3.4 4,827 l.382

Bolivia 28.7 1.9 1,567 450

Uzbekistan 31.0 2.5 908 281

Croatia 31.4 3.7 9,078 2,847

Bosnia-Herzegovina 31.4 6.3 4,057 1,275

Russia 31.6 7.8 6.709 2,120

Thailand 32.0 4.7 3,177 1,016

Jordan 32.2 4.5 3,743 1,205

Indonesia 33.4 5.4 1,964 655

Macedonia 34.4 3.5 3,626 1,247

Kazakhstan 35.l 2.6 5,483 1.925

Tunisia 35.5 1.0 2,660 943

Vietnam 35.9 2.8 962 345

Belarus 36.l 8.1 3,091 1,115

Peru 36.5 6.1 4,126 1,507

Ukraine 37.0 6.7 2,779 1,028

Guatemala 37.9 1.5 2,878 1,091

Nigeria 39.5 2.5 966 381

Georgia 40.4 5.1 2,663 1,076

Morocco 40.5 1.3 1,921 777

Azerbaijan 42.7 2.0 2,862 1,222

Egypt 42.7 2.2 2,410 1,030

Philippines 42.8 1.2 1,925 823

Algeria 43.7 2.0 1,749 764

(Continues)

10 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION

:J
TABLE 1-1 Percent of Consumer Expenditures Spent on Food. Alcoholic Beverages. and Tobacco
Consumed at Home, by Selected Countries, 2012 1

SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES "'0 �"'

��
s= -"

ALCOHOLIC _g I
1i:i1ij
BEVERAGES CONSUMER EXPENDITURE 2 5
"'"'
C •c

FOOD 2 AND TOBACCO EXPENDITURES 3 ON FOOD 2 !i

� .5
�E
COUNTRY/TERRITORY PERCENT U.S. DOLLARS PER PERSON � '§-..
·,;; Eg
��wg
��
Kenya 44.8 2.8 782 350 � _g -�
1-------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------t�se
Cameroon 45,9 2.2 921 423 �- �:
j i�
1---------------+---------+---------+---------+------------1 � -� �
�-----------�--------�--------�--------�-------���-=
Pakistan 47,7 1.0 871 415
NA = Not available.
'Data were computed based on Euromonitor International data extracted July 2013.
'Includes nonalcoholic beverages.
'Consumer expenditures include personal expenditures on goods and services. Consumption expenditures in the domestic market are
equal to consumer expenditures by resident households plus direct purchases In the domestic market by nonresident households minus
direct purchases abroad by resident households.
NOTE: Two sets of food-spending figures ore shown for the United States. The first is from the ERS Food Expenditure series and is based on
a comprehensive measure of the total value of all U.S. food expenditures. The second set is based on Euromonitor International Inc. data.
which reports spending on food and nonalcoholic beverages and Consumption Expenditures for 84 countries, including the United States.
The ERS estimate is lower partly because it excludes pet food, ice. and prepared teed, which are included in the food-spending data
published by Euromonitor International.

Consumption trends change over time, and demand both more convenience and higher quality.
this influences what the food industry does in Short-period changes in consumption reflect mostly
terms of production and advertising. According changes in supply rather than changes in consumer
to loss-adjusted food availability data, Americans
are consuming more calories per day than they did
40 years ago. In 1970, Americans consumed an es­ Flour and cereal products provided more calories per day for the
average American than any other food group in 2010 �­
=>
...""
timated 2,109 calories per person per day; by 2010, -� �
oN

e2
Fruit and vegetables and dairy products provided smaller shares of
calories per day for the average American
they were consuming an estimated 2,569 calories
.. ..
.§ �
Fruit and �o�
(after adjusting for plate waste, spoilage, and other vegetables ...,
§e
food losses) (see Figure 1-4). Of this 460-calorie 206
Added fats and oils al.§
="'"
�-'
and dairy lats
increase, grains (mainly refined grains) accounted �= 0
590 w ..

for 180 calories; added fats and oils, 225 calories; ·"'; �E
.c,"
� g
added sugar and sweeteners, 21 calories; dairy fats, Meat, eggs,
and nuts
<00

jf
19 calories; fruits and vegetables, 12 calories; and 545 !:? -g
�%
meats, eggs, and nuts, 16 calories. Only dairy prod­ 8!
.... 0
-""�
ucts declined (13 calories) during the time period. <r "'
���
According to government recommendations from sweeteners ��
::,

400 -g 1
MyPlate, American diets fall short in the consump­ CDS
Noles: Added fats and oils and added sugar and sweeteners are added to foods during B �
processing or preparation. They do not include naturally occurring lats al\d su�rs
tion of fruits, vegetables, and dairy (Figure 1-5). in food (e.g., tats in meat or sugars in fruits),
��
e e:
Food availability data serve as proxies lor food consumption. ��
However, demand for individual foods is more
"' v.

FIGURE 1•4 In 2010 Americans consumed. on aver­

responsive to prices as consumers choose from alter­ age, 2.569 calories per day. This is a considerable
native food commodities. Rising incomes mean con­ increase from 1970 when the average American
sumers spend more on more expensive foods as they consumed only 2.109 calories per day.

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 11

 140

120
My Plate Recommendations 1
100 �-
....
5�
=
::: >-
!l!;;;
E
cQ)
80
o=
.::�
so
"' �
.,, "'
I:! §.�
��
Q)
a. 60 :'"E
.,, 0
= ·-=
u "'

40 ]!
.c �
��

t�JI
5l >-

20

=u.,,0
0 ___.__.....__, � ..f
Meat Grains Vegetables Dairy Fruit fil �

if
::, Jg
1Data based on a 2,000-calorie diet.

Note: Rice and durum flour data were discontinued and thus are
i-;
��
not included in the grains group. Food availability data serve as
proxies for food consumption. ij
"' ia

FIGURE 1-5 American diets are out of balance with dietary recommendations. In 2072, Americans con­
sumed more than the recommended share of meat and grains in their diets but less than the recom­
mended share of fruit dairy. and vegetables.

tastes. Demographic factors, such as changes in
household size and the population's age distribution,
also can bring about changes in consumption.
Away-from-home meals and snacks now capture
almost half (45%) of the U.S. food dollar. This is up
from 34% in 1970. Fast food accounts for the largest
and fastest rising share of sales in the food industry.
Sales in fast-food industries now outpace sales in
full-service restaurants. The top five U.S. fast-food
chains and their sales are shown in Table 1-2.
The number of fast-food restaurant outlets in the
United States has risen steadily since 1970. People
want quick and convenient meals. They do not want
to spend a lot of time preparing meals, traveling to

TABLE 1·2 Top 5 Restaurant Chains: U.S. Sales

-----------------------
$ MILLION
RANK CHAIN SEGMENT 2011 2010 2009

l McDonald's Sandwich 34,172 32,395 31,033

2 Subway Sandwich 11.434.0 10,633 9,999
3 Starbucks Coffee Beverage-snack 8,490 7,955 7.415
4 Burger King Sandwich 8,131 8.433 8,799
5 Wendy's Sandwich 8,108 7,943 8,023
NOTES: The rankings are based on U.S. system-wide food service sales. Including company-store and franchised-unit sales. for the latest
full fiscal years ended closest to December of the years listed.
• Tied results are given the same rank.
• The year 2011 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2011.
• The year 2010 reftects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2010.
• The year 2009 reflects data for chain or company fiscal years ended closest to December 2009.
• Data are reported by a chain or parent company or estimated by Nation's Restaurant News.

12 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

:J
pick up meals, or waiting for meals in restaurants. Perhaps the current food service industry strategy
This trend has increased as more women have be­ was best stated in McDonald's 1994 annual report:
come part of the workforce. In more and more fam­
McDonald's wants to have a site wherever people
ilies, both parents work and no one stays at home. In
live, work, shop, play, orgather. Our Convenience
addition, consumers more often combine meals with
Strategy is to monitor the changing lifestyles of
time engaged in activities such as shopping, work­
consumers and intercept them at every turn. As
ing, and traveling. For example, McDonald's, Burger
we expand our customer convenience, we gain
King, Taco Bell, and others are now located in out­
market share.
lets such as Wal-Mart stores and many gas stations.

MATH CONNECTION!
Research the number of calories found in each item of your favorite fast-food restaurant meal. How do
the total calories for that meal fit with a 2,000-calorie diet?

The food industry is big and it employs large prepared products at home and many meals away
numbers of people in a variety of occupations be­ from home. Advertising (media) also plays an im­
cause everyone eats (Table 1-3), and they eat more portant role in influencing food trends (Figure 1-6).
TABLE 1-3 U.S Per Capita Food Expenditures

U.S. PER CAPITA FOOD EXPENDITURES

CURRENT PRICES 1988 PRICES

U.S. RESIDENT AWAY AWAY

POPULATION, AT FROM AT FROM
JULY 1 HOME HOME TOTAL HOME HOME TOTAL

VEAR MILLIONS DOLLARS

1953 167.306 278 91 369 1,068 516 1,584

1960 179.979 306 109 415 1,132 522 1,654

1965 193.526 318 135 454 1,108 581 1,689
1970 203.984 387 194 581 1,130 630 1.760
1975 215.465 567 316 883 1,069 706 1,775
1980 227.225 828 529 1.357 1,092 773 1,865
1985 237.924 1.009 710 1.718 1.128 798 1,926
1990 249.464 1,301 982 2,283 1.147 897 2,044
1-------1------------+-------+--------1--------+-------+--------1------- ;;;~
1995 262.803 1.408 1,170 2,578 1,104 957 2,061 "
~
2000 282.172 1.571 1,396 2,966 1.091 1.003 2.093 "'
t--------t---------+------+------t---------t------+------+---------i i!
2005 295.753 1,853 1,730 3,583 1,138 1,085 2,223 j
2010 309.326 2,065 1.979 4,043 1,116 1,054 2,170
j.,-
2011 311.588 2,171 2,058 4,229 1,113 1,081 2,194 C

1-------1------------+-------+--------1--------+-------+--------1---------t ;"'
_____
2012
._ __________
313,914
_._ _______
2,215 ______
2,167 _______
4,382
....... _______
1.114 ______
1,109
.._ ______
2,223_. ....... .._ _. __, ~5

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 13

:J
 ~
PEP ICO

,-
IMON•fo'tttoH

- t !l
<
.,

e
"'a
FIGURE
I I I 1-6 Illusion of choice. Most products
I - • - 1we
- buy are controll
. --1 e- d by just a few companies.

ALLIED INDUSTRIES includ can , i d lorings and flavorin-··- -· g

product , and pla ti products (see Figure 1-7).
I - ,- -
1--_s, paper
- - --,

Many ompani do not ell food directly but are
still deeply involved in the food industry. These
allied industries produ e nonfood items that
are nece ary fi r marketing food. The packag­
ing indu try i a g ad example.
r pecific example5
hemi al manufa ttuer represent another group
. -- . ... -
of allied indu trie . They supply the acidulants,
preservative , enzymes stabilizers, and other
chemi al u d in fo cl .

SCIENCE CONNECTION!
Research food additives or preservatives commonly r-
found in foods.

fr ez r , in trumentation, and computer control

e, fo d pr duct and afe food require new
food-proce ing method and y tern . Food ma­
chin ry and Cquipm enl manufacturer are more
example f allied indu trie . They develop pa -
teurizer , vap 0 rat r , microwave ovens, infrared
cooker , freeze-drying ystem , liquid nitrogen
( ee hapt e r 7).
Finally, k eeping thC food upply afe and
healthy and c0 n um r informed require moni­
toring and regulatory agencie u Cha theFoodand
Drug Admini tration (FDA), attorneys, consumer

14 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

I -- -.,.·
 price formula established before the purchase
is to be made.
3. Vertical integration. A single firm controls
the flow of a commodity across two or more
stages of food production.
The food industry has traditionally operated
in an open production system. However, more dis­
criminating consumers, plus new technological
developments that allow the differentiation of farm
products, are helping to lower open production
and increase both contract production and vertical
integration. Also fueling this trend are changing
demographics and the increasing value of people's
time, both of which have contributed to consumer

Source: USDA Agricultural Research Service/Photo lly Peggy Greb

preferences for a wider variety of safe, nutritious,
and convenient food products.
Providing food products with specific char­
acteristics preferred by discriminating consumers
will likely involve producing more detailed raw
commodities such as a frying chicken of a specific
weight and size or a corn kernel with a specific
protein content. This effort to carefully tailor raw
commodities with processing in mind is already
underway in some food industries and has been
FIGURE 1-7 Plant physiologist prepares to make accompanied by changes in vertical coordination.
wheat-starch biodegradable containers.

INTERNATIONAL
action and information agencies, and other regula­
tory agencies. ACTIVITIES
If recent trends in the U.S. food industry con­ Food is an international commodity, with prod­
tinue, food production may be increasingly dom­ ucts being traded and shipped around the world.
inated by firms exercising control over most and Most grocery stores now carry food items from
even all stages of food production. Vertical coordi­ other countries. Specialty and gourmet stores stock
nation seems to be the way of the future, including many international foods such as cheeses from
how products are acquired or traded in the mar­ Europe, beef from Australia, strawberries from
kets. Food industry firms form three basic types of Mexico, and apples from Argentina. In addition,
vertical coordination: gourmet and specialty foods can be purchased On­
line. International food clubs and online buying
1. Open production. A firm purchases a are available to consumers worldwide.
commodity from a producer at a market price
determined at the time of purchase. Many U.S. companies also have established
subsidiaries in other countries, and fast-food com­
2. Contract production. A firm commits to
panies such as McDonald's and Pizza Hut continue
purchase a commodity from a producer at a

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 15

r
to open outlets all around the world. Major food
companies such as Kraft-General Foods, CPC In­
ternational, H.J. Heinz, Borden, Campbell Soup,
Nabisco Brands, Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Beatrice
Companies, Ralston Purina, and General Mills all
have extensive overseas operations. Table 1-4 lists
the top 50 international food-processing firms,
their headquarters, and their annual sales.
The processed-food sector is a major partici­
pant in the global economy. The United States ac­
counts for about one-fourth of the industrialized
world's total production of processed foods. Six
of the largest 10, and 21 of the largest 50 food­
processing firms in the world are headquartered in
the United States. The U.S. processed-foods mar­
ket has become truly global in scope through a

TABLE 1-4 Top 50 of the World's Largest Food-Processing Firms

2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
VEAR VEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)

l l Pepsico Inc. 37.806 37.618 66.415 6,740

2 2 Tyson Foods Inc. 32,999 31,614 34,374 778

(9/28/13)

3 3 Nestle (U.S. & 27.300 27.200 103536C 11.000C

Canada)

4 4 JBS USA 22,140 20,979E 41,000C 429

5 11 Coca-Cola Co. 21,600 21656R 46,854 8,626

6 5 Anheuser-Busch 16,023 76,028 43,195 76,518

InBev

7 6 Kraft Foods Inc. 14.346 14,358R 18,218 2.715

8 8 Smithfield Foods Inc. 12,531 11753A 14,000 NA-Private

9 7 General Mills Inc. 12,524 12.574 17,910 1,861

(5/25/14)

10 72 ConAgra Foods Inc. 11,511 9,360R 17,703 315

(5/25/14)

11 10 Mars Inc. 17000E 11.000 33,000E NA-Private

12 74 Kellogg Co. 9,716 9,539 74.792 7,808

13 9 Dean Foods Co. 9,016 11,462 9,016 819

14 75 Hormel Foods Corp. 8,752 8,231 8,752 530

15 13 Cargill Inc. (5/31/13) 8,500 8.500E 136,700 2,310

16 16 MillerCoors LLC 7,801 7,761 7,801 1.271

17 21 Saputo Inc. C7789 C6063 C9,233 C534

(3/31/14)

(Continues)

16 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS, 2ND EDITION

:J
TABLE 1-4 Top 50 of the World's Largest Food-Processing Firms

2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME•
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)

18 17 Pilgrim's Pride 7,500 7,249 8,411 550

19 20 Hershey Co. 7,146 6,644 7,146 820

20 19 Mondelez 6.991 6,903 35,299 2.332

International

21 18 Unilever North 6,876 7111E 68551 cc 7245 cc

America

22 22 Bimbo Bakeries USA 6,101 6,062C 13,464C 365C

23 23 Dr. Pepper Snapple 5,997 5,995 5,997 624

Group

24 24 J.M. Smucker Co. 5,611 5,898 5,611 565

(4/30/14)

25 29 Campbell Soup Co. 4,910 4,110 8,052 449

(7/28/13)

26 38 Constellation 4.868 2,796 4.868 1,943

Brands (2/28/14)

27 27 H.J. Heinz Co. 4,530 4,570 NA-Private

28 25 Maple Leaf Foods 4,406 4,552R 4,406 496

29 26 Land O'Lakes lnc.(2) 4,250 4,200E 14,236 306

30 31 Perdue Farms 4,140 3.860E 6,729 NA-Private

(3/30/14)

31 32 Brown-Forman Corp. 3.946 3.784 3,946 659

32 30 Hillshire Brands 3.920 3,958 3.920 184

(6/29/13)

33 37 Flowers Foods Inc. 3,751 3,046 3,751 231

34 86 Dairy Farmers of 3,700 3,500R 12,800 61

America (2)

35 33 Agropur Cooperative 3,630 3,640 3,630 54

36 66 Lactalis American 3,500 3.230 3,500E NA

Group Inc.

37 35 E&J Gallo Winery 3,400 3,400E 3,600E NA-Private

38 59 Parmalat Canada 3,161 2,848R 178

(Continues)

OVERVIEW OF FOOD SCIENCE 17

:J
TABLE 1-4 Top 50 of the World's Largest Food-Processing Firms

2013 2013 TOTAL 2013 NET

THIS LAST FOOD 2012 FOOD COMPANY INCOME*
YEAR YEAR COMPANY SALES SALES SALES (-LOSS)

39 36 Chiquita Brands Intl. 3,057 3,078 3,057 (-16)

40 28 Dole Food Co. Inc. 2,800 4,247 23,800E NA-Private

41 61 Prairie Farms Dairy 2,800 2,700 2,800 NA

Inc. (9/30/13)

42 42 Sanderson Farms 2,683 2,386 2,683 131

43 39 Rich Products Corp. 2,661 2500E 3,300 NA-Private

44 48 Molson Coors Co. 2,575 2,675R 4,206 565

(Canada only)

45 72 Beam Inc. 2,558 2,466

46 52 WhiteWave Foods 2,542 2,289 2,542 NA-Private

47 44 Great Lakes Cheese 2,500 2,250E 2,S00E NA-Private

Co. ~
48 39
McCain Foods C2,500E C2,500E C$6,000 NA-Private !
(6/30/13)
.<=
g
·~
1-------t--------i"'"""-------------1---------1----------+-----------t------------1 1
49 41 Pinnacle Foods 2,464 2,478 2,462 89
"' 0

____ _______ _____________ ________ ________ ________.....________

0

.._ 50 ...., 68 .._ Dannon Co. Inc. .._ 2,305NA .._ l,800R ...._ 2,305 __.~~

combination of imports and exports of foods and
food ingredients, foreign production by U.S. food
firms, host production by foreign food firms, and
other international commercial strategies. Easily
recognized U.S. food brands are so well received
internationally that many consumers in other
countries accept them as leading local brands. In
terms of international trade, the processed-foods
sector surpasses agricultural commodities by a
considerable margin.
World trade imports are also represented by
products not grown in the United States such as
coffee, tea, cocoa, and spices. The worldwide de­
mand for cereal grains and soybeans has also in­
creased, so the United States is the largest exporter
of these foods.
Aside from the worldwide demand for food
and food products, recent trends to decrease trade
tariffs has stimulated international activities in
the food industry, as have improvements in trans­
portation and communication. Products now
move around the world by air freight in hours or
days. The World Wide Web has enabled communi­
cations to take place around the world in a matter
of seconds.
A nation's infrastructure policies affect the
ability of its firms to pursue global marketing strat­
egies. For processed foods, particularly important
linkages exist between the communications and
transportation sectors. Technical innovations in
both communications and transportation make
the production and distribution of processed foods

18 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE & FOOD SYSTEMS. 2ND EDITION

:J
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
mundo no harán conpasion las
lagrimas que vertemos, las
lastimas que dezimos, los
sospiros que damos? ¿Quál no
creerá las razones iuradas, quál
no creerá la fé certificada, á quál
no moveran las dadiuas grandes,
en quál coraçon no harán fruto las
alabanças devidas, en quál
voluntad no hará mudança la
firmeza cierta, quál se podra
defender del continuo seguir? Por
cierto segund las armas con que
son conbatidas, avnque las
menos se defendiesen, no era
cosa de marauillar y antes
deurian ser las que no pueden
defenderse alabadas por
piadosas que retraydas por
culpadas.

PRUEUA POR ENXENPLOS LA

BONDAD
DE LAS MUGERES
Para que las loadas virtudes
desta nacion fueran tratadas
segund merecen avisé de poner
mi deseo en otra plática porque
no turbase mi lengua ruda su
bondad clara, como quiera que ni
loor pueda crecella ni malicia
apocalla segund su propiedad. Si
vuiese de hazer memoria de las
castas y virgines pasadas y
presentes, convenia que fuese
por diurna reuelacion, porque son
y an sido tantas que no se puede
con el seso humano
conprehender, pero dire de
algunas que he leydo assi
cristianas como gentiles y indias
por enxenplar con las pocas la
virtud de las muchas. En las
autorizadas por santas por tres
razones no quiero hablar. La
primera porque lo que a todos es
manifiesto parece simpleza
repetillo. La segunda porque la
yglesia les da devida y uniuersal
alabança. La tercera por no poner
en tan malas palabras tan
ecelente bondad, en especial la
de Nuestra Señora que quantos
dotores y deuotos y
contenplatiuos en ella hablaron no
pudieron llegar al estado que
merecia la menor de sus
ecelencias, assi que me baxo a lo
llano donde mas libremente me
puedo mouer. De las castas
gentiles començaré en Lucrecia,
corona de la nacion romana, la
qual fue muger de Colatyno y
siendo forçada de Tarquino hizo
llamar a su marido y venido
donde ella estaua dixole: sabras,
Colatyno, que pisadas de onbre
ageno ensuziaron tu lecho donde
avnque el cuerpo fue forçado
quedó el coraçon inocente,
porque soy libre de la culpa, mas
no me asueluo de la pena porque
ninguna dueña por enxenplo mio
pueda ser vista errada. Y
acabando estas palabras acabó
con vn cuchillo su vida. Porcia fue
hija del noble Caton y muger de
Bruto varon virtuoso, la qual
sabiendo la muerte dél, aquexada
de graue dolor acabó sus dias
comiendo brasas por hazer
sacrificio de si misma. Penelope
fue muger de Ulixes, e ydo él a la
guerra troyana, siendo los
mancebos de Ytalia aquexados
de su hermosura pidieronla
muchos dellos en casamiento, y
deseosa de guardar castidad a su
marido, por defenderse dellos
dixo que le dexassen conplir vna
tela como acostunbrauan las
señoras de aquel tienpo
esperando a sus maridos, y que
luego haria lo que le pedian, y
como le fuese otorgado, con
astucia sotyl, lo que texia de dia
deshazia de noche, en cuya lauor
pasaron veynte años, despues de
los quales venido Ulixes vieio,
solo, destruydo, asi lo recibio la
casta dueña como si viniera en
fortuna de prosperidad. Julia hija
del Cesar primero enperador en el
mundo, siendo muger de Ponpeo
en tanta manera lo amaua que
trayendo vn dia sus vestiduras
sangrientas, creyendo ser muerto,
cayda en tierra supitamente
murio. Artemisa entre los mortales
tan alabada, como fuese casada
con Mauzol rey de Ycaria, con
tanta firmeça lo amó que despues
de muerto le dió sepultura en sus
pechos, quemando sus huesos en
ellos, la ceniza de los quales poco
a poco se beuio y despues de
acabados los oficios que en el
auto se requerian creyendo que
se yua para el matóse con sus
manos. Argia fue hija del rey
Adrastro y caso con Pollinices hijo
de Edipo rey de Tebas, y como
Pollinices en vna batalla a manos
de su hermano muriese, sabido
della salio de Tebas, sin temer la
inpiedad de sus enemigos, ni la
braueza de las fieras bestias, ni la
ley del enperador, la qual vedaua
que ningun cuerpo muerto se
leuantase del canpo, fue por su
marido en las tinieblas de la
noche y hallandolo ya entre otros
muchos cuerpos leuolo a la
ciudad y haziendole quemar
segund su costunbre, con
amargosas lagrimas hizo poner
sus cenizas en una arca de oro,
prometiendo su vida a perpetua
castidad. Ipola greciana,
nauegando por la mar quiso su
mala fortuna que tomasen su
nauio los enemigos, los quales
queriendo tomar della mas parte
que les daua, conseruando su
castidad hizose a la vna parte del
nauío y dexada caer en las ondas
pudieron ahogar a ella mas no la
fama de su hazaña loable. No
menos dina de loor fue su muger
de Amed rey de Tesalia, que
sabiendo que era profetizado por
el dios Apolo que su marido
recebiria muerte sino vuiese quien
voluntariamente la tomase por él,
con alegre voluntad porque el rey
biuiese dispuso de se matar. De
las iudias Sarra, muger del padre
Abraham, como fuese presa en
poder del rey Faraon,
defendiendo su castidad con las
armas de la oracion rogó a
nuestro Señor la librase de sus
manos, el qual como quisiese
acometer con ella toda maldad,
oyda en el cielo su peticion
enfermó el rey y conocido que por
su mal pensamiento adolecia, sin
ninguna manzilla la mandó librar.
Delbora dotada de tantas virtudes
mereció aver espiritu de profecia
y no solamente mostró su bondad
en las artes mugeriles mas en las
feroces batalles, peleando contra
los enemigos con virtuoso animo;
y tanta fue su excelencia que
juzgó quarenta años el pueblo
iudayco. Ester siendo leuada a la
catiuidad de Babilonia, por su
virtuosa hermosura, fue tomada
para muger de Asuero, rey que
señoreaua a la sazon ciento y
veynte y siete prouincias, la qual
por sus meritos y oracion libró los
iudios de la catiuidad que tenian.
Su madre de Sanson deseando
aver hijo merecio por su virtud
que el angel le reuelase su
nacimiento de Sanson. Elisabel
muger de Zacarias, como fuese
verdadera sierua de Dios, por su
merecimiento uvo hijo santificado
antes que naciese, el qual fue san
Iuan. De las antiguas cristianas
mas podría traer que escreuir
pero por la breuedad alegaré
algunas modernas de la
castellana nacion.
Doña María Cornel en quien se
començo el linage de los
Corneles, porque su castidad
fuese loada y su bondad no
escurecida quiso matarse con
fuego, auiendo menos miedo a la
muerte que a la culpa.
Doña Isabel, madre que fue del
maestre de Calatraua don
Rodrigo Tellez Giron y de los dos
condes de Hurueña don Alonso y
don Iuan, siendo biuda enfermó
de una graue dolencia, y como los
medicos procurasen su salud,
conocida su enfermedad hallaron
que no podia biuir sino casase, lo
qual como de sus hijos fuese
sabido, deseosos de su vida
dixeronle que en todo caso
recibiese marido, a lo qual ella
respondio: nunca plega a Dios
que tal cosa yo haga, que meior
me es a mi muriendo ser dicha
madre de tales hijos que biuiendo
muger de otro marido; y con esta
casta consideracion assí se dió al
ayuno y disciplina que quando
murio fueron vistos misterios de
su saluacion.
Doña Mari Garcia la beata, siendo
nacida en Toledo del mayor linage
de toda la cibdad, no quiso en su
vida casar, guardando en ochenta
años que biuio la virginal virtud,
en cuya muerte fueron conocidos
y aueriguados grandes miraglos
de los quales en Toledo ay agora
y aurá para sienpre perpetua
recordança.
¡O! pues de las virgenes gentiles:
que podria dezir? Atrisilia, Seuila,
nacida en Babilonya, por su
merito profetizó por reuelacion
diuina muchas cosas aduenideras
conseruando linpia virginidad
hasta que murio. Palas o Minerua
vista primeramente cerca de la
laguna de Tritonio, nueua
inuentora de muchos oficios de
los mugeriles y avn de algunos
delos onbres, virgen biuio y
acabó. Atalante la que primero
hirio el puerco de Calidon, en la
virginidad y nobleza le parecio.
Camila, hija de Macabeo rey de
los bolesques, no menos que las
dichas sostuuo entera virginidad.
Claudia vestal, Clodia romana,
aquella misma ley hasta la muerte
guardaron. Por cierto si el alargar
no fuese enoioso no me
fallecerian daqui a mill años
virtuosos enxenplos que pudiese
dezir. En verdad, Tefeo, segund lo
que as oydo, tú y los que
blasfemays de todo linage de
mugeres soys dinos de castigo
iusto, el qual no esperando que
nadie os lo dé, vosotros mismos
lo tomays pues usando la malicia
condenays la verguença.

BUELUE EL AUCTOR Á LA
ESTORIA
Mucho fueron marauillados los
que se hallaron presentes oyendo
el concierto que Leriano tuvo en
su habla por estar tan cercano a
la muerte, en cuya sazon las
menos vezes se halla sentido; el
qual quando acabó de hablar
tenia ya turbada la lengua y la
vista casi perdida. Ya los suyos no
podiendose contener dauan
bozes, ya sus amigos
comenzauan a llorar, ya sus
vasallos y vasallas gritauan por
las calles, ya todas las cosas
alegres eran bueltas en dolor. Y
como su madre siendo absente,
sienpre le fuese el mal de Leriano
negado, dando mas credito a lo
que tenia que a lo que le dezian,
con ansia de amor maternal
partyda de donde estaua llegó a
Susa en esta triste coiuntura, y
entrada por la puerta todos
quantos la veyan le dauan nueuas
de su dolor mas con bozes
lastimeras que con razones
ordenadas, la qual oyendo que
Leriano estaua en ell agonia
mortal, falleciendole la fuerça, sin
ningun sentido cayó en el suelo y
tanto estuvo sin acuerdo que
todos pensauan que a la madre y
al hijo enterrarian a un tiempo,
pero ya que con grandes
remedios le restituyeron el
conocimiento fuese al hijo y
despues que con traspasamiento
de muerta con muchedumbre de
lagrimas le viuio el rostro[281],
començo en esta manera a dezir.

LLANTO DE SU MADRE DE
LERIANO
¡O alegre descanso de mi vegez,
o dulce hartura de mi voluntad, oy
dexas dezir hijo[282] y yo de más
llamarme madre, de lo qual tenia
temerosa sospecha por las
nueuas señales que en mi vi de
pocos dias a esta parte.
Acaesciame muchas vezes
quando mas la fuerça del sueño
me vencia, recordar con vn
tenblor supito que hasta la
mañana me duraua; otras vezes
quando en mi oratorio me hallaua
rezando por tu salud, desfallecido
el coraçon me cobria de un sudor
frio en manera que dende a gran
pieça tornaua en acuerdo. Hasta
los animales me certificauan tu
mal. Saliendo vn dia de mi
camara vinose vn can para mi y
dió tan grandes aullydos que assi
me corté el cuerpo y la habla que
de aquel lugar no podia mouerme,
y con estas cosas daua mas
credito a mis sospecha que a tus
mensaieros, y por satisfazerme
acordé de venir a veerte donde
hallo cierta la fe que di a los
agueros. ¡O lunbre de mi vista, o
ceguedad della misma, que te veo
morir y no veo la razon de tu
muerte; tú en edad para beuir, tú
temeroso de Dios, tú amador de
la virtud, tú enemigo del vicio, tú
amigo de amigos, tú amado de
los tuyos! Por cierto oy quita la
fuerça de tu fortuna los derechos
a la razon pues mueres sin tienpo
y sin dolencia. Bienauenturados
los baxos de condicion y rudos de
engenio, que no pueden sentir las
cosas sino en el grado que las
entienden, y malauenturados los
que con sotil iuyzio las
trascenden, los quales con el
entendimiento agudo tienen el
sentimiento delgado. Pluguiera a
Dios que fueras tú delos torpes en
el sentir, que meior me estuviera
ser llamada con tu vida madre del
rudo que no a ti por tu fin hijo que
fue de la sola. ¡O muerte cruel
enemiga, que ni perdonas los
culpados ni asuelues los
inocentes! Tan traydora eres que
nadie para contigo tiene defensa;
amenazas para la vejez, y lieuas
en la mocedad; a vnos matas por
malicia y a otros por enuidia,
avnque tardas nunca olbidas, sin
ley y sin orden te riges. Más razon
auia para que conseruases los
veynte años del hijo moço que
para que desases los sesenta de
la vieia madre. ¿Por qué volviste
el derecho al reues? Yo estaua
harta de estar biua y él en edad
de beuir. Perdoname porque asi
te trato, que no eres mala del
todo, porque si con tus obras
causas los dolores, con ellas
mismas los consuelas leuando a
quien dexas con quien leuas, lo
que si comigo hazes mucho te
seré obligada. En la muerte de
Leriano no ay esperança y mi
tormento con la mia recebira
consuelo. ¡O hijo mio, que será de
mi veiez contenplando en el fin de
tu iouentud? Si yo biuo mucho
será porque podran mas mis
pecados que la razon que tengo
para no bivir; ¿con qué puedo
recibir pena mas cruel que con
larga vida? Tan poderoso fue tu
mal que no tuviste para con él
ningund remedio. Ni te valio la
fuerça del cuerpo, ni la virtud del
coraçon, ni el esfuerzo del animo;
todas las cosas de que te podias
valer te fallecieron. Si por precio
de amor tu vida se pudiera
conprar, mas poder tuviera mi
deseo que fuerça la muerte. Mas
para librarte della ni tu fortuna
quiso, ni yo triste pude. Con dolor
será mi beuir y mi comer y mi
pensar y mi dormir basta que tu
fuerça y mi deseo me lieuen a tu
sepoltura.

EL AUCTOR
El lloro que hazia su madre de
Leriano crecia la pena a todos los
que en ella participauan y como él
siempre se acordase de Laureola,
de lo que alli pasaua tenia poca
memoria, y viendo que le
quedaua poco espacio para gozar
de ver las dos cartas que della
tenia, no sabia qué forma se
diese con ellas; quando pensaua
rasgallas pareciale que ofenderia
a Laureola en dexar perder
razones de tanto precio, quando
pensaua poner las en poder de
algun suyo temia que serian
vistas, de donde para quien las
enbió se esperaua peligro. Pues
tomando de sus dudas lo mas
seguro hizo traer una copa de
agua y hechas las cartas pedaços
echoles en ella y acabado esto
mandó que le sentasen en la
cama y sentado beuioselas en el
agua y assi quedó contenta su
voluntad. Y llegada ya la ora de
su fin, puestos en mi los oios dixo:
acabados son mis males, y assi
quedó su muerte en testimonio de
su fe. Lo que yo senty y hize,
ligero está de iuzgar; los lloros
que por él se hizieron son de
tanta lastima que me parece
crueldad escriuillos. Sus onrras
fueron conformes a su
merecimiento, las quales
acabadas acordé de partirme. Por
cierto con meior voluntad
caminara para la otra vida que
para esta tierra. Con sospiros
caminé, con lagrimas party, con
gemidos hablé y con tales
pasatienpos llegué aqui a Peñafiel
donde quedo besando las manos
de vuestra merced.

ACABOSE ESTA OBRA

INTITULADA «CARCEL DE
AMOR»
EN LA MUY NOBLE I MUY LEAL
CIUDAD DE SEUILLA
A TRES DIAS DE MARÇO AÑO
DE 1492
POR QUATRO COMPAÑEROS
ALEMANES
 NOTAS:
[274] Quiero, en la primera edición.
[275] Quizá debe leerse un en vez de en.
[276] Tefeo dice claramente la primera edición, y no Teseo,
aunque más corriente parecía el segundo nombre que el primero.
[277] Atados dice la primera edición.
[278] Querían dice la primera edición.
[279] Cumple dice la primera edición, pero parece errata.
[280] Acaso puliendo.
[281] Parece que debe leerse lavó.
[282] Parece que debe leerse de ser en vez de decir.
 TRACTADO
QVE HIZO
NICOLAS NUÑEZ
SOBRE EL QVE
DIEGO DE SAN
PEDRO
COMPUSO DE
LERIANO Y
LAUREOLA
LLAMADO
"CARCEL DE
AMOR".

Mvy uirtuosos señores: Porque si

conosciendo mi poco saber,
culpardes mi atreuimiento en
uerme poner en acrescentar lo
que de suyo está crescido, quiero,
si pudiere, con mi descargo
satisfazer lo que hize, aunque mi
intencion me descarga. Leyendo
un dia el tractado del no menos
uirtuoso que discreto Diego de
sant Pedro que hizo de carcel de
amor: en la historia de Leriano a
Laureola que endereçó al mvy
uirtuoso senor el senor alcayde
de los Donzeles, parecime que
quando en el cabo del dicho[283]
que Leriano por la respuesta sin
esperança que Laureola le hauia
embiado se dexaua morir, que se
partio desque lo ui muerto para
Castilla a dar la cuenta de lo
passado, que deuiera uenirse por
la corte a dezir a Laureola de
cierto como ya era muerto
Leriano. Y aunque le paresciera
que al muerto no le aprouechaua,
a lo menos satisfiziera se a si si
huuiera en ella alguna muestra de
pesar por lo que hauia hecho;
pves sabia que si Leriano pudiera
alcançar a saber el
arrepentimiento de Laureola diera
su muerte por bien empleada. E
porque me parescio que lo
dexaua en aquella corte con
occupacion de algunos negocios,
o por se desoccupar para
entender en otros que mas le
cumplian, no lo hize yo por dezillo
mejor, mas por saber si a la
firmeza de Leriano en la muerte
daua algun galardon, pues en la
uida se lo hauia negado, acordé
hazer este tractado que para la
publicacion de mi falta fuera mvy
mejor no hazello; en lo qual quise
dezir: que desque el avctor lo uido
morir e uido que se hizieron sus
honras, segun sus merecimientos;
e los llantos, segun el dolor; se
fue por do Laureola estaua, e le
contó la muerte del injustamente
muerto, lo qual fenesce en el
cabo que ella dió, e comiença
desta manera.

EL AVCTOR
Pves despues que ui que a la
muerte dél sin piedad
consintiendo morir no podia
remediar, ni a mi consolar, acordé
de me partir para mi tierra, de
baxo de la qual antes quisiera
morar que en la memoria de mi
pensamiento, e por uer e por oyr
las cosas que en la corte de su
muerte se dezian y Laureola por
él hazia, pensé de me yr por alli,
assi por esto, como por
despedirme de algunos amigos
que en ella tenia, y por dezir a
Laureola (si en disposicion de
arrepentida la uiesse) quanto á
mal le era contado entre los leales
amadores la crueldad que usó
contra tan quien merecido el
galardon le tenia; yo que en mi
partida, no poca priessa me daua
por huyr de aquel lugar donde le
ui morir, por ver si fuyendo
pudiera partirme de pensar en él,
llegué a la corte más
acompañado de tristeza que de
gana de biuir, membrandome
como el que de su conoscimiento
me dió principio hauia ya hecho
fin, e despues de reposar, no que
el pensar reposasse, fuyme a
palacio, donde con mucha tristeza
de muchos que su muerte sabian
fui recebido. E despues de
contalles la secreta muerte del
amigo suyo y enemigo de sí,
fuyme a la sala donde solia
Laureola hablarme, por uer si la
ueria. Pero yo que la uista de las
lagrimas que por él lloraua tenia
quasi perdida, mirando no la
ueya, e como ella tan
embaraçado me uiesse, e como
discreta sospechando que le
queria hablar, creyendo que no la
hauia uisto se bolvio a la camara
do hauia salido; pero yo que el
sentir tan perdido como el uer no
tenia, sentí que se yua, e buelto
en mi ui que era la que a Leriano
sin uida, e a mi sin anima hauia
hecho. A la qual con muchas
lagrimas e penados sospiros en
esta manera comenzé a dezir.

PROSIGUE EL AVCTOR A
LAUREOLA
¡Qvanto me estuuiera mejor
perder la uida que conoscer tu
mucha crueza e poca piedad!
Digo esto, señora, porque assi
quisiera con razon alabarte de
generosa en uerte satisfazer los
seruicios con tanta fe hechos,
como la tengo en loar mucho tu
fermosura e gran merecer, e no
que dieras la muerte a quien
tantas uezes con mucha uoluntad
por tu seruicio quería tomalla. E
pues esto esperauas hazer, no
engañaras a él, ni cansaras a mi,
ni turbaras la limpieza de tú linaje.
Cata que las de tan alta sangre
como tú, mas son obligadas a
satisfazer el menor seruicio del
mundo, si dél son consentidoras,
que a guardar su mayor honra;
que cierta te hago que si su
muerte uieras, siempre tu uida
lloraras; mira quanto le eres en
cargo, que en el tiempo de su
morir, quien mas memoria de su
alma e de su cuerpo hauia de
tener, se membró de tus cartas,
las quales fechas pedaços, en
agua beuió, porque nadie dellas
memoria huuiesse, e por lleuar
consigo alguna cosa tuya, e
porque mas compassion hayas
dél en la muerte que huuiste en la
uida, te hago saber que si como
yo lo uieras morir, de compassion
hizieras en presencia lo que en
ausencia tu poco amor e mucho
oluido fizieron que no feziste. O
quantos su muerte llorauan e la
causa no sabian! pero a mi que el
secreto no se me escondió, con
mas razon mucho mas que a
nadie pesaua, membrandome
como en tu mano estaua su uida,
uiendo tu mucha crueldad e su
poco remedio, a él heziste morir e
a su madre, porque no muere, e a
mi que biuiendo muera. No creo
que codicias la uida, conosciendo
lo que has hecho, sino en que
sabes que pocos lo sabian, e
agora temerás menos la fama de
tu mala fama que ues clara mi
muerte, do aunque quiera no
quedará quien tu crueza
publicara. No pensé tan poco
dezirte, ni tanto miedo mostrarte.
E si con la calidad te enojo, con la
cantidad te contento. Pues si gran
razon hauia de osar, mas no de
acabar tan ayna; e si por atreuido
algo merezco, mandame matar,
que mas merced me harás en
darme la muerte que en dexarme
tal uida.

SIGUE EL AVCTOR
Mvy assossegada estuuo
Laureola a todo quanto le dixe, no
porque el rostro no mostraua las
alteraciones del coraçon, pero
como discreta suffriendo las
lagrimas dissimulando el enojo,