Core Syllabus Revision: Power and Authority in the

Modern World 1919-1946

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Syllabus Study notes

Area
1. Survey (Brief notes)
An overview ● Paris Peace Conference -
of the peace - Taking place at the Palace of Versailles in January 1919-20,
treaties producing five treaties.
which ended - Saint-Germain (Austria, 10 Sep 1919): Give land to Poland, Italy
World War I and Czechoslovakia. Army limited to 30,000. Austria made to pay
and their retributions, crashing their economy, unable to make the
consequence repayments
- Neuilly (Bulgaria, 27 nov 1919): Required to give land to Greece.
s
Army limited to 20,000 & Bulgarian Gorder Guard limited to
3000, lost all navy & airforce. Required to pay retributions, later
reduced, then cancelled.
- Trianon (Hungary, 4 June 1920): Lost land, 70% pre-war
population, and economic resources such as timber, coal and
iron industries. Army limited to 35,000, weapon type and
stockpile limitations. Initial plan was to pay retributions, but only
limited resources were handed over.
- Sevres (Ottoman Empire, 10 Aug 1920): Required to give land to
Greece, and forfeit all territory in the Middle East & Africa to
Britain & France. Army limited to 50,000, navy restricted to 13
ships. Dardanelles removed from Turkish control to the
international maritime zone. Allies took control of Turkey’s
finances, controlling the Ottoman Bank. Restricted foreign policy,
banned economic cooperation with former allies.

● Treaty of Versailles -
- Disarm: Surrender naval forces, army restricted to 100,00, not
permitted to have airforce.
 - Give up territory: 13% of pre-war Germany lost (e.g.
Aslace-Lorraine, Polish Corridor, Rhineland, Danzig, Saar Region)
- Surrender resources: 12% German population lost, similar amount
with coal, agriculture and manufacturing resources, greater loss
of iron ore.
- Give up overseas colonies: Primarily split between Britain &
France.
- Admit liability for war damage: Article 231/’war guilt clause’,
required Germany to accept responsibility for loss and damage
caused to the Allies.
- Pay reparations: 132 billion gold marks.

● The League of Nations

- Proposed by US President Wilson, advertised to bring nations
together, promote international cooperation, resolve disputes
between nations.
- Avoids arms race by relying upon collective security.
- Aggression resisted by the League altogether.
- Article 10 addresses the goal of maintaining world peace.
- Established 10 January 1920, The key bodies were: The Assembly,
The Council, Supplementary Organisations, The Permanent Court
of International Justice.
- Lacked key world power support.
- US did not join

The Big Three and Their Decision Making

- Big Three = United States President Woodrow Wilson, French Prime
Minister Georges Clemenceau, British prime Minister David
Lloyd-George
- Poor compromise between differing goals of the big three.
- Many unresolved problems, and the imposing vengeful peace on
Germany guaranteed a second conflict.
- US President Wilson wanted a future of peace, establishing the League
of Nations.
- French Prime Minister Clemenceau was intent on vengeance and
permanently weakening Germany.
 - British Prime Minister Lloyd-George, while considered a realist, he too
was influenced by a home population that wanted to see Germany
punished.
- Wilson got his League of Nations while Clemenceau got the harsh
peace he wanted.

“...the Versailles settlement could not possibly be the basis of a stable peace. It was
doomed from the start, and another war was therefore practically certain.”
Eric Hob, Age of Extremes, pp. 33 - 34

● ‘A Perfidious Distortion of History’ - Jürgen Tampke

- Describes a more complex interplay between the decision
makers.
- Conditions applied to Germany were neither particularly
harsh nor unfair.
- Reparations were justified.
- Actual paid sum was nowhere close to the amount
frequently quoted.
- There was little real negative impact on the German
economy.
- Germans managed to avoid paying all but a fraction of the
total reparation amount.

Consequences of the Peace Settlement

● January 1918, President Wilson proposed the ‘Fourteen
Points’ as the basis for peace negotiations:
- Did not deal with reparations or war guilt.
- This created unrealistic (and hypocritical) expectations in
Germany that the peace settlement would be far less harsh than
it turned out.
- Germans not being allowed to negotiate fueled resentment.
- Used as a propaganda weapon by those who opposed the
settlement.

● Europe’s new borders created grounds for future dispute:

- Ethnic Germans in Austria were not allowed to unite within the
rest of Germany.
 - New Eastern European nations were multi-ethnic or contained
sizable minority groups.

- Territorial loss, reparations and the ‘war guilt clause’, all gave Germans
a sense of grievance, being used by nationalists politicians such as
Hitler.
- The apparent harshness won Germany sympathy from others,
particularly Britain, where there was less concern about future German
threat.

● While Germany was forced to disarm:

- The League of Nations unable to meet its goal of general
disarmament.
- Germany claimed it was being unfairly treated, being denied
effective defence compared to other nations.
- This gained Germany sympathy for their request to revise the
Treaty of Versailles.

● The Paris Peace Settlement created a situation where there

were ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’:
- The ‘haves’, most obviously included Britain and France, had key
decision making, and benefited the most.
- The ‘have nots’ were primarily made up of Germany, the USSR,
Japan and Italy. They all had interest in revising the treaty of
Versailles.

● The Paris Peace Settlement failed to set up structures that

were capable of preserving peace for extended periods:
- President Wilson did not want to enter an old-fashioned alliance
or rely on a balance of power.
- The League of Nations was intended to preserve peace, but it
was not agreed on how it would do that.
- The League of Nations never really had full support of the major
powers, including the US.

Japan, Italy, & Russia

1. Italy:
 - Italy entered the war in April 1915.
- Allies Agreed in the secret ‘Treaty of London’ that once
victorious, Italy would own territory taken from the
Austro-Hungary Empire.
- President Wilson refused this Treaty as he claimed the area did
not contain a substantial Italian population.
- Italy was allowed to take over South Tyrol and the Adriatic Sea
Port of Trieste.
- Italy being frustrated by lack of overseas imperial expansion.
- Feeling they sacrificed a great deal, Italian nationalists were
bitterly disappointed in the Paris Peace Settlement outcomes.

2. Japan:
- From the perspectives of Japanese nationalists, the outcome of
the Treaty of VersaillesPeace Conference was mixed.
- Japan’s new status as world power was recognised.
- Japan was an original member of the League of Nations Council,
but only the Big Three had influence over important decisions.
- Japan was given control over the Marianas, Caroline and
Marshall Islands.
- Japan was opposed by Australia and the US when proposing a
statement supporting racial equality, not being accepted.

● The Washington Conference ran from November 1921 to February

1922, being equally important in the Asia-Pacific region as the Paris
Peace Settlement.
- This had the dual aim of protecting US strategic interests and
addressing potential tensions in East Asia.
- According to the Five-Power Naval Treaty, Japan agreed to limit
their battleship capacity by the ratio 5:5:3 for the US, Britain and
Japan respectively.
- The Nine-Power treaty says all who attended the conference
respect China’s independence.
- The Anglo-Japan Treaty was not renewed.
- China was successful in its bid to have Japan give up control
over Shandong.

3. Russia
 - Internal politics forever transformed Russia and its relationships with
the rest of the world, being renamed as the USSR.
- Russia remained isolated for much of the interwar period.
- As one of the major powers that lost territory, Russia had a strong
interest in reviving the Eastern Europe borders.

● Among the significant developments and their consequences were the

following:
- In October 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia.
- Withdrawing from WWI, the Bolsheviks needed to focus on
consolidating their revolution.
- The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed in 1918, Germany imposed a
harsh peace, taking large Russian territory and resources.
- Russia’s withdrawal was seen as a betrayal, allowing Germany to
transfer troops to the western front.
- 1917 to 1922, the Russian Red Army fought a successful civil war
against the White forces who opposed the revolution.
- Foreign aid towards the White forces further strained
international relations.
- Russia was not invited to the Paris Peace Conference. Nor
allowed to join the League of Nations until 1934.
- Britain & France did not extend diplomatic relations until 1924,
and the US until 1933.
- While the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk lapsed with Germany’s defeat,
Russia did not regain their land.
- This land enlarged Romania and to the new nations Finland,
Poland and the Baltic States: Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
2. Focus of study: The rise of dictatorships after World War I
The - With the victory of liberal democracies, the expectation was that
conditions liberal democracy would become the exp government.
that enabled - Despite allied hopes, between 1919 & 1939 saw the rise of authoritarian
dictators to regimes & dictatorships.
rise to power
in the
interwar
Pre-war Development
- Industrial revolution had led to either political and social change or
period
contributed to demands for change.
 - Emergence of mass politics, more of the population engaged with
politics and the development of mass communication. Creating an
opportunity for populist politics.

World War I
- WWI was a cataclysmic event that traumatised Europe and
overshadowed the next two decades.
- The successful Bolshevik revolution led to the dictatorship of Stalin,
creating the first socialist/communist state.
- The threat of socialism motivated middle and upper classes to support
right-wing parties, and to oppose communism.
- The war resulted in enormous losses: Italy almost 500,000, Britain &
Empire 1.5 million, France 1.3 million, Austria-Hungary 1.5 million,
Russia 1.8 million and Germany 2 million. Many more were disabled or
incapacitated.

● Experience of the war produced different viewpoints:

- There were those who saw it as the ‘war to end all wars’. They
reacted against its horrors with determination that there should
be no more wars.
- On the other hand, the brutalising experience of war also
produced an opposite reaction that celebrated war ad violence.
Having fond memories of the thrill of combat and the
camaraderie of military service, glorifying war and who were
willing to engage in political violence.

“The fever of nationalism was fed by the romance of war experience… The
warrior-type worshipped action, organisation and efficiency. The emotion engendered
by sacrifice in a common cause… provided a new standard for politics. These returned
soldiers and the new nationalists felt almost as hostile to those they saw as flabby
ineffectual parliamentarians as to those they described as Communist subversives and
Anarchists.”
N.K. Meaney, ‘Peacemaking and he Brave New World’, The West and the World, Vol Two, p. 30

1. Collapse of Authoritarian Rule

- The collapse of authoritarian rule led to growing political, social and
national/ethnic tensions.
- Liberal democracy was largely considered poorly developed and
regarded as ineffective due to a lack of firm roots in the former
empires.
 - Authoritarian regimes of the ‘old right’ elites, ‘new right’ groups
emerged under populist leaders such as Adolf Hitler. Offering extremist
solutions to problems faced by post-World War I Europe.
- Fear of revolutionary Communism and the apparent failure of
democratic capitalism in the face of the great depression made right
wing extremist groups more appealing.

“... capitalism had a very bad run in the first half of the twentieth century. It was easy
to inflame world opinion against it and in favour of ideals of social justice and defence
of local communities, even when such values were presented by thugs and murderers.”
Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A World History, Basic Books, 2017, p.35

2. Nationalism
- Appeals to nationalism and aggressive nationalists responses were
common to all right-wing groups.
- This undermined internationalist efforts and could also be a part of a
complex reaction against modernity.

3. Reaction to Modernity
- Modernity is a broad concept associated with a world of rapid change,
being one of the lasting consequences of the industrial revolution.
- Modernity set up sharp divisions between those who embraced and
benefited from it, and those who were disturbed or left behind.
- In the eyes of many conservatives, those who appeared to be
embracing modernity were turning their back on traditional social and
religious values.
- These divisions were exploited by those who claimed decadence,
materialism and self indulgence of modernity was linked to the
ineffectiveness of democracy.
- Nationalism was generally opposed to modernity, which linked to
internationalism and pacifism and appeared to elevate self-indulgence
over civil service.
-

● By the end of the 19th century this anti-Semitism was evolving:

- Karl Lueger targeted Jews as scapegoats who were being held
responsible for a wide range of problems afflicting society.
- Jews seemed to be prospering under modernity, they enjoyed
greater quality of life wherever liberalism spread.
 - Due to Jews thriving under modernity and being internationalist
and not having nationalist loyalties, they were singled out by
right-wing nationalists as being a threat.

4. Economic Hardship
- World War I indebted Europe to the United States.
- In 1923 Germany experienced hyperinflation which wiped out the
value of savings and wages.
- Germany blamed both the reparations and the failure of the liberal
democratic government to manage the economy.
- In 1929 the Wall Street Crash happened, leading onto the Great
Depression. The US recalled all their loans and after two years the
world trade shrunk by one third.
- German unemployment had reached 6 million.
- Hitler’s popularity increased dramatically post 1929, coming to power
in 1933.

“The depression put wind into Hitler’s sails”

AJP Taylor, From Sarajevo to Potsdam, 1966, p. 135

“... also contributed to the rapid deterioration of international relations. The three
major powers particularly responsible for this were Japan, Italy and Germany, all of
which sought economic solutions in rearmament and aggression.”
Stephen J Lee, European Dictatorships 1918-1945, p. 22

5. Failure of the League of Nations

- The League of Nations failed to stop the aggression of dictatorial
regimes in the 1930s.
- Failed to defend the flawed 1919 Peace Settlement.
- Proved incapable of putting internationalism into practice when
confronted by the aggressive nationalism of Japan, Italy and
Germany.

“For all the popular expectations of a new order based on democracy at home and
responsible collaboration abroad, the war left too many loose ends, too many bitter
legacies. Besides the hopes of pacifist internationalism there stood outraged
nationalism; besides confidence in democracy and social justice stood a yearning for
harsh, counter-revolutionary authority; beside the indulgent materialism of the age of
jazz and fast cars could be found a conservative intelligentsia which despaired of
reviving spiritual values and arresting racial impoverishment. The post-war world
was full of unresolved disputes…”
Richard Overy, The Inter-War Crisis, pp. 10-11
An overview Russia/USSR, 1920s - 1941
of the
features of Establishment
the - October 1917 Russia’s radical Communist party, the Bolsheviks, seized
dictatorships power.
that emerged - Under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, The Bolsheviks set out to crete
in Russia, the world’s first communist society.
Italy, Japan - December 1917, the Bolsheviks established the Cheka, a secret police
force.

● From mid-1918 War Communism was introduced:

- Banks and industry were nationalised
- Grain requisitioning was imposed on peasants.
- This gave the Gov control on the economy, but had harsh
consequences for the population.

● March 1921, New Economic Policy (NEP) was adopted:

- The Government retained control over trade, banks, heavy
industry, etc.
- Abandoned unpopular grain requisitioning.
- Allowed small private businesses to operate.

- Opposition parties remained illegal.

- Critical newspapers shutdown.
- Dissent was dealt harshly by Cheka.

- 1924, Lenin died.

- Stalinist dictatorship ruled from 1930’s to 1953.

- In 1924, Stalin allied with Grigory Zinoviev & Lev Kamenev.

- Zinoviev & Kanenev defended Stalin from Lenin’s criticism.
- In 1925 - 1227, Stalin turned on Zinoviev & Kamenev to side with
Nikolai (who supported the NEP and the NEP and ‘socialism in one
country’)
- Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky and their supporters were removed from
the party.
- In 1928, Stalin began to speak out against the NEP.
- Stalin established personal dictatorship within Russia
The Dictator - Stalin

- Stalin took part in the 1905 and 1917 revolutions and the Russian Civil
War (1918-21), although his roles were greatly over exaggerated.
- He was Commissar of Nationalities, and General Secretary of the
Communist Party from 1922.
- Stalin was involved in a power struggle post Lenin’s death.

- Stalin exploited his role of General Secretary to control the agenda.

- Stalin had access to the whole party organisation, member files, being
able to influence appointments.
- Stalin painted himself as Lenin’s humble disciple.
- Stalin promoted radical ideas that were faithful to the original 1917
promises made by Lenin.
- Stalin’s political opponents underestimated him and did not work
together against him.

- Stalin’s rule had extreme brutality, being pushed through economic

change and dealt with real and imaginary opposition.
- Stalin was a committed Maxist.
- Ideology was combined with overwhelming personal ambition.
- Stalin was an intelligent and skillful politician, being able to adapt his
approach.
- It is suspected Stalin suffered from a personality disorder such as
extreme paranoia.

● Stalin’s Legacy:
- Rapid modernisation of the USSR.
- USSR’s emergence as a global superpower.
- Still nostalgic for Stalin’s ‘strong leadership’.
- Brought enormous suffering to the Russian people.

Ideology

● Inspired by Marxist ideology, basic marxist arguments being:

- Feudal regimes (Tsar’s) would be overthrown by the bourgeois.
- Bourgeois would create a new class for the proletariat.
- Overthrow capitalism.
 - Creating a classless socialist society.

● Issues associated with Lenin and Stalin’s Marxist ideology are.

- Marxism called for a radical transformation of society.
- Leaders were capable of distorting ideology for personal gains.
- Tension rose between adhering strictly to ideology or leaning
towards pragmatism.
- Although Marxism was ‘internationalist rather than nationalist’,
Stalin favoured ‘socialism in one country’.

The Economy

● The NEP had helped stabilise the USSR post Civil War, but it also
created problems:
- NEPMEN and Kulaks emerged as new classes.
- There was a need to modernise farming, the USSR seeing that it
needed to gain control of peasant farming to guarantee food
supply.
- Industrialisation was happening slowly.
- Stalin saw the need to modernise rapidly to ensure security
against foreign powers.

● The Great Turn, led by Stalin, was aimed to achieve rapid

modernisation:
- Government set priorities and directed the economy through set
Five Year Plans.
- Collectivisation: To remove small, private owned land to large,
government controlled collective farms.
- Industrialisation: Focused on the rapid development of Soviet
heavy industry.

● Stalin’s plans came at a cost:

- The Kulak class was eliminated.
- Forced collectivisation and peasant resistance led to chaos in the
countryside.
- Industry workers were subjected to long hours and harsh
conditions.
 ● Although there were still inefficiencies, Stalin was successful in
transforming the Soviet economy:
- The control over agriculture ensured food supplies.
- Power, iron and steel production increased dramatically.
- USSR’s Gross National Product (GNP) averaged 11.93% annual
growth.

Terror, Propaganda and Popularity

● Stalin’s dictatorship was based on control, propaganda, and above all,

terror:
- Already a single party state, Stalin dominated the party. All
decisions made by him and few close allies.
- Government messages were communicated through newspapers,
magazines, speech, films, music and architecture, all art being
strictly censored.
- Stalin’s role in important events was exaggerated, growing his
cult of personality.
- Stalin used extreme political violence, such as arrests,
eliminations/purges, and forced labour.

● Despite what Stalin was doing, his rule rested on a degree of

popularity.
- Committed to building a socialist society.
- Large amounts of the population gained an education and made
careers.
- Many were influenced by Stalin’s cult of personality.

“This was no popular dictatorship… [Stalin] was loved by many, but feared by far
more. Terror had done its job. Terror was the defining characteristic of Stalin’s
regime.”
Ian Kershaw, To Hell and Back, p. 274

Society and Culture

● Stalinism transformed Soviet society and culture:

- Industrial workers grew from 10% in 1924 to 34% in 1939.
- Individual peasants fell from 75% to 3%
 - Modernisation created a larger ‘white collar’ class.
- Stalin placed greater emphasis on traditional family values.
- Three organisations were created to instil communist values in
children: the Little Octoberists; the Young Pioneers’; and
Komsomol.
- Russian language and culture were prioritised over minority
cultures.
- Churches and Mosques were closed, leaders were sent to labour
camps. Although Stalin was tolerant of the Russian Orthodox
Church.
- 2

3. The Nazi regime to 1939

The rise of
the Nazi
party and
Hitler in
Germany and
the collapse
of the
Weimar
Republic
The initial
consolidation
of Nazi
power
1933–1934
The nature of
Nazi
ideology
The role of
prominent
individuals in
the Nazi
state
The various
methods
used by the
Nazi regime
to exercise
control,
including
laws,
censorship,
repression,
terror,
propaganda,
cult of
personality
The impact
of the Nazi
regime on
life in
Germany,
including
cultural
expression,
religion,
workers,
youth,
women,
minorities
including
Jews
Opposition to
the Nazi
regime
4. The search for peace and security in the world
An overview
of the search
for peace
and security
1919–1946:
- The
ambitio
ns of
German
y in
Europe
and
Japan
in the
Asia-Pa
cific
- The
intentio
ns and
authorit
y of the
League
of
Nations
and the
UN