Measures of

Central Tendency
The measures of central tendency in statistics are
numerical values that represent the center or
average of a set of data. They provide a summary of
where the bulk of the data is concentrated. There are
three main measures of central tendency, namely:
Mean, Median, and Mode.
Mean
• Arithmetic mean
• Weighted mean
• Grand mean of combined data
• Geometric mean
The mean or arithmetic mean, often referred to as the average, is
calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and then dividing by the
ഥ for sample.
number of values. The symbol used are 𝝁 for population and 𝒙

Population Mean formula: Sample Mean formula:

σ(𝑥) σ(𝑥)
𝜇= 𝑥ҧ =
𝑛 𝑛
Where: Where:
𝜇 −population mean 𝑥ҧ − sample mean
𝑥 −given data or 𝑥-values 𝑥 −given data or 𝑥-values
𝑛 −number of data or population 𝑛 −number of data or sample
Example:
Six friends in a Math class of 20 students
received test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and
90 . Find the mean of these test scores.
The weighted mean is similar to Weighted Mean formula:
the arithmetic mean, but it takes
σ(𝑤𝑥)
into account the importance or 𝑥ҧ𝑤 =
σ(𝑤)
weight of each value in the
Where:
dataset. In simple terms, the 𝑥ҧ𝑤 −weighted mean
weighted mean gives more 𝑤 − weight of the given data
𝑥 − given data or 𝑥-values
importance to certain values
(those with higher weights) when
calculating the average.
Example:
A midshipman would like to SUBJECT UNITS GRADE

NGEC 1 3 87
know his GPA. The table
NGEC 4 3 84
shows the midshipman’s
NGEC 7 3 85
grades and the equivalent
ELECTRO (LEC) 3 95
credit units for each grade. ELECTRO (LAB) 1 82
Determine his Grade Point P.E. 1 82

Average (GPA). SEAM 1 3 85

The grand mean of all combined data is a measure used when
you have multiple datasets, and you want to find the overall
average or central tendency of all the combined data points.

Grand Mean formula:

σ 𝑛𝑘 𝑥𝑘
𝑥ҧ𝐺 =
σ(𝑛𝑘 )
Where:
𝑥ҧ𝐺 −grand mean
𝑛𝑘 − number of given data in 𝑘 𝑡ℎ group
𝑥𝑘 − mean of given data in 𝑘 𝑡ℎ group
Example:
In a P.E. class, there are 25-4th class midshipmen, 30-3rd class midshipmen and
10-2nd class midshipmen. If the 4th class midshipmen averaged 89 in a practical
test, the 3rd class men averaged 85, and the 2nd class men averaged 82, find the
grand mean of the entire class.

CATEGORY NUMBER OF SCORES MEAN/AVERAGE

4TH CLASS MDSHPMN 25 89

3RD CLASS MDSHPMN 30 85
2ND CLASS MDSHPMN 10 82
The geometric mean gives you a single representative value that reflects the
multiplicative relationship among a set of numbers. It's particularly handy
when dealing with quantities that are linked by multiplication, such as
growth rates or ratios.
Geometric Mean formula: Geometric Mean of the Rates of Return formula:

𝑛 𝑛
𝑥𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
ҧ = 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
ҧ = 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 … 𝑅𝑛

Where: Where:
𝑥𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
ҧ −geometric mean 𝑥𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
ҧ −geometric mean
𝑥 − given data 𝑅 − rates of return
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of years
Example:
Find the geometric mean of the following data,
2, 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10
The Characteristics of the Mean
1.The mean is affected by all values in the distribution.
2.The mean is sensitive to extreme scores (known as
Outlier values).
3.The sum of the deviations about the mean is equal to
zero, σ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ = 0.
The Median is a positional average. When the scores are ranked, the median
is the point where half is greater and half is lesser. The median of the set of
scores is the middle value when the scores are arranged in order of
increasing magnitude. After arranging the original scores in increasing (or
decreasing) order, the median will be either of the following;

a. If the number of scores is odd, the median is the centermost score.

b. If the number of scores is even, the median is found by computing the

average of the two middle numbers.
The Characteristics of the Median
1. The median is not sensitive to extreme values
(Outliers).
2. The median varies from sample to sample; it is more
subject to sampling variability than the mean.
Example:
Find the median of the scores,
7, 2, 3, 7, 6, 9, 10, 8, 9, 9
The Mode is the most frequently
occurring value in the set of scores in a
dataset. It is a nominal average.
Example:
Determine the mode of the following scores.
a) 1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 7, 9, 2
b) 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9
c) 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, 5, 6, 6, 7, 9, 6
d) 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 7, 10
The Midrange is another measure of central
tendency but not often used. The midrange is
the average obtained by adding the highest
score to the lowest score and then dividing
the sum by 2.
Example:
Find the midrange of the following
data: 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Measures of
Dispersion
Dispersion refers to the spread of the
values around the central tendency. The
two common measures of dispersion are
the range and the standard deviation.
The range of a set of data values is
the difference between the greatest
data and the least data value.
Example:
Find the range of the numbers of ounces dispensed by Machine 1
in the table.
Machine 1 Machine 2
9.52 8.01
Soda dispensed 6.41 7.99
in ounces.
10.07 7.95
5.85 8.03
8.15 8.02
The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the individual amount
that each data value deviates from the mean. If a score is closer to the mean, the
standard deviation is smaller. A more dispersed distribution has a higher standard
deviation.
Population Standard Deviation formula: Sample Standard Deviation formula:
σ 𝑥−𝜇 2 σ 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎= 𝑠=
𝑛 𝑛−1

Where: Where:
𝜎 −population standard deviation 𝑠 −sample standard deviation
𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data
𝜇 −population mean 𝑥ҧ −sample mean
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of given data
Procedure for Computing a Standard Deviation
1. Determine the mean of the 𝑛 numbers.
2. For each number, calculate the deviation (difference) between the
number and the mean of the numbers.
3. Calculate the square of each of the deviations and find the sum of these
squared deviations.
4. If the data is a population, then divide the sum by 𝑛. If the data is a
sample, then divide the sum by 𝑛 − 1.
5. Find the square root of the quotient in Step 4.
The variance for a given set of data is the square of the
standard deviation.

Population Variance formula: Sample Variance formula:

σ 𝑥 − 𝜇 2 σ 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎2 = 𝑠2 =
𝑛 𝑛−1

Where: Where:
𝜎 2 −population variance 𝑠 2 −sample variance
𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data
𝜇 −population mean 𝑥ҧ −sample mean
𝑛 − number of given data 𝑛 − number of given data
Example:
The following numbers were obtained by
sampling a population.
2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the variance and the standard deviation of
the sample.
 The 𝒛 − 𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 for a given value 𝑥 is the number of standard
deviations that 𝑥 is above or below the mean of the data.

Population z-score formula: Sample z-score formula:

𝑥−𝜇 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ
𝑧𝑥 = 𝑧𝑥 =
𝜎 𝑠

Where: Where:
𝑧𝑥 − standard score or z-score 𝑧𝑥 − standard score or z-score
𝜎 −population standard deviation 𝑠 −sample standard deviation
𝑥 − given data 𝑥 − given data
𝜇 −population mean 𝑥ҧ −sample mean
Example:
A 4th class midshipman has taken two tests in his NGEC 4 class. He
scored 72 on the first test, for which the mean of all scores was 65
and the standard deviation was 8. He received a 60 on a second
test, for which the mean of all scores was 45 and the standard
deviation was 12. In comparison to the other students, did the 4th
class midshipmen do better on the first test or the second test?
THE NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Relative Frequency Dist. Table Relative Frequency Histogram
Example:
Use the relative frequency distribution table
to determine the following:
a. percent of subscribers who required at
least 25 seconds to download the file.
b. probability that a subscriber chosen at
random will require at least 5 but less
than 20 seconds to download the file.
A normal distribution is a common pattern which forms a
bell-shaped curve that is symmetric about a vertical line
through the mean of the data. The normal distribution is a
fundamental concept in statistics and is essential in various
fields for analyzing and understanding data.
Normal Distribution in terms of the following components:
• Shape: The normal distribution has a distinctive symmetric bell-shaped curve.
• Central Tendency: The highest point on the curve, the peak, represents the
mean (average) of the data.
• Spread: The curve is more concentrated around the mean and gradually
decreases as you move away from the mean in either direction.
• Standard Deviation: The spread of the curve is measured by the standard
deviation. A smaller standard deviation indicates a narrower and taller curve,
while a larger standard deviation results in a wider and flatter curve.
Normal distribution of
data in a graph, forming
a bell-shaped curve with
a mean value (𝜇) of 5.
Properties of a Normal Distribution
• The graph is symmetric about a vertical line through the mean of
the distribution.
• The mean, median, and mode are equal.
• The y-value of each point on the curve is the percent (expressed
as a decimal) of the data at the corresponding x-value.
• Areas under the curve that are symmetric about the mean are
equal.
• The total area under the curve is 1.
The 68-95-99.7 rule, also known as the
empirical rule or three-sigma rule, is a
guideline that describes the percentage of
data that falls within certain ranges in a
normal distribution.
Empirical Rule for a Normal Distribution
In a normal distribution, approximately
• 68% of the data lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean.
• 95% of the data lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard deviations of the
mean.
The empirical rule on a normal distribution graph
Example:
A survey of 1000 U.S. gas stations found that the price charged
for a gallon of regular gas could be closely approximated by a
normal distribution with a mean of $3.10 and a standard
deviation of $0.18. How many of the stations charge:
a. between $2.74 and $3.46 for a gallon of regular gas?
b. less than $3.28 for a gallon of regular gas?
The standard normal
distribution is the normal
distribution of 𝑧 − 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠 that
has a mean of 0 and a standard
deviation of 1. The purpose of
having a standard normal
distribution is to simplify
statistical calculations and
comparisons across different
normal distributions.
Example:
Find the area of the standard normal
distribution between 𝑧 = − 1.44 and 𝑧 = 0.
The Area of the Tailed Region
A tail region is a region of the standard normal
distribution to the right of a positive z-value or
to the left of a negative z-value.
Example:
Find the area of the standard normal
distribution to the right of 𝑧 = 0.82.
The Standard Normal Distribution, Areas, Percentages, and Probabilities
In the standard normal distribution, the area of the distribution from
𝑧 = 𝑎 to 𝑧 = 𝑏 represents
• the percentage of z-values that lie in the interval from a to b.
• the probability that z lies in the interval from a to b.
Because the area of a portion of the standard normal distribution can
be interpreted as a percentage of the data or as a probability that the
variable lies in an interval, we can use the standard normal distribution
to solve many application problems.