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 DELIVERING

ARTS EDUCATION
Judith DINHAM
 DELIVERING

ARTS EDUCATION
Judith DINHAM
 DELIVERING

ARTS EDUCATION
Delivering Authentic Arts Education © 2023 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
5th Edition
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Brief contents

Part 1 The ABC of arts education 1

CHAPTER 1 
Putting you in the picture – the rationale
and context for arts education�������������������������������������������������� 2

CHAPTER 2 The features of authentic arts education������������������������������� 30

CHAPTER 3 
Being an effective teacher in the Arts������������������������������������� 56

CHAPTER 4 
Children at the centre��������������������������������������������������������������� 85

CHAPTER 5 Pedagogies for authentic arts learning ��������������������������������112

CHAPTER 6 Planning and assessment for authentic arts learning �������140

Programming: Patterns around us ���������������������������������������169

Part 2 Teaching in the Arts 194

CHAPTER 7 
Dance����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195

CHAPTER 8 Drama���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235

CHAPTER 9 Media arts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������279

CHAPTER 10 Music���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 320

CHAPTER 11 Visual arts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 362

 Contents
Guide to the text ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii
Guide to the online resources ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xviii
Foreword ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xx
Introduction ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxi
About the author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv
Acknowledgements�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv

Part 1 The ABC of arts education  1

CHAPTER 1 Putting you in the picture – the rationale and context for arts education ��������2
1.1 The arts are integral
to human existence�����������������������������������3
Understanding the arts today�����������������������3
1.2 The evolution of arts education
as societal needs and values shift������������5
Introduction of the Australian Curriculum
as part of a reform agenda���������������������������7
1.3 Research and policy behind
recent developments���������������������������������9
Creative thinking����������������������������������������� 10
Learning capability�������������������������������������� 11
Culture and community������������������������������ 12
Individual wellbeing������������������������������������ 13
Sustainability������������������������������������������������ 13
1.4 Developing children’s capabilities
for the new era through the Arts�����������14
Visual and multimodal
communication skills���������������������������������� 14
Navigational approaches to learning�������� 15
Flexible thinking and problem solving������ 15
Negotiating learning relationships������������ 15
Collaboration and teamwork��������������������� 16
Cultural competency����������������������������������� 16
Dispositions for thinking and
acting sustainably���������������������������������������� 17
1.5 The heart of arts education��������������������17
Artistic experience��������������������������������������� 18
Gaining all the benefits������������������������������� 19
1.6 Navigating the expectations for arts
education in the school context�������������20
A varied picture of
classroom practices������������������������������������ 20
Your role in creating a meaningful
Arts program������������������������������������������������ 21
Summary��������������������������������������������������������������23
STUDY TOOLS �����������������������������������������������������24

CHAPTER 2 The features of authentic arts education�������������������������������������������������������������30

2.1 Arts education’s threshold concepts�����31
The Arts are meaning-making
experiences�������������������������������������������������� 31
The Arts are forms of praxis���������������������� 32
The Arts are ways to communicate����������� 32
The Arts are creative endeavours������������� 33
The Arts are cultural undertakings������������ 33
The Arts are aesthetic experiences����������� 34
2.2 The Arts learning area�����������������������������36
2.3 Artistic learning processes����������������������37
Invent: creative thinking, exploration
and imaginative invention�������������������������� 39
Make: constructing and
presenting artworks������������������������������������ 39
Connect: connecting to the wider
world of cultural expression���������������������� 40
Reflect: reviewing and reflecting
on art-making���������������������������������������������� 43

vi

2.4 Organising arts learning experiences��� 44
Open-ended challenges������������������������������ 45
2.5 Practices best avoided���������������������������� 48
Cookie-cutter approaches�������������������������� 49
Busy work����������������������������������������������������� 50
Cultural tokenism���������������������������������������� 50
CHAPTER 3 Being an effective teacher in the arts������������������������������������������������������������������ 56
3.1 Developing your professional
capabilities in arts education����������������� 57
Examining your capabilities
(and baggage)���������������������������������������������� 58
Building on your abilities
and strengths����������������������������������������������� 59
3.2 Working smart to be effective��������������� 60
Working smart in the digital world������������ 60
Working smart with colleagues����������������� 62
Working smart with community resources
and partnerships����������������������������������������� 63
Working smart through
lifelong learning������������������������������������������� 66
CHAPTER 4 Children at the centre�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
4.1 Children’s capabilities����������������������������� 86
What children bring to their
arts learning������������������������������������������������� 86
4.2 Children’s developmental growth
through the Arts�������������������������������������� 86
Physical growth�������������������������������������������� 87
Cognitive growth����������������������������������������� 87
Social and cultural growth�������������������������� 88
Psychological growth and wellbeing��������� 88
Identity formation��������������������������������������� 89
4.3 Valuing individuality and diversity in the
learning community�������������������������������� 89
Cultural diversity in the
arts classroom��������������������������������������������� 90
Diversity of learners������������������������������������ 92
4.4 Children’s arts learning behaviours������ 96
Experiential, self-directed learning����������� 96
CONTENTS
Handmaiden approach������������������������������� 51
Smorgasbord����������������������������������������������� 51
Free-for-all���������������������������������������������������� 51
Showcase approach������������������������������������ 52
Summary������������������������������������������������������������� 53
STUDY TOOLS����������������������������������������������������� 54
3.3 Creating the learning context: an ethical,
stimulating and happy place to be������� 67
The ethical arts classroom������������������������� 67
The emotionally secure classroom����������� 71
3.4 The physical space: a safe, functional
and inviting classroom��������������������������� 73
Physical safety���������������������������������������������� 73
The functional classroom��������������������������� 73
An inviting physical environment�������������� 78
Summary������������������������������������������������������������� 81
STUDY TOOLS����������������������������������������������������� 83
Studio habits of mind��������������������������������� 97
Spiral approach to learning������������������������ 97
Practising for improvement����������������������� 99
Eight ways of learning������������������������������� 100
Learning by observing and listening������� 100
Cultivating the creative mind������������������� 102
Children learn by telling their
stories through the arts���������������������������� 103
The role of metaphor and symbolism
in children’s artistic thinking�������������������� 103
Children learn by reflecting on
their own art-making�������������������������������� 106
Children learn by reviewing and
responding to artworks of others����������� 106
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 108
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 109
vii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 5 Pedagogies for authentic arts learning���������������������������������������������������������������112
5.1 Pedagogies to support children’s
learning in the arts�������������������������������� 113
Adapting teaching approaches
to suit requirements��������������������������������� 115
Pedagogies for the four artistic
learning processes������������������������������������ 116
5.2 Invent: pedagogy for creative
thinking and design������������������������������ 117
The creative process model��������������������� 118
The divergent thinking model������������������ 118
Five creative habits of mind model��������� 119
Scaffolding creative thinking�������������������� 121
5.3 Make: pedagogy for making
and presenting�������������������������������������� 123
CHAPTER 6 Planning and assessment for authentic arts learning��������������������������������������140
6.1 Planning a program of arts learning��� 141
Developing programs based on
units of inquiry������������������������������������������� 142
Themes for units of inquiry���������������������� 142
Preparing teaching packs for
units of inquiry������������������������������������������� 144
6.2 The planning process��������������������������� 144
Completing worked examples
as part of planning������������������������������������ 145
Incorporating the four artistic
learning processes������������������������������������ 146
Using the six-pointed star template
for planning������������������������������������������������ 147
6.3 Planning for the four artistic
learning processes�������������������������������� 150
Invent: planning for the imaginative
development of ideas������������������������������� 150
Make: planning for art-making���������������� 150
Connect: planning for cultural
connection through the arts�������������������� 151
Programming: Patterns around us�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
Theme: Patterns Around Us��������������������������� 171
LA1 A Dance for Fibonacci��������������������������� 172
Description������������������������������������������������� 172
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 172
Curriculum, learning outcomes
and assessment����������������������������������������� 172
viii
A demonstration is worth a thousand
words���������������������������������������������������������� 123
5.4 Connect: pedagogy for connecting
to the world of art��������������������������������� 125
5.5 Reflect: pedagogy for reflection
and review��������������������������������������������� 128
Purposeful questions�������������������������������� 129
Written reflections������������������������������������� 131
5.6 Dialogues for learning�������������������������� 132
One-on-one conversations����������������������� 133
Constructive feedback������������������������������ 133
5.7 Blended learning����������������������������������� 134
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 137
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 139
Planning for reflection������������������������������ 153
6.4 Practical considerations����������������������� 154
Planning for practical activity������������������� 154
Preparation and cleaning-up stages������� 154
6.5 Assessment principles
and guidelines��������������������������������������� 155
Achievement standards in the
Australian Curriculum������������������������������� 155
Formative and summative
assessment������������������������������������������������ 155
Criteria-based learning
and assessment����������������������������������������� 156
Indicators of learning�������������������������������� 156
6.6 Programming: the unit of
inquiry document���������������������������������� 158
6.7 The planning, teaching, assessing
and reviewing cycle������������������������������� 163
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 167
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 168
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 172
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 172
Cultural references������������������������������������ 172
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 172
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 173
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 173

LA2 Land Art�������������������������������������������������� 174
Description������������������������������������������������� 174
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 174
Curriculum – learning
outcomes –assessment���������������������������� 175
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 176
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 176
Cultural references������������������������������������ 176
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 176
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 176
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 176
LA3 Abstract Patterned Papers������������������� 177
Description������������������������������������������������� 177
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 177
Curriculum – learning
outcomes – assessment��������������������������� 178
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 179
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 179
Cultural references������������������������������������ 179
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 179
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 179
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 179
LA4 Digital Storybook – A Day in
Pattern World���������������������������������������� 180
Description������������������������������������������������� 180
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 180
Curriculum – learning
outcomes – assessment��������������������������� 181
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 182
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 182
Cultural references������������������������������������ 182
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 182
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 182
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 182
Part 2 Teaching in the Arts
CHAPTER 7 Dance���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195
7.1 Guiding principles for
dance education������������������������������������ 196
Describing dance��������������������������������������� 196
Dance in school education����������������������� 197
CONTENTS
LA5 Ostinatos������������������������������������������������ 183
Description������������������������������������������������� 183
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 183
Curriculum – learning
outcomes – assessment��������������������������� 184
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 184
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 185
Cultural references������������������������������������ 185
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 185
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 185
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 185
LA6 Hero’s Journey��������������������������������������� 186
Description������������������������������������������������� 186
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 186
Curriculum – learning
outcomes – assessment��������������������������� 186
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 186
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 187
Cultural references������������������������������������ 187
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 187
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 187
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 188
LA7 Guided Appreciation: The Artwork
of Bronwyn Bancroft���������������������������� 189
Description������������������������������������������������� 189
Teacher’s guide������������������������������������������ 189
Curriculum – learning
outcomes – assessment��������������������������� 190
Arts concepts and understandings��������� 190
Terminology����������������������������������������������� 190
Cultural references������������������������������������ 190
Supplies and equipment�������������������������� 190
Preparation������������������������������������������������ 191
Guide to lesson steps�������������������������������� 191
References�������������������������������������������������������� 193
194
7.2 Engaging with dance����������������������������� 199
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 199
Student participation�������������������������������� 200
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 204
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CONTENTS
7.3 Dance in the Australian Curriculum��� 205
Assessment in dance�������������������������������� 208
7.4 Foundations of dance literacy:
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 208
Elements of dance������������������������������������� 209
The body as instrument��������������������������� 210
Exploring and performing
with others������������������������������������������������� 212
7.5 Dance praxis: making��������������������������� 212
Developing a movement vocabulary������ 213
Choreographing dances��������������������������� 216
Learning social dances������������������������������ 219
Performing dances������������������������������������ 220
7.6 Dance appreciation: responding��������� 221
Viewing dance performances������������������ 221
Understanding dance context
and motivation������������������������������������������ 222
CHAPTER 8 Drama����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
8.1 Guiding principles for
drama education����������������������������������� 236
Describing drama�������������������������������������� 236
Drama in school education���������������������� 237
8.2 Engaging with drama���������������������������� 237
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 237
Student participation�������������������������������� 239
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 240
8.3 Drama in the Australian Curriculum��� 241
Assessment in Drama������������������������������� 242
8.4 Foundations of drama literacy:
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 242
Elements of drama������������������������������������ 242
Principles of story�������������������������������������� 245
Drama participation skills������������������������� 245
8.5 Drama praxis: Making�������������������������� 248
Initiating drama engagement������������������ 248
Dramatic play��������������������������������������������� 249
Process drama������������������������������������������� 251
Mantle of the expert��������������������������������� 252
Story drama����������������������������������������������� 253
Improvisation��������������������������������������������� 256
Role-playing������������������������������������������������ 258
Mime����������������������������������������������������������� 260
Puppetry����������������������������������������������������� 262
x
Leading guided dance appreciation�������� 225
7.7 Linking dance to other subjects���������� 226
Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 226
Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 227
Music����������������������������������������������������������� 227
Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 227
Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 227
7.8 Safe dance practice
and practicalities����������������������������������� 228
Establishing sensible and
safe behaviour������������������������������������������� 228
Let’s start dancing������������������������������������� 229
Props and resources��������������������������������� 230
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 232
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 233
Oral storytelling����������������������������������������� 263
Readers’ theatre���������������������������������������� 264
Radio drama����������������������������������������������� 265
Playbuilding and devising theatre����������� 266
8.6 Drama appreciation: Responding������� 269
Viewing drama performances����������������� 269
Understanding drama contexts
and motivations����������������������������������������� 269
Guided drama appreciation��������������������� 269
8.7 Linking drama to other subjects��������� 271
Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 272
Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 272
Music����������������������������������������������������������� 272
Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 272
Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 272
8.8 Safe drama practice
and practicalities����������������������������������� 272
Safe practices��������������������������������������������� 272
Space to work�������������������������������������������� 273
Working in groups������������������������������������� 273
Costumes, masks, props and
play boxes�������������������������������������������������� 273
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 276
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 277

CHAPTER 9 Media arts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������279
9.1 Guiding principles for media
arts education��������������������������������������� 280
Describing media arts������������������������������� 280
Media arts in school education��������������� 280
9.2 Engaging with media arts��������������������� 282
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 282
Student participation�������������������������������� 282
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 283
9.3 Media arts in the
Australian Curriculum�������������������������� 284
Assessment in media arts������������������������ 285
9.4 Foundations of media arts literacy:
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 285
Key media arts concepts�������������������������� 286
Elements of media arts����������������������������� 290
Story principles������������������������������������������ 292
Genre���������������������������������������������������������� 292
9.5 Media arts praxis: making�������������������� 294
Developing proficiency with
digital technology�������������������������������������� 294
Creating media stories������������������������������ 295
Pictorial stories������������������������������������������ 295
Stories using audio media������������������������ 300
Stories in audio-visual formats���������������� 301
CHAPTER 10 Music���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������320
10.1 Guiding principles for
music education������������������������������������ 321
Describing music��������������������������������������� 321
Music in school education������������������������ 322
10.2 Engaging with music����������������������������� 324
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 324
Student participation�������������������������������� 325
Supporting diverse learners��������������������� 325
10.3 Music in the Australian Curriculum���� 326
Assessment in Music��������������������������������� 328
10.4 Foundations of music literacy:
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 328
Elements of music������������������������������������� 328
Music notation������������������������������������������� 330
10.5 Music praxis: making���������������������������� 331
Exploring sound and silence�������������������� 331
Singing�������������������������������������������������������� 332
Percussion�������������������������������������������������� 336
Creating or composing music������������������ 340
CONTENTS
Stories in graphic, print and
web media�������������������������������������������������� 307
Stories in multimedia, interactive and
convergent communication formats������ 311
9.6 Media arts appreciation: responding� 312
Reviewing media artworks����������������������� 312
Understanding media arts context
and motivation������������������������������������������ 312
Guided media arts appreciation�������������� 313
9.7 Linking media arts to other subjects�� 314
Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 314
Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 314
Music����������������������������������������������������������� 314
Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 314
Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 314
9.8 Safe media arts practice
and practicalities����������������������������������� 314
Safe use of equipment������������������������������ 315
Cyber citizenship��������������������������������������� 315
Managing with limited equipment���������� 315
Storage�������������������������������������������������������� 316
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 317
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 318
Sharing, recording and performing�������� 343
10.6 Music appreciation: responding���������� 345
Listening to and viewing
live performances�������������������������������������� 345
Understanding contexts
and motivations����������������������������������������� 346
Guided listening����������������������������������������� 351
10.7 Linking music to other subjects���������� 353
Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 353
Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 353
Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 353
Visual arts��������������������������������������������������� 354
Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 354
10.8 Safe music practices
and practicalities����������������������������������� 354
Safe practices��������������������������������������������� 354
Locating music������������������������������������������� 354
Instruments������������������������������������������������ 355
Music library����������������������������������������������� 357
xi
CONTENTS
Music centre or listening post����������������� 357
Sharing music with children��������������������� 357
CHAPTER 11 Visual arts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������362
11.1 Guiding principles for visual
arts education��������������������������������������� 363
Describing visual arts�������������������������������� 363
Visual arts in school education���������������� 365
11.2 Engaging with visual arts���������������������� 366
Teacher participation�������������������������������� 366
Student participation�������������������������������� 367
Engaging diverse learners������������������������ 368
11.3 Visual arts in the
Australian Curriculum�������������������������� 368
Assessment in visual arts������������������������� 370
11.4 Foundations of visual arts literacy:
concepts, knowledge and skills����������� 371
Elements of visual arts������������������������������ 372
Design principles��������������������������������������� 373
A closer look at colour – one of
the elements���������������������������������������������� 374
Conventions for representing the
spatial world in 2D������������������������������������ 377
Materials also communicate�������������������� 379
11.5 Visual arts praxis: making�������������������� 380
Representation������������������������������������������ 380
Formalism�������������������������������������������������� 382
Expressionism�������������������������������������������� 383
Glossary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 405
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 409
xii
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 359
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 360
Social commentary and narrative����������� 385
Constructing in three dimensions����������� 387
11.6 Visual arts appreciation: responding�� 388
Viewing visual art��������������������������������������� 388
Understanding visual arts contexts
and motivations����������������������������������������� 389
Guided visual arts appreciation��������������� 392
11.7 Linking visual arts to other subjects��� 395
Dance���������������������������������������������������������� 395
Drama��������������������������������������������������������� 395
Media arts�������������������������������������������������� 395
Music����������������������������������������������������������� 395
Cross-curriculum��������������������������������������� 395
11.8 Safe visual arts practice
and practicalities����������������������������������� 396
Safe practices��������������������������������������������� 396
The warm and cool paint
colour system��������������������������������������������� 396
Arranging still life and subjects
for observation������������������������������������������ 398
Using visuals���������������������������������������������� 398
Acquiring art materials����������������������������� 399
Summary����������������������������������������������������������� 402
STUDY TOOLS��������������������������������������������������� 403
 Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find useful features in every chapter
to enhance your study of authentic arts education and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.

CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES

1
CHAPTER
Putting you in the picture –
the rationale and context
for arts education
In this chapter you will discover that:
1.1 the arts are part of what it means to be human
Identify the key concepts that the 1.2 the nature of arts education changes as society’s needs and values
chapter will cover with the objectives change – so arts education today is different from arts education in the
past
at the start of each chapter. 1.3 contemporary arts education research, policy and scholarship
illuminate the nature of arts education for the new era
1.4 arts education is in the curriculum to seriously contribute to developing
children’s capabilities to meet the challenges of the new era
1.5 all benefits of arts education derive from a rich experience of the arts as
both artist and audience
1.6 implementing new educational practices and a meaningful program
requires dedication and forward-thinking approaches.

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

Explore authentic arts education in practice through the

Classroom Snapshot boxes with real-life examples.

CLASSROOM SNAPSHOT
Authentic engagement with the artistic heritage of 2
First Nations Australians Ch 2, pp 42–43
Rehabilitating the free-for-all Ch 2, pp 46–47
Developing a unit of inquiry on bushfires Ch 2, p 48
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp01.indd 2 22/07/22 5:37 PM

Stepping up and having a go Ch 3, p 59

Integrating digital technology in a unit of inquiry Ch 3, p 62
Unlocking a child’s potential Ch 4, p 93
English as a Second Language (ESL) taught through
the Arts Ch 4, pp 95–96
Scaffolding creative thinking Ch 5, pp 121–122
Talking about a painting Ch 5, pp 127–128
Adapting planning to take advantage of local
opportunities Ch 6, pp 141–142

xiii
DELIVERING AUTHENTIC ARTS EDUCATION

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

Inclusive dance education Ch 7, p 205 Percussive accompaniment to Pachelbel’s Canon Ch 10, pp 339–340
Dance exploration initiated by a poem Ch 7, pp 207–208 Guided listening: The Moldau (Die Moldau)
by Smetana Ch 10, pp 351–353
Drama using a text as a stimulus Ch 8, pp 254–256
Discovering how we communicate using elements
Comic strips to create pictorial narratives Ch 9, p 299
and principles of visual language Ch 11, pp 372
Music and communication Ch 10, p 326
Discovering how the composition of a painting
Creating a rainstorm using body percussion Ch 10, pp 337–338 contributes to its meaning Ch 11, pp 393–395

Develop your own activities to introduce children to the

relevant arts principles, elements and skills with the
activities suggested in the Starter ideas boxes.

STARTER IDEAS
Ways to inform parents to gain greater support for
your authentic program of art learning Ch 1, p 21
Ways to encourage children’s listening and
observation skills Ch 4, p 102
Types of entries in an ideas journal Ch 4, p 103
Ideas for using metaphors and symbolism Ch 4, p 105
Different ways of encouraging reflection Ch 5, p 129
Teaching strategies to stimulate children’s
creative thinking Ch 6, p 151
Ideas for using untuned percussion instruments
Working collaboratively Ch 7, p 212 in the classroom Ch 10, p 339
Building physical skill Ch 7, p 216 Ideas for creating music Ch 10, p 343
Conceptual challenges as starting points Exploring the music of First Nations Australians Ch 10, p 348
for dances Ch 7, pp 218–219
Classical music on movie soundtracks Ch 10, p 349
Using drama games purposefully Ch 8, p 249
Ideas for combining music and movement Ch 10, p 353
Verbal improvisation Ch 8, p 257
Instructions for making your own percussion
Scene improvisation Ch 8, p 258 instruments Ch 10, pp 355–356
Preparing for role-playing Ch 8, pp 259–260 Ideas for exploring design elements and principles Ch 11, p 374
Ideas for mime activities Ch 8, p 261 Exploring the hues of colour Ch 11, p 377
Photographic stories Ch 9, p 296 Exploring linear perspective Ch 11, p 379
Stories, topics and characters for comic strips Ch 9, p 297 Ideas for observational drawing subjects Ch 11, pp 381–382
Starting points for PowerPoint stories Ch 9, p 302 Ideas for exploring expressionism Ch 11, p 384
Topics for video activities Ch 9, p 305 Ways of exploring issues and ideas Ch 11, pp 386–387
Some ideas for poster projects Ch 9, p 310 Ideas for exploring 3D forms Ch 11, pp 387–388
Ideas for exploring sound and silence Ch 10, pp 331–332

xiv
 GUIDE TO THE TEXT

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

For more effective learning, the At a glance boxes provide

quick overviews of key concepts, practical tips and useful
resources.

AT A GLANCE
Ten things you should know about the value of the
arts in children’s education Ch 1, p 19
Your role in developing children’s aesthetic sensibilities Ch 2, p 35
Protocols and considerations when introducing
artworks from diverse cultures into lessons Ch 2, p 41
Characteristics of open-ended approaches Ch 2, p 46
The features of authentic arts learning Ch 2, pp 52–53
Creating a climate that fosters rich arts learning Ch 3, p 72
What makes me a good teacher in the Arts? Ch 3, p 82
Exploring children’s cultural backgrounds Ch 4, p 91
Ways of improving levels of accomplishment Ch 4, p 99
Enacting signature pedagogies to facilitate children’s General guidelines for readers’ theatre and
artistic engagement – dos and don’ts Ch 5, pp 114–115 radio drama Ch 8, p 266

Ways to incorporate the world of arts in the program Ch 5, p 124 Guidelines for a claymation (or video) project Ch 9, pp 303–304

Constructive feedback that supports learning Ch 5, p 134 Storyboard terminology when filming a video Ch 9, p 307

Themes for units of inquiry Ch 6, p 143 Layout basics Ch 9, p 308

Selecting artworks that engage children Ch 6, p 153 Composing a song Ch 10, p 342

Authentic arts assessment Ch 6, p 158 Planning a successful public performance Ch 10, pp 344–345

Strategies for supporting children’s creation of dances Ch 7, p 217 Guidelines for choosing music for listening Ch 10, p 346

Steps for developing stories for storytelling Ch 8, p 264 Warm and cool paint colour system Ch 11, p 397

Discover high quality online educational resources to

support your teaching and learning in the annotated lists of
Online resources.

xv
 PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

a pattern is a template, such as a dress pattern, that guides the way fabric is cut into separate
pieces, which are then assembled to make the dress. The template ensures that repeats of the
DELIVERING AUTHENTIC ARTS EDUCATION dress can be made over and over, so repetition is implied in the use of the template.
All the learning activities provided here refer to patterns explored in a diversity of art forms,
but the significance of pattern extends beyond the bounds of art-making. Explorations of
‘pattern’ in the Arts can facilitate children’s comprehension and usage of sequencing, grouping
and categorising in Science, English and Maths. When children use the Fibonacci sequence

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS to choreograph a sequence of movements in a dance activity, they are being introduced to a
mathematical concept.

Learn how to plan quality primary arts programs using the

LA1 A DANCE FOR FIBONACCI
frameworks at the end of Part 1 in Programming: Patterns Description The type of evidence you will use to assess the

around us of the text for developing units of inquiry. This PART 1The
THEFibonacci sequence,
ABC OF ARTS and its presence in nature,
EDUCATION
is introduced as a basis for choreographing a dance
degree to which the intended learning has taken place
is listed in the third column of the table.

section includes learning activity examples, guide to lesson sequence. When developing your program for a specific age
group you will have to review the specific curriculum
Teacher’s guide for me to integrate a live
steps and other resources that demonstrate authentic arts While the opportunity requirements in each of
their interpretation of the
Thestrands
Arrival for the
the age
2010group
Sydney
The Fibonacci
puppet performance sequence (Fibonacci
into this unit ofscale or Fibonacci
inquiry has now and also specify
Festival. the features
I also found a videoof of
a good, soundinterviewed
Tan being or
numbers)
I canisstill
a sequence of numbers where again.
each I modest achievement of learning in eachand
case.
education. passed,
number
have the prepared
present the
is the sum of the
lesson
unit of inquiry
previousand
sequence two:resources.
0, 1, 1,
by Channel
Memorial
Arts
Ten following
Awards,
concepts which
and
his Oscar Astrid Lindgren
provides a neat profile of
understandings
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, etc. It is named after the Italian
Furthermore, in my earlierCHAPTER 6 PLANNING
research I came
mathematician Fibonacci who described it in Liber
across the AND ASSESSMENT
an artist’s
1. By working
life. So, with a FOR AUTHENTIC
dance, a varietyARTS
few modifications
with the elements of
to the first
of LEARNING
Red Leap Theatre Company’s YouTube video trailer of version, I am able to use this unit of inquiry again.
Abaci in 1202, but its application to the metre (beat) movement patterns can be created.
in Indian Sanskrit poetry predates this. The Fibonacci 2. Bound movements are precise (robotic) and distinct
sequence of numbers is found widely in nature in the from free (gliding movements).
patterns of pine cones, petals, leaves and sunflower
seeds where it is believed to have evolved as the
Developing programs based on units of
3. Number sequences such as the Fibonacci sequence
are seen in natural patterns and can be the basis for
most efficient way of organising within a space. Theinquiry establishing sequences of beats when choreographing
Fibonacci sequence is a mathematical phenomenon dances.
The arts learning content to be covered in the school year may seem
and has application today in computer algorithms. 4. Akram Khan is a renowned contemporary dancer
rather daunting. Furthermore, within a busy classroom schedule,
The sequence can be used to correspond to beats whose choreography of the dance Gnosis draws on
sustaining an Arts program that is coherent, educationally meaningful
so, in this case, the length of dance movements can be traditional Indian dance (kathak) and uses precise
and developmental can be difficult. Yet content must be covered
movements.
determined by the Fibonacci numbers in the sequence.
andTeachers:
achievementdecidestandards which
met. An effective way of overcoming
Curriculum, learning outcomes andprogramming arts-making Terminology
processes
challenges and
is to modularise the content, so that the Arts
Teachers: design
assessment open-ended techniques will beis introduced
program for the year
Fibonacci a sequence
sequence, of these
precision, modules.
bound movement
challenges and plan pedagogical and/or practised. They determine
Each learning experience has an intended educational In this text, these modules
Cultural referencesare called units of inquiry. They are
steps that will facilitate children’s
purpose that is guided by the curriculum. The what elements
Australian of the different arts
organised around
Akram aKhan,
chosen theme,
Gnosis such as those suggested in At a
(https://www.youtube.com/
investigations,
Source: creative
Wassily thinking,
Kandinsky (Russian, 1866–1944), Untitled
languages, and/or
for unitsconventions,
Curriculum: The Arts outlines the sequence of content for
(drawing for ‘Diagram 17’), 1925, Black ink on paper, Gift glance: Themes of inquiry. The theme provides the foundation for
watch?v=A-Gl3rVm7SQ)
imaginative explorations
Dance on its websiteand
(https://v9.australiancurriculum.production skills will be in
of Odyssia Skouras Quadrani (Class of 1954) in honour and designing a cluster of learning
generation of ideas.
edu.au/downloads/learning-areas).
Hayes Mount Holyoke College Art focus. They Supplies and equipment with an educational purpose.
experiences
For example, a devise meaningful
of Professor Marian
Museum, South Hadley, Massachusetts, Photograph unit of inquiry about the concept of contrast could be
In the table below, the educational purpose of the Music with a present
definite beat; for example, Enya,
Petegorsky/Gipe, 1970.1.S.RIV ways
explored through a dance learningtheir
for children to experience that focuses on contrasts
learning experience is expressed as learning outcomes The River Sings (https://www.youtube.com/
work to an audience.
aligned to the four curriculum strands that are of tempo (fast and slow movement), high and low movements, and open
FIGURE 6.1 Untitled (Drawing for ‘Diagram 17’) by watch?v=oxcq2m0XwJ8)
Wassilyimportant
Kandinsky,dimensions
1925 of an authentic approachand closed shapes, followed by a music composition activity that focuses
to arts
education.
Mak on exploring contrast of tempo and musical texture. A final activity
t
that invites students to create a combined music and dance performance as a response to Wassily

en

e
Kandinsky’s Untitled (Drawing for ‘Diagram 17’) (see FIGURE 6.1) provides an opportunity for children

Inv
172 Artistic
to synthesise their learning in a creative interpretation.
learning
The length of each unit of inquiry can vary, but the intention in each case is to create a
When you see Key terms marked in bold, study the meaningful coherentprocesses
series of activities that scaffold students’ meaningful art-making and deep learning
art-making Refl
within the Arts. In Chapter 2 you’ll find Classroom snapshot: Developing a unit of inquiry on
Definitions nearby to learn important vocabulary for your

ct
Where children
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 172 22/07/22 10:39 PM
bushfires, which would be useful to read now.
t

ne
ec
undertake arts activities
While there are variouso n ways to plan a program for a term or the year, the advantage of
that enable them to
C
profession. See the Glossary at the back of the book for a explore or engage with
ideas, concepts and
planning in modules (units of inquiry) is that coherence, focus and educational purpose are
Teachers: plan in pedagogical easier to articulate and manage within theresearch
Teachers: bounds of the
and module.
selectIf each
the unit of inquiry has been
full list of key terms and definitions. experiences
steps andthat
engaging
ways
activitiesdesigned
are personally for to address specific aspects
artists,ofartworks,
the curriculum forpractices
arts your year group,
or then an Arts program
relevant and valued by
children them.
to reflect critically on for the term or year is created by assembling a sequence of
traditions that inform the themeunits of inquiry.
their ideas, their artwork, theIn this chapter we look at ways
andtochildren’s
plan units of inquiry.
own At the end of this chapter you will find
art-making.
a selection of learning activities
artwork of others, and/or their and examples
They of how they can
plan meaningful ways be organised
to into units of inquiry.
The
own artistic learning practices. websites of curriculum authorities and various arts organisations
engage children in learning about such as Arts-Pop (http://
www.artspop.org.au) also providethese
excellent programreferences.
cultural guides to help you get started on translating
curriculum requirements into coherent and interesting units of inquiry.

ICONS Themes for units of inquiry CHAPTER 3 BEING AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER IN THE ARTS
The themes suggested in At a glance: Themes for units of inquiry highlight a breadth of possibilities
for developing engaging and coherent learning experiences. In choosing a theme, the aim is to

teacher should seek 142 out cultural awareness training, approaches to adopt in the classroom
Identify important educationalists, influential theorists and selected well-known artists using the
include those that sit within a broad ethical and social justice framework outlined above.
Key people icons. Explore these key people in more These approaches advanceFurther
detail in your Go onlinethe
from: recognising resource,
impact of a available
dominant culture on the learning
through your instructor. environment;
FIGURE 6.5 Planning for the considering how one’s
four interconnected own cultural positioning influences one’s thinking, attitudes
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 142
artistic learning processes
22/07/22 10:38 PM

and behaviours; and respecting diverse world views, knowledges and experiences.
Cross-Curriculum Priorities icons clearly direct pre-service teachers to content relating to the three
In the Australian Curriculum: The Arts, children have opportunities to encounter the artistic
CCP areas of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpractices, traditions and artefacts of a diversity of cultures, with particular attention paid to the
Using the six-pointed star template for planning
Histories and Cultures (ATSIHC), Asia and Australia’scultures of First Nations Australians. For this to be authentic, it should lead to new learning about
In Chapter 2, the Classroom snapshot: Developing a unit of inquiry on bushfires and this chapter’s
Engagement with Asia (AAEA), and Sustainability those cultures.
(SUST)
earlier Classroom snapshot: Adapting planning to take advantage of local opportunities show how
Engaging
developing a unit of inquiry with a diversity
is a creative of cultures
process inThere
in itself. an ethical
is noway means
set way you should
to plan a unit ofacknowledge the
Go Further contains extra resources and study
inquiry, tools
but thecreator and contextualise
six-pointed star templatethe artwork
does in terms
guide you of why
towards the it was created
essential and the purpose it serves in
elements,
for each chapter. Ask your instructor for its cultural
including theFurther
the Go four artistic and historical
learning setting.
processes. TheIt star
is important
templateto remember
(see that
FIGURE 6.8 certain
and FIGUREartworks
6.9) is are religious,
where spiritual and culturally sensitive
jotting in nature,
into and whether or how youandintroduce
revising them
until should be
resource and deepen your understanding ofyou
thework out your
topic. ideas, so begin ideas the different sections
you have built carefully
a complete considered in these
and coherent terms.
picture At the
of the very
unit’s least, avoid
underlying simplistic,
concepts (see inappropriate
FIGURE 6.6). activities
You can downloadsuchaas asking
blank copychildren to ‘make an
of the template fromAboriginal painting’.
this book’s Go Further resource.
When you have Avoiding
filled in stereotyping
each section on andthe
generalisations
template, youabout artsbasis
have the practices and traditions
for writing the is another
outline for the way
unit to
of promote
inquiry. Arespect
unit offor cultural
inquiry diversity.
outline Terms
is part likeprogramming
of your ‘Aboriginal art’,
for a‘Australian
school culture’ and
Identify quotes from the curriculum material with the
term. Once you‘African
have yourart’outline,
are sometimes
you move conveniences that
on to the next obscure
tasks, which a rich
are diversity
gatheringofresources
cultures and artistic life.
Australian Curriculum (AC) icon and writing theCCP For the
plans cross-curriculum
for each lesson in thepriority Aboriginal
unit of inquiry (seeand Torres
FIGURE 6.7Strait
). Islander histories and cultures CROSS-CURRICULUM
PRIORITIES
in the Australian Curriculum, one of the organising ideas is: ‘The broader Aboriginal and Torres
ATSIHC
Strait Islander societies encompass a diversity of nations across Australia’ (ACARA, 2015).
There are over 500 Aboriginal nations and we cannot talk about one monolithic Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander culture. Similarly, in Africa, there are 47 to 57 countries, depending on how
147
they are counted, and many more ethnic or tribal groups with their own traditions and heritage.
Culture is not static or delimited, and therefore within every culture there are traditional,
vernacular and contemporary forms of artistic expression that create a rich tapestry of artistic
works
BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp06.indd 147 and practices. Unfortunately, we often find the term ‘Aboriginal art’, for example, is used to 22/07/22 10:38 PM

refer to traditional artworks from the past, or specifically, paintings created with dots of colour.
This ignores the diversity of art forms and the ongoing and varied practices of First Nations
Peoples from diverse regions, nations, times and artistic traditions.
In Chapter 2, At a glance: Protocols and considerations when introducing artworks from diverse
xvi cultures into lessons and the accompanying Classroom snapshot: Authentic engagement with the
artistic heritage of First Nations Australians shows how exploring the art forms from diverse
cultures can be done sensitively and authentically.
 GUIDE TO THE TEXT

END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES

At the end of each chapter you will find the study tools to help you to review, practise and extend your knowledge of
the area.
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

Test your knowledge and consolidate Learning activities

your learning through the Learning STUDY Individual activities
activities. TOOLS 1 In this chapter we learned
that 89 per cent of Australians
believe the arts are an
important part of children’s
education. Interview a range of
people you know to discover if
they have the same view, and
why or why not they hold this view. If possible,
include those with young children as they
represent the parents of your future students.
Write an account of the prevailing views you
uncover and then describe the contemporary arts
education imperatives that should be brought to
people’s attention.
2 How are the arts part of your surroundings and
daily life? Over the period of a week, capture this
information in images (for example, if you have
purchased tickets for a music concert you might
photograph the tickets or the advertisement).
Choose a site such as Canva (https://www.canva.
com) or Moodboard (http://www.gomoodboard.com)
to assemble the images into a visual story. After
reviewing the images and the story they tell,
write an account of how, why and where the arts
are part of your life. Aim to express the different
ways they contribute to your life and sense of
who you are.
Group activities
1 Create two debating teams and debate the
proposition: ‘Arts education for children is
pointless because it does not lead to a good career’.
2 Use GroupMap (https://www.groupmap.com),
an online collaborative brainstorming tool, to
capture views about the reasons arts education is
important. Use the voting facility to rank these and
then design a graphic that promotes these reasons.
3 In small groups, prepare and role-play a
presentation advocating for the Arts to be included
regularly in the weekly teaching program. Decide on
a context and audience (parents’ night, school board
meeting, staff meeting etc.). Develop a presentation
format and support material (PowerPoint, brochure
etc.) to get your message across. Employ your drama
skills to create a convincing performance.

Extend your understanding through the Further reading

suggested Further reading relevant to Barton, G & Baguley, M (Eds.)
(2017). The Palgrave handbook
each chapter. of global arts education. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Ehrlich, B (2015). The neuroscience
of art: What are the sources
of creativity and innovation?
Salzburg Global Seminar Report
547. Retrieved from http://www.
salzburgglobal.org/go/547
Naughton, C, Biesta, G & Cole,
DR (Eds.) (2018). Art, artists and
Winner, E, Goldstein, TR & Vincent-
Lancrin, S (2013). Arts for art’s
pedagogy: Philosophy and the sake? The impact of arts education.
arts in education. Routledge. Centre for Educational Research
Robinson, K (2011). RSA animate and Innovation, OECD Publishing.
(online video). Retrieved from doi: 10.1787/9789264180789-en\
http://vimeo.com/29485820

24

BK-CLA-DINHAM_5E-220153-Chp01.indd 24 22/07/22 5:37 PM

xvii
 Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that

will help you prepare your lectures and assessments. These teaching tools
are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors for Australia
or cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.

MINDTAP
Premium online teaching and learning tools are available on the MindTap platform - the personalised eLearning solution.
MindTap is a flexible and easy-to-use platform that helps build student confidence and gives you a clear picture of their
progress. We partner with you to ease the transition to digital – we’re with you every step of the way.
The Cengage Mobile App puts your course directly into students’ hands with course materials available on their
smartphone or tablet. Students can read on the go, complete practice quizzes or participate in interactive real-time
activities.
MindTap for Dinham’s Delivering Authentic Arts Education 5th edition is full of innovative resources to support critical
thinking, and help your students move from memorisation to mastery! Includes:
• Dinham’s Delivering Authentic Arts Education 5th edition eBook
• Additional Units of Inquiry
• Lesson plan templates
• Video Activities
• And more
MindTap is a premium purchasable eLearning tool. Contact your Cengage
learning consultant to find out how MindTap can transform your course.

INSTRUCTOR’S GUIDE
The Instructor’s guide includes:
• Chapter objectives • Go Further Student resources –worksheets, templates
• Key terms and notes on using Units of Inquiry
• Instructor notes on using the Units of Inquiry • Tutorial activities

POWERPOINT™ PRESENTATIONS
Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint slides to enhance your lecture presentations and handouts by reinforcing the key
principles of your subject.

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Add the digital files of graphs, tables, pictures and flow charts into your course management system, use them in student
handouts, or copy them into your lecture presentations

xviii
 GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES

FOR THE STUDENT

MINDTAP FOR DELIVERING AUTHENTIC ARTS EDUCATION 5TH EDITION

MindTap is the next-level online learning tool that helps you get better grades!
MindTap gives you the resources you need to study – all in one place and available when you need them. In the MindTap
Reader, you can make notes, highlight text and even find a definition directly from the page.
If your instructor has chosen MindTap for your subject this semester, log in to MindTap to:
• Get better grades
• Save time and get organised
• Connect with your instructor and peers
• Study when and where you want, online and mobile
• Complete assessment tasks as set by your instructor
When your instructor creates a course using MindTap, they will let you
know your course key so you can access the content. Please purchase
MindTap only when directed by your instructor. Course length is set by
your instructor.

xix
 Foreword
It is hard to consider what text we employed in teacher education Arts courses prior to 2011 and
the first publication of Delivering Authentic Arts Education. Thankfully, Judith Dinham provided
a ‘go-to’ primary Arts education resource that was accessible to pre-service teachers, novice
teachers, and experienced and well-qualified discipline experts. Now, 10 years on and in its fifth
edition, with updates and additional inclusions, this text has been cemented in 19 universities
across Australia and has become Australia’s most widely used primary Arts education text.
It has also been adopted in New Zealand.
This new edition provides readers with a solid structure incorporating historical and
contemporary theoretical framing that contextualises Arts education within the Australian
educational landscape. The first six chapters (Part 1: The ABC of Arts Education) challenge
teachers to consider the import of delivering authentic arts experiences and to embrace the
challenges of becoming an authentic Arts educator, irrespective of their arts skills base.
Importantly, Dinham positions learners as artists and active participants in their learning
journey. Pedagogical tools, planning advice and assessment strategies support teachers ongoing
professional learning, with approaches evidenced by long-standing arts engagement experiences.
Part 1 concludes with a section devoted to units of inquiry, which provides exemplary
planning, activities and experiences to engage learner cognition and extend creative processes
beyond praxis. The units of inquiry offer a range of innovative, assembled inquiry-based activities
that can be easily adapted to different contexts. This unique feature ensures the text is a
resource-rich blueprint of practical strategies for how we can teach the Arts authentically.
Part 2 Teaching in the Arts provides a chapter each for Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and
Visual Arts, aligned with the Australian Curriculum. Each art form is given equal and unbiased
attention, with guiding principles providing clear reasoning behind suggested approaches,
considering the nuances found within the individual Arts disciplines. While each chapter
regards the art forms individually, they skilfully craft potentialities for interdisciplinary and
cross-arts approaches. Making and Responding activities feature throughout, along with ideas
for incorporating performative and exhibitive outcomes of student works, and how these can be
planned, considered, and incorporated into authentic, industry-echoed events.
While it is not difficult to measure the impressive impact and success of a text in its fifth
edition, 10 years after first being published – including sales of more than 15 500 copies, its
inclusion as core reading in universities across Australia and New Zealand, and its impact on
teacher education students, particularly generalist teachers – what is harder to measure and
celebrate is the ripple effect that this book has had on classrooms and learners’ experiences of
the Arts in Australasia and around the world. This impact on children and young people who have
been the recipients of this resource, with its positive and engaging authentic arts experiences,
is undeniable. Indeed, the impact is too vast to entirely capture as many of the activities and
approaches outlined in the five editions of this book are now common in classrooms across the
country, with children and young people as the benefactors of this well-considered, informative,
resourceful and accessible text. Initial teacher education courses, primary teachers’ in-service
programs and school communities all owe a considerable debt of gratitude to Judith Dinham as
the impact of this text has taught us all how we can successfully be delivering authentic
arts education.
Peter Cook
Deputy Head of School, Education
Associate Professor Arts Education
University of Southern Queensland

xx
Introduction
A world without the arts would be a grey and tuneless place. The arts are so seamlessly woven
into the fabric of our everyday lives that it is easy to overlook the extent to which they contribute
to the quality of our lives. Music accompanies our everyday activities as we plug in our mobile
devices while taking a morning run, or listen on the radio while driving. A night out to a dance
club, concert hall, cinema or theatre immerses us in the worlds of dance, music, media arts and
drama. We watch TV shows where interior stylists decorate homes, and we employ the same
visual arts skills to choose the colours and textures in our own homes. The retail world of fashion,
jewellery, magazines, furniture and advertising engages our senses through the quality of visual
design. Our urban environment is enlivened by music, public artworks such as murals and
sculptures, and interesting architecture. Our digital world of online videos and computer games
draws on our media arts skills.
The arts are not only part of what we see and hear around us, but also influence the way
we think and the way we see ourselves. Participating in the arts is an important dimension of
children’s development because arts-making activates complex thinking processes through the
abstract nature of music, the embodied materialisation of thought through dance and drama,
the externalisation and abstract representation of ideas by drawing, and the multidimensional
weaving of sensory experience in media arts creation. The arts are also integral to the way we
build our personal and cultural identities through traditional songs and national anthems;
dance, paintings, drama and movies that tell our stories; and iconic architecture that presents
us to the world.
The arts have always been part of human life, but in our contemporary world their role
is changing as the digital revolution transforms the way we think and structure knowledge,
experiences and understandings. The interactive and navigational ways of negotiating
knowledge in the digital world parallel the way artists work, and so researchers are increasingly
interested in the arts as a way of gaining insight into these types of cognition (Bourriaud, 2002).
Similarly, the unprecedented growth of forms of communication that rely on visual formats
– such as websites, videos, PowerPoint®, digital images and Zoom™ – means that visual literacy
is becoming a critical functioning skill. This is so much so that Australian Government agencies
observe that ‘artistic and visual literacy are increasingly as important to success in work and life
as numeracy and language skills’ (Australia Council for the Arts (Ozco) & DEST, 2004, p. 4).
The growth of the knowledge society means that success in this economy requires creative
and innovative thinkers more than the labourers needed for the industrial world. In the USA,
research shows that 97 per cent of surveyed employers believe that creativity is increasingly
important in the workplace – though 85 per cent seeking employees with such skills reported
having difficulty finding them. The report concludes that ‘it is clear that the arts … provide skills
sought by employers of the third millennium’ (Lichtenberg et al., 2008, p. 17).
Globalisation of economies and global issues like migration and climate change have blurred
the boundaries of societies. Fostering connections and relationships across and within cultures
has placed greater emphasis on cultural understanding and building people’s sense of identity
and connection. Once again, the arts attract attention because of their capacity to meet
these needs.
Across the world there are growing concerns about rising mental health issues. This trend has
recently escalated due to a combination of the pandemic, recent natural disasters and turbulent
political climate. Therefore, it is important to note that health and therapeutic research (Staricoff,
2006) shows there are clear benefits for personal wellbeing gained from encountering and
participating in the arts. This has also been demonstrated in studies of recovery and self-healing

xxi
INTRODUCTION

arts projects deployed within communities following disasters (Adnams Jones, 2018). In schools,
arts education plays a crucial role in bolstering children’s sense of wellbeing (Clift & Camic, 2015;
Noble & Wyatt, 2008; Thomson et al., 2015; Winner et al., 2013).
The arts bring pleasure, joy, comfort and understanding into people’s lives. They allow people
to express who they are and to find meaning in their world. In the same way that prehistoric
people drew on cave walls and toddlers draw on bedroom walls, we know that expressing
ourselves artistically is a primary and enduring human need.

Is this book for you?

This book is for pre-service and novice primary school teachers. Experienced teachers who are
looking for a guide to contemporary arts teaching should also find it useful.
The Arts is a mandated learning area in both the Australian and New Zealand primary
school curricula. For the most part, generalist primary school teachers have the responsibility
of providing their students with good-quality arts learning opportunities that enable them to
develop the capabilities deemed necessary for success and fulfilment in our emerging world. This
is a challenge, but you have a pleasurable job to do – one that will bring you many rewards as well.
If you do not feel confident about teaching in the arts, be reassured that you have this
capability within you. It just needs to be harnessed and directed. Furthermore, opportunities such
as partnerships with arts organisations as well as access to professional networks and online
resources are providing more support than ever before. The purpose of this book is to support you
in developing your understandings, skills and confidence to initiate an authentic arts learning
program in the primary classroom. It does this by:

providing you with enough background information to appreciate the true nature
1 of arts education and its importance in the curriculum

encouraging you to recognise, celebrate and use your own creative and artistic
2 capacities (which may be dormant, but do exist) – and your pedagogical skills
– to bring arts education alive in your classroom, and for you to be the best
teacher you can be

directing you to the range of options and support available to you through
3 partnerships, professional networks and online resources

reviewing the features of an authentic arts program and building the links between
4 theory and practice with sample lessons, supporting information pages, ideas for
programs, suggestions and guidelines – so that you can initiate an authentic arts
education program, function effectively in the classroom, and be confident that you
will succeed.

Both the title of this book and the content refer to authentic arts education. What this means
is arts education that is genuine education – where children actually develop more sophisticated
understandings, skills and capabilities in the arts, which support satisfying self-expression
and appreciation. To be blunt, far too much of what passes for arts education is not much
more than busy work or a fun-time interlude in the ‘real’ work of education. Not that there is
anything wrong with having fun, but arts education also needs to be purposeful, stimulating and
challenging learning – and all education should be fun!

xxii
 INTRODUCTION

How this text is organised

The book is organised into two parts.

PART provides an overview of the contemporary PART devotes a chapter to each of

1 context for arts education and then
examines the three interconnected
elements of arts education in the primary
school – the student, the teacher and
the curriculum. Part 1 concludes with a
programming guide and range of learning
experiences that can be implemented in
the primary school classroom.
2 the five Arts subjects – Dance,
Drama, Media Arts, Music and
Visual Arts – with attention to
key concepts and ways of
teaching the subject.

Pedagogical tools
As this text serves as a reliable resource for learning about and teaching in the arts, a number of
pedagogical features have been provided to assist your studies. The text makes regular references
to the Australian Curriculum. Even if the state or territory where you live has developed its own
curriculum, this text is still relevant because these curricula are derived from the Australian
Curriculum, and the underpinning concepts and expectations are consistent. Icons in the margins
draw attention to any direct references to the Australian Curriculum and cross-curriculum
priorities. Other icons highlight references to significant educators mentioned in the text.
Each chapter begins with a numbered list of the topics covered. These align to the numbered
headings throughout the chapter so it is easy to locate the relevant section. Under each heading,
subheadings will help you go directly to the part you need at any time. The summary at the end of
the chapter reinforces the main points. Each chapter concludes with the provision of resources for
you to consolidate and extend your learning.
Throughout the book you will find four different types of boxed information to facilitate
your learning:
• At a glance boxes encapsulate key information. These can be photocopied and pinned up at
your workstation for reference.
• Starter ideas suggest the types of learning experiences you can introduce in your classroom
to put theory into practice.
• Classroom snapshots offer examples of arts education in action in the classroom. You will
see how the ideas discussed in the book are enacted and translated into real-life classroom
situations.
• Online resources comprise carefully curated lists of websites that offer good-quality support for
your teaching and self-education. These websites extend the value of the book because you
can continue to access up-to-date information.
Specialist terms in the text are highlighted and, for easy reference, an explanation is provided
in the margin. A glossary at the end of the book lists all these terms alphabetically.
All these features are intended to support your professional development as an educator in the
arts. Hopefully you see the value of keeping this text as part of your professional library for future
reference while teaching.

Terminology
While a glossary of terminology is included in this book, several terms used throughout the
text should be clarified here. ‘The arts’ is a collective term referring to dance, drama, media arts,

xxiii
INTRODUCTION

music, and visual arts and other related forms of artistic expression. When capitalised, the Arts is
generally referring to the Arts learning area in the Australian Curriculum. ‘Artworks’ and ‘artists’
are usually used in this text as collective nouns to mean all products of the different arts areas
and all creators. This is in order to avoid cumbersome specification when meaning any and all art
forms or creators. Therefore, a musical performance is an artwork and a composer is also an artist.
The term ‘pre-service teachers’ refers to those who are studying to gain a teaching
qualification. Novice teachers are qualified teachers in the first years of their teaching careers.
Throughout the text, children and students are terms used interchangeably to refer to the young
people you will be teaching.

References
Adnams Jones, S (2018). Art-making with refugees and survivors: Creative and transformative responses to
trauma after natural disasters, war and other crises. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Australia Council for the Arts (Ozco) & DEST (2004). Request for tender for the provision of national review of
education in visual arts, craft, design and visual communications. FA/6416.
Bourriaud, N (2002). Relational aesthetics (rev. edn). Translated S Pleasance & F Woods. Buenos Aires:
Adriana Hidalgo Editoria.
Clift, S & Camic, PM (Eds.) (2015). Oxford textbook of creative arts, health, and wellbeing: International
perspectives on practice, policy and research. Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/med/
9780199688074.001.0001
Lichtenberg, J, Woock, C & Wright, M (2008). Ready to innovate: Are educators and executives aligned on the
creative readiness of the US workforce? The Conference Board. Retrieved from http://www.artsusa.org
Noble, T & Wyatt, T (2008). Scoping study into approaches to student wellbeing: Literature review. Australian
Catholic University and Erebus International.
Staricoff, R (2006). Arts in health: the value of evaluation. Journal of The Royal Society for the Promotion of
Health, 126(3), 116–120. doi: 10.1177/1466424006064300
Thomson, P, Coles, R, Hallewell, M & Keane, J (2015). A critical review of the Creative Partnerships
archive: How was cultural value understood, researched and evidenced? Retrieved from http://www.
creativitycultureeducation.org/a-critical-review-of-the-creative-partnerships-archive
Winner, E, Goldstein, TR & Vincent-Lancrin, S (2013). Arts for art’s sake? The impact of arts education. Centre
for Educational Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/9789264180789-en

xxiv
About the author
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DR JUDITH DINHAM, School of Education, Curtin University
Judith Dinham has held senior university teaching and leadership positions in arts education
and artists’ education over a number of decades. At Curtin University she is the Director of
Learning and Teaching in the School of Education, having previously held the position of
Program Co-ordinator for the Bachelor of Education (Primary).
She is a Fellow of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia
(HERDSA); and has an Edith Cowan University Fellowship, along with a number of other awards
for excellence and innovation in teaching.
She was the founding director of ProArts, a professional development provider for teachers,
as well as being an International Baccalaureate examiner for 10 years and a board member of
the Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts (WAAPA) and National Exhibition Touring
Structure, WA. Her broad curriculum experience includes writing and presenting arts education
courses in Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary Education for universities, state government
and overseas curriculum bodies, Professional and Graduate Education, and Open University
Australia. Her research interests relate to pre-service education in the arts. Judith Dinham is also
a practising artist and exhibition curator. The monograph Judith Dinham: An artistic journey
(https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8122&context=ecuworks) describes her
artistic practice.

Acknowledgements
The first edition of Delivering authentic arts education was published in 2011. The production of
this fifth edition directly relates to the continued support the text has received from university
lecturers around the country who have made it the recommended text for their students. I am
indebted to the publisher’s commitment to publishing a new updated edition every three years
so the text continues to be relevant for each intake of pre-service teachers. As this edition
goes to print, the outcomes from the Australian Curriculum Review are not yet endorsed for
implementation, so a conservative approach to referencing anticipated changes has been taken.
For the preparation of this new manuscript, I wish to acknowledge and sincerely thank
colleagues, teachers, students, friends and family for their assistance and, importantly, the
reviewers listed below who provided critical review of the content.
I would also like to thank those who made generous contributions of artwork, images and
ideas for inclusion in the book including Elizabeth Ford, Christine Latham, Sylvia Le Min Maslin,
Angela Perry and Gill Treichel. A number of images were sourced from the following educational
institutions: Bayswater Primary School, Hale School, MLC Claremont, Moerlina School, Edith
Cowan University and Curtin University with kind assistance from staff and parents. In this
regard, a special thank you to Kate Hall, Angela Perry and Nina Usher for facilitating this.
This book is intended for pre-service primary school teachers and as such I have especially
valued the contributions of past and present pre-service students. The stories of several teaching
experiences recounted by my students on their Blackboard Discussion Board bring an immediacy
to the matters being discussed and provide valuable insights.

xxv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A special thanks goes to Fiona Hammond, Margie Asmus and the whole wonderful team at
Cengage who have masterfully brought this book into being. It is always a pleasure working with
such committed and capable individuals.
Ideas float in a ferment and any number of fragments can take hold and grow into arts
creations and lessons. These in turn may suggest possibilities for interpretation by someone else.
I have willingly shared ideas with my students and colleagues and, while I have acknowledged
known sources in this text, I also want to thank all those who, with a teacher’s instinct and
collegial spirit, have generously contributed to the ferment that feeds us all.
Judith Dinham
2022

The author and publisher would like to thank the following reviewers, whose feedback helped
shape this fifth edition:
Helen Sandercoe – La Trobe University
Katie Burke – University of Southern Queensland
Marta Kawka – Griffith University
Rachael Jacobs – Western Sydney University
Dr Rachael Jefferson-Buchanan – Charles Sturt University
Robin Pascoe – Murdoch University
Victoria McTaggart – Australian Catholic University

xxvi
 1
PART
The ABC of Arts Education
The Arts is one of the mandated learning areas in the Australian Curriculum and includes the
subjects of Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and Visual Arts. All students from Foundation
through the primary school years are expected to have an education in the Arts subjects. How
this is achieved will vary across state and territory jurisdictions and from school to school.
Nevertheless, all teachers have a role to play in delivering arts education in a contemporary
curriculum – even if the school has specialist teachers. If you are preparing to be a generalist
teacher, it is possible that you have a modest background in the arts, lack confidence in your
ability or feel intimidated by the challenge. However, you will find that you can deliver a
worthwhile Arts program if you are willing to try.
Part 1 of this book is an examination of the principles of delivering good-quality arts
education. It begins with an exploration of the context and rationale for arts education
because you need some understanding about why arts education is in the curriculum in order
to engage with arts learning intelligently. The rest of this section is devoted to addressing the
three key players in education: the learner, the teacher and the learning area. Understanding
essential concepts in relation to each of these three factors represents the ABC of arts
education:

A B C
Authentic arts Being the best Children at the centre
education. teacher you can be. of their learning.
 1
CHAPTER
Putting you in the picture –
the rationale and context
for arts education
In this chapter you will discover that:
1.1 the arts are part of what it means to be human
1.2 the nature of arts education changes as society’s needs and values
change – so arts education today is different from arts education in the
past
1.3 contemporary arts education research, policy and scholarship
illuminate the nature of arts education for the new era
1.4 arts education is in the curriculum to seriously contribute to developing
children’s capabilities to meet the challenges of the new era
1.5 all benefits of arts education derive from a rich experience of the arts as
both artist and audience
1.6 implementing new educational practices and a meaningful program
requires dedication and forward-thinking approaches.

Alamy Stock Photo/Cristiano Fronteddu

2
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

1.1 The arts are integral to

human existence
The arts, such as painting and dancing, are forms of expression found in every culture.
They are integral to human society, and archaeologists suggest that our artistic practices, along
with rituals and new technologies, are the three key drivers in the evolution of humankind
(BBC News, 2000).
In Australia a rock art painting of a two-metre-long kangaroo, securely dated to between
17 500 and 17 100 years ago, is the oldest unambiguous in situ Aboriginal painting (Finch et al.,
2021). The oldest known images in the world are hand stencils found in a cave in Sulawesi,
Indonesia. These are 39 900 years old (Aubert et al., 2014), although other discoveries of paint
pigments and tools suggest that between 350 000 and 400 000 years ago Stone Age people were
painting their bodies for ritualistic and ceremonial occasions (BBC News, 2000). By the Bronze
Age (3300–1200 BCE) artisans were employed to produce ornaments and jewellery. These are
objects that have no utilitarian role, meaning that they were being valued for their artistry,
beauty and symbolic or ritualistic significance (Davies, 2012).
Artistic expression across cultures and throughout history serves to reveal much about the
societies within which they were created – their needs, values and beliefs – and how people
understood and made sense of their world. Much of the information gained by archaeologists and
historians about civilisations and eras of the past comes from studying their artistic pursuits. We
see that the earliest forms of artistic practices and artefacts encapsulated key qualities that still
hold true today:
• Art is an expression and communication of meaning.
• Art engages our aesthetic sensibilities.
• Art is an integral part of our existence as a social species.
The centrality of the arts in our lives and the life of a society is reflected today in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which states in Article 27 that: ‘Everyone has the right freely
to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts, and to share in scientific
advancement and its benefits’ (United Nations, 1948).
As educators, recognising the primacy of the arts in societies helps us to understand the role
and significance of the Arts in the school curriculum today.

Understanding the arts today

In the Western codification of knowledge, artistic pursuits such as dance, drama, music and
visual arts have been formalised into disciplines, each with unique histories, philosophical
and theoretical underpinnings, practices and fields of research. Media Arts has naturally been
established more recently. These disciplines are referred to collectively as the Arts or the Creative
Arts; however, it is important to note that these are not universal categories. For example,
calligraphy has a rich and highly developed history in Islamic art, and there are many other
significant artistic traditions across cultures that exist outside these categories.

Historical insights
The written history of Western art describes periods and eras, and reveals how particular belief
systems, philosophies or social and political forces have had a notable and distinctive influence
on the artworks produced. The following examples help to illustrate how the arts are expressions
of their histories and beliefs:

3
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

• Ancient Egyptian art (c. 3000 BCE–300 CE) was strongly related to societal beliefs about
the afterlife and led to the building of extraordinary structures such as the Sphinx and the
pyramids.
• The Classical Greek period (c. 500–386 BCE) was when the first schools of philosophical
thought – led by well-known luminaries Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – were established.
These philosophies influenced the creation of bronze and marble sculptures depicting
athletic, well-muscled young men that reflected philosophical notions of an ideal form and
mathematical concepts of beauty.
• The Byzantine Empire period (330–1453 CE) related to the spread of Christianity. Artistic
enterprise was focused on the building of magnificent churches and mosaic images on interior
walls that told the Christian story with symbolic and ethereal figures often floating on gold
backgrounds. Ecclesiastical chants in music from this time are on UNESCO’s list of Intangible
Cultural Heritage.
• The Renaissance (c. 1400–1550) was characterised by an intellectual shift from the religious
orthodoxy of the Medieval period to humanism, where human nature was the primary guiding
force. It was based on a resurgence of interest in learning from classical Greek sources. This
was seeded by the migration of Greek scholars to Italy when Constantinople fell to the
Ottomans; fostered by the patronage of church and wealthy families in Florence; characterised
by the development of linear perspective in paintings to create depth of field and a more
naturalistic representation of the world; and represented by artists such as Michelangelo,
Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.
• Romanticism (1780–1850) was a rejection of the prevailing precepts of reason and scientific
rationalism associated with the Enlightenment. It embraced the ideals of individual rights
cultural pluralism
The recognition that and liberty associated with the French Revolution by asserting that the creative subjective
diverse cultures have powers, imagination, feelings and emotions of the individual artist were valid ways of
parallel and equally experiencing the world and asserting the rights of the individual. Romanticism found
valid frameworks for
valuing their cultural
expression across painting, music, architecture and literature, and influenced many art
products. movements in the 20th century.
praxial philosophy
A term coined by
Professor Philip
Contemporary art
Alperson as a basis The philosophical propositions of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) in the 20th century developed
for determining the the conceptualisation of artworks as cultural products that manifest or shape the cultural
natures and intrinsic
identity of a community. We see this reflected in the categorisation of ‘Australian art’ or ‘British
value of music; it refers
to the music as a form art’, where interpretation of these artworks tells us about who we are as a nation. By extension,
of experiential learning this includes challenging the status quo or dominant discourses through exploration of social
positioned within a issues such as multiculturalism, racism, the rights of First Nations Peoples, and cultural diversity.
diverse range of social,
psychological and
Cultural pluralism, outlined by the philosopher Horace Kallen (1882–1974), and the importance
cultural frameworks of valuing artistic production in diverse cultures, has been promoted by the writings of Lawrence
visual culture Alloway (1926–1990), Graeme Chalmers (1943—) and others. The aesthetic aspect of artistic
Embraces any medium creations has been challenged by these propositions since the notion of beauty in one culture is
that has a key visual
potentially different from that in another. The situated nature of the arts, whereby the context
component. This
includes products of its making and its audience are factors that contribute to its meaning, is further advanced in
such as comics and Philip Alperson’s praxial philosophy of music. Similarly, Griselda Pollock (1949—) has played
advertising. The a significant role in developing new intellectual frameworks for thinking about the arts in the
articulation of visual
culture opened the
context of social factors such as feminism, gender, ethnicity and culture.
door for media arts Ideas about what constitutes the arts have broadened, and academics such as Kerry Freedman
products to be seen as
have been instrumental in promoting a paradigm shift away from the traditional visual art
art forms and for visual
arts to be understood in disciplines to the field of visual culture. This has opened the door for media arts products, such
this context too. as comics and advertising, to be viewed and critiqued as art forms.

4
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

Linking the arts with the affective domain and separate from cognition, as conceptualised in affective domain
Bloom’s taxonomy, was reconceptualised by the work of Howard Gardner and the Project Zero This is one of the three
domains in Bloom’s
team, who have been instrumental in positioning the arts as forms of cognition (ways of knowing). taxonomy. It refers to
Today, in light of the social and cultural multiplicities we encounter in a globalised and the way we engage

networked world, we are increasingly aware of the underlying contingency of the way we with our world through
emotions, values,
understand our world (Smith, 2019). Whereas earlier arts periods are usually distinguished by appreciation, attitudes
an organising and unifying philosophy or ideology, today that is not the case as a diversity of and motivations.
materials, forms and subject matter are brought together by a diversity of artists to explore and
express their thoughts, feelings and ideas.

Howard Gardner

1.2 The evolution of arts education as

(b. 1943)

societal needs and values shift

Arts subjects such as visual arts and music have been in the primary school curriculum for about
two centuries, while others, such as media arts, are obviously more recent additions. You may
wonder why arts subjects are in the curriculum at all, but there has never been one immutable
reason why these subjects (or any subjects) are taught in schools.
FIGURE 1.1 provides a snapshot of several major changes to arts education imperatives over time.

The evolving nature of our understanding of the arts and their role in education prompts
researchers and educationalists to evolve teaching and learning practices accordingly. Hence, Dorothy

Late 18th century Early 20th century 1960s 1990s

Industrial Revolution:
When the economy
moved from farming to
manufacturing during the
Industrial Revolution,
public education was
introduced to build a
skilled workforce.
Psychology: At the end of
the 19th century psychology
was established as a
separate scientific discipline.
It informed the educational
theories of John Dewey, who
was highly influential in
spearheading a new
conception of education
based on experiential
learning and the
development of the whole
child.
The Space Race: The USA and
USSR, as rival world powers,
sought to prove superiority by
being the first to put a person
on the moon within the
decade. In education this led
to a strong focus on empirical
knowledge, academic rigour
and scientific education.
Economic Rationalism: In
the 1980s and 1990s the
political view that a
market-oriented economic
policy was the foundation of
a strong society took hold.
Education’s primary role was
to develop citizens who
contributed to society
through their participation in
the economy as workers and
consumers.

Art education for manual Art education as Art education to develop Art education for
dexterity and technical self-expression knowledge in the discipline employment and
skill consumption

Drawing and painting was
included in the school
curriculum to develop
manual dexterity and
technical drawing skills for
factory-based work.
In a child-centred approach
to education, the Arts
curriculum was focused on
children’s self-expression.
The experience of engaging
in art-making was valued for
developing children as
individual beings.
In a discipline-based
approach to education, there
was a shift in focus to the
knowledge base of the arts.
Along with art making,
aesthetics, art criticism and
art history became part of
the curriculum.
The cognitive sciences and
new conceptions of mind,
learning and intelligence
supported the establishment
of Learning Areas in the
curriculum to provide
broad-based learning that
improved employment
options – including in the
Arts.

FIGURE 1.1 A snapshot of major changes to arts education imperatives over time

5
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

Heathcote brought new understandings about pedagogy to drama education through practice-led
research, as represented by her Mantle of the Expert approach. Rudolf Laban transformed dance
education and scholarship through his pioneering role in modern dance, and his analysis of dance
movements and development of a dance notation system. The development of music education for
children has been highly influenced by the methods of Carl Orff, Kodály Zoltán, Shinichi
Suzuki and Émile Jacques-Dalcroze. Viktor Lowenfeld, Elliot Eisner, Ellen Winner and
Elliot Eisner (1933–2014)
Lois Hetland are among those who have contributed significantly to our understanding of the
Carl Orff (1895–1982)
nature of visual arts education. Other international luminaries who have advanced our understanding
Kodály Zoltán (1882–1967)
of the arts in education through their scholarship, advocacy and professional leadership include
Shinichi Suzuki
(1898–1998) Allen P Britton, Jane Bonbright, Al Hurwitz and Ken Robinson.
Émile Jacques-Dalcroze In Australia, Susan Wright has promoted the arts as meaning-making enterprises for young
(1865–1950) children, Georgina Barton has built on the work of the London Group to promote arts literacy concepts
Viktor Lowenfeld in education, while Robyn Ewing has been a long-time researcher and advocate for arts-led curricula.
(1903–1960)
Elliot Eisner (1933–2014)
The arts represent a rich and diverse field of human endeavour that continues to evolve and
Allen P Britton change as society changes. The key dimensions of the arts as we conceptualise them today are
(1914–2003) summarised in FIGURE 1.2 and this provides a working guide for teachers. This conceptualisation
Jane Bonbright of the arts is reflected in the Australian Curriculum, in other national curricula, and in the
Al Hurwitz (1920–2012) discussion throughout this text.
Ken Robinson In contemporary society, educational imperatives are driven primarily by global forces: the
(1950–2020)
digital revolution, the growth of a knowledge economy, shifting economic power, the changing

A process of exploration and self-expression

• Making art is a way of personally exploring the world, making
meaning and expressing ourselves
• This has value in terms of self-development and satisfaction

An expression of social A product that communicates

and cultural identity
• Making art, participating in
community artmaking or artistic
performances, and engaging with
artworks contribute to social and
cultural identity and a sense of
belonging
• Societies and cultures maintain,
curate and revere artworks and
practices that collectively represent
who they are
with an audience
• Artworks are manifestations of
art-making
• Artworks communicate ideas:
personal, political, social, cultural
Arts are experienced and historical
in multiple ways • Artworks are shared with an
audience – whether that audience
is only the artist or others as well
• Artworks perform different
functions including devotional,
ritualistic and ceremonial
functions

An aesthetic experience
• We engage with artwork through participation, listening or
viewing
• This is an aesthetic experience in that it involves our sensory
faculties, feelings and thoughtful consideration
• The experience can be transformative

FIGURE 1.2 The arts are experienced in multiple ways

6
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

nature of work, increasing international mobility and displacement, increasing engagement with
diverse cultures through globalised economies, decolonial perspectives in relation to First Nations
Peoples and cultures, growing concern for disenfranchised groups, fragmenting society and
individuals’ mental wellbeing, as well as environmental and sustainability concerns. Just over a
decade ago, Australia embarked on a wide-ranging reform of schooling, and the education sector
more generally, in response to the significant societal changes afoot. Therefore, the way you were
educated in the arts is not necessarily the way we expect students to be educated today.

Introduction of the Australian Curriculum as part of a

reform agenda
In Australia, for some time now, the incumbent ministerial council on education has set out
the educational goals for the coming decade to ensure that the curriculum taught in schools
is responsive to emerging needs. In December 2008, the educational goals for the coming
decade were outlined in the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians
(Australia’s Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs
(MCEETYA), 2008). In setting out the goals for education (see FIGURE 1.3), the Melbourne
Declaration acknowledged that complex environmental, social and economic pressures, as well
as the ongoing rapid advances in information and communication technologies, were placing

3
Cross-curriculum
Priorities
Ab
Isla orig
nd inal
er
his and
As tor Tor
Developed through en i a ies res
ga and an
d c Strait
learning experiences ge Au ult
me str
in the different nt alia ure
Su wit ’s s
Learning Areas sta hA
ina sia ces
bil
ity S c ien
al
Lit
era oci
cy n dS
a
ies
7 Nu nit s
me m a Art on
General Pe rac Hu T he ati
Capabilities rso y d uc
na al E
l an sic
ds P hy
oc d
Eth ial an s
cap a lth gie
ica
lu aci H e n olo
nd ty ch
Cri ers Te
tic tan ce
al a din en
nd g Sci
cre es
Int ati ag
erc ve
t n gu
ult h ink L a 8
ura ing
lu Learning
nd ths
ers Ma Areas
ICT tan
Ca din h
pa g glis
bil En
ity

© Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2010. CC BY 4.0

FIGURE 1.3 The Melbourne Declaration educational goals are reflected in the three-dimensional design
of the Australian Curriculum with its learning areas, general capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities

7
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

new demands on Australian education and the country’s ability to compete in the global
knowledge and innovation economy (MCEETYA, 2008, pp. 4–5). The creation of the Australian
Curriculum, which is the current national curriculum, was guided by the Melbourne Declaration.

The design of the Australian Curriculum

In 2009, when the newly established Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority
(ACARA) embarked on developing the Australian Curriculum, it retained the learning area
structure introduced by the preceding National Curriculum Framework (MCEETYA, 1989). The Arts
was one of these learning areas, comprising five arts subjects: Dance, Drama, Media Arts, Music and
Visual Arts. The Australian Curriculum took the additional step of mandating that all children should
be educated in all five arts areas every year from Foundation through the primary years of schooling.
The Australian Curriculum also introduced ‘general capabilities’ and ‘cross-curriculum
priorities’, which were to be embedded across all learning areas. This three-dimensional
curriculum (as shown in FIGURE 1.3) aimed to frame a coherent approach to education that would
prepare children for their future.

COAG/EC (2019)
Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education
Council of Declaration
Australian Sets goals for Australian education
Governments for the following decade
Education Council

ACECQA ACARA
National quality Australian
Australian framework for early Curriculum Australian
Children’s childhood education and The Arts learning Curriculum,
Education and care area Assessment
Care Quality The Early Years Learning and Reporting
Authority Framework (EYLF) Authority

AITSL
Australian professional
Australian Institute standards for teaching
of Teaching and
School Leadership
VectorStock/bspsupanut

FIGURE 1.4 The policy and curriculum framework that sits around teaching

The development of the Australian Curriculum was a phased process that included a review
and rewrite (Donnelly & Wiltshire, 2014), before full implementation in 2016. A review of the
whole Curriculum in 2020–21 focused on streamlining the content so more time could be devoted
to developing children’s deeper understanding of core concepts; and refinements that would make
it easier for teachers to interpret the expectations.
Responsibility for the implementation of the Australian Curriculum rests with states and
territories, and despite the goal of a national curriculum, local variations and hybrid models have
emerged. For example, in Victoria, Visual Communication Design is an additional Arts subject;
and in Western Australia an ‘adopt and adapt’ approach has resulted in the nomination of ‘core’
and ‘additional’ content for each Arts subject, and a reduction in the number of Arts subjects each
school must offer (Chapman et al., 2016). Nonetheless, the Australian Curriculum provides the
overarching framework.

8
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

The ‘learning area’ curriculum model is also used in New Zealand, but there the Arts learning
area embraces dance, drama, music-sound arts and visual arts. The International Baccalaureate
is an alternative curriculum available in both Australia and New Zealand. It too has a strong arts
education component and is often adopted by international, alternative and private schools.

Associated educational reforms

The Australian Curriculum was one arm of the broad education reform agenda. In 2009, the
Council of Australian Governments (COAG) formalised the education of pre-schoolers by
endorsing Belonging, Being and Becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF). This
milestone document, which forms part of the National Quality Framework for Early Childhood
Education and Care (http://acecqa.gov.au), outlines, for the first time, the principles, practices
and learning outcomes for education in the early childhood sector – from birth to Year Three of
primary schooling.
The curriculum developments were complemented by the creation of the Australian Institute
of Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) and its introduction of the Australian Professional
Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2012), which outlines the knowledge and skills teachers are
expected to demonstrate. These standards underpin the structure of all initial teacher education
courses in Australia.
The suite of major educational reforms aims to provide the structural underpinnings
(see FIGURE 1.4) of an education system that can respond effectively to the future needs of
contemporary Australian society. The Arts are part of this future.

Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration

The Melbourne Declaration guided the educational reforms of the past decade. In December
2019, the educational goals for the next decade were released in the Alice Springs (Mparntwe)
Education Declaration. These goals were described as an update on the Melbourne Declaration
(COAG Educational Council, 2019) to include a stronger emphasis on: supporting the achievement
of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and embedding First Nations Australian history
and cultural knowledge in the school curriculum; greater focus on student voice, agency and
wellbeing; a stronger emphasis on primary school education; and the inclusion of lifelong
learning, with attention to 21st-century skills. The Arts as a learning area – and this text – each
reflect and respond to these overarching goals and frameworks.

1.3 Research and policy behind

recent developments
Our rapidly changing world is reshaping the way we think and act; the way we gain, structure
and use information, knowledge, experience and understandings; the way we work; and the
way we envision ourselves and our place in the world. This has spurred research and policy
development that has included the arts and their role in education. In the prevailing political instrumental benefits
Where the subject being
climate, arts education research has tended to focus on instrumental benefits, and how studied is regarded
children’s involvement in the arts helps them learn better, socialise better and make better as an instrument or
contributions to society. While these are important benefits, other research has aimed to show vehicle for achieving
benefits or outcomes
the centrality of rich and personally fulfilling arts learning as important in itself – and the genesis
in areas that do not
of all benefits. The following overview outlines major research and policy themes shaping relate particularly to the
expectation about arts education in the contemporary classroom. subject itself.

9
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

Creative thinking
Across knowledge-based economies, innovation is regarded as the ‘engine room’ of growth.
Qualities like creativity, flexible thinking and problem solving – which are inherent characteristics
of artistic thinking – are recognised as relevant to a post-industrial economy (Winner et al., 2013).
In the UK, the National Advisory Committee on Creativity and Cultural Education reported in
All Our Futures: Creative Cultural Education (National Advisory Committee, 1999) that a national
strategy for creative and cultural education was essential for Britain’s economic prosperity and
social cohesion. In the USA, the National Center on Education and the Economy released Tough
Choices or Tough Times: The Report of the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce
in 2007–08, claiming that the standard testing strategy adopted to improve schooling outcomes
was misguided because it did not promote the type of teaching that developed the creative and
critical thinking skills needed for success in the emerging economy. In Australia, the 2005 policy
statement, Imagine Australia: The Role of Creativity in the Innovation Economy (Prime Minister’s
Science Engineering and Innovation Council (PMSEIC), 2005), linked economic development with
a shift towards the creative industries. This report also noted that ‘to be globally competitive,
Australia needed to formulate a comprehensive approach to fostering creativity’ (PMSEIC, 2005,
p. 5). Fostering a culture of creativity and innovation in schools was reinforced in the National
Education and the Arts Statement, where it was observed that (MCEETYA, 2007, p. 3):
Schools that value creativity lead the way in cultivating the well-informed and
active citizens our future demands: where individuals are able to generate fresh
ideas, communicate effectively, take calculated risks and imaginative leaps,
adapt easily to change and work cooperatively.

In 1999, UNESCO launched the International Appeal for the Promotion of Arts Education and
Creativity at School. Various projects and publications were initiated in countries around the
world, prefacing UNESCO’s first World Conference in 2006: Arts
Education: Building Creative Capacities for the 21st Century (see
FIGURE 1.5). The themes of this conference reflected a belief in the
cultural significance of the arts, the major role the arts play in the
development of creativity, and the need to radically rethink the
nature of arts education.
The subsequent publication, Road Map for Arts Education
(UNESCO, 2006), aimed to develop a consensus on the importance
of arts education in the belief that ‘creative and cultural
development should be a basic function of education’ (UNESCO,
2006, p. 3). The second UNESCO World Conference outlined goals
for the development of arts education stating: ‘Arts education
has an important role to play in the constructive transformation
FIGURE 1.5 The President of Portugal welcoming
of educational systems that are struggling to meet the needs of
delegates to UNESCO’s first World Conference on Arts
Education, Lisbon, Portugal, 2006
learners in a rapidly changing world’ (UNESCO, 2010, p. 2). This
work has continued through UNESCO Chairs and Observatories in
the field and groups such as the International Network for Research in Arts Education (INRAE)
(O’Farrell et al., 2014) and the World Alliance for Arts Education (Buck, 2014).
The development of creativity is consistently identified as a cornerstone function of arts
education (National Advisory Committee on Creativity and Cultural Education, 1999; Robinson,
2001; UNESCO, 1996). In Australia, projects such as the Sydney Opera House’s Creative
Leadership in Learning (CLIL) represent a new approach that mobilises specialist knowledge in
the arts community to support children’s creative development. By ‘reimagining themselves as
community hubs of creative activity’ (Australia Council for the Arts, 2020a, p. 10), performance-
based cultural institutions work in partnership with schools to provide professional learning to
school principals and teachers, and educational projects undertaken with children.
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 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

The decades-long momentum for creative thinking as an educational goal has now been
recognised and accelerated through OECD’s highly influential Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA). PISA is an instrument for measuring and comparing educational
standards around the world. To date it has focused on reading, mathematics and science
knowledge, but in 2022 the OECD released a PISA assessment for determining students’ creative
thinking capabilities (see FIGURE 1.6). In doing this, the OECD has highlighted the important
influence of creative thinking on students’ academic interests and achievements, identity and
wellbeing; and their capacity to adapt and contribute to a rapidly changing world. PISA describes
creative thinking as ‘the interpretation of experiences, actions and events in novel and personally
meaningful ways’ (OECD, 2022); and as both an expression of the imagination, as seen in the arts,
and an integral part of general problem solving and ideas generation.

ion Vis
ss ua
re le
xp x
e

pr
en

es
itt

sio
Wr

n
Generate Generate
diverse creative
ideas ideas

Evaluate and
improve ideas
S ci e

ng
n ti

lv i
so
fic

m
pr

bl
ob
le
o

em
so l pr
lvi n ci a
g So

Source: © OECD/PISA https://www.oecd.org/pisa/innovation/creative-thinking

FIGURE 1.6 The framework of the PISA assessment of creative thinking

Now that creative thinking is incorporated into PISA as a measure of a country’s educational
system, we will begin to see greater focus on it in schools. One final point of note is that in this
text you will find that open-ended learning experiences are constantly referred to as one of the
hallmarks of authentic arts education. The PISA creative thinking test uses only ‘open-ended
tasks with no single solution but multiple correct responses’ (OECD, 2022). For the first time
in PISA, there will also be the requirement for students to produce visual artefacts rather than
written responses for some tasks (OECD, 2022).

Learning capability
In the late 1990s, the US President’s Committee on the Arts and Humanities commissioned a
major suite of research projects to examine the impact of the arts on learning. The results of
this research are described in Champions of Change (Fiske, 1999) and point to the importance of
the arts in relation to the quality of learning generally, and the development of the flexibility,
11
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

imagination and ‘tough-minded thinking’ deemed necessary to contribute to the ‘economy

of ideas’ and the future growth of American society (Fiske, 1999, p. iv). The research
showed that:
• students with high levels of arts participation outperformed ‘arts-poor’ students by virtually
every measure
• high arts participation made a more significant difference to students from low-income
backgrounds than for high-income students
• sustained involvement in particular art forms was highly correlated with success in
mathematics and reading
• learning in the arts had significant positive effects on learning in other domains.
The publication Critical Links (Deasy, 2002), a compendium of 62 arts education research
studies, and Critical Evidence: How the Arts Benefit Student Achievement (Ruppert, 2006), a
synthesis of 10 years of research, along with other follow-up research (Catterall, 2009; Catterall
et al., 2012) compile bodies of research that show how children’s involvement in arts education
supports their performance at school. The suite of research projects commissioned by the
Australia Council for the Arts to create an Australian evidence-base also showed a general,
meta-analysis positive impact (Hunter, 2005). Meta-analysis of the evidence about the transfer of arts learning
A statistical method that to other areas of cognitive achievement (Winner & Hetland, 2001; Winner et al., 2013) suggested
involves aggregating
data from a range of
that often this was achieved through arts learning ‘spilling over’ to academic performance skills
independent research and other subjects in the curriculum. For example, the character analysis skills learned in drama
studies to reveal which spilled over into empathy and understanding the perspectives of others.
claims have a higher
statistical power. Our understanding of how arts education has a positive impact on children’s learning has
also been boosted through the growing field of neuroscience, which examines the effects of
arts education in physiological terms (Ehrlich, 2015; Heath, 2000; Ione, 2012), by focusing on
the neural underpinnings of affective (emotional) responses and their relationship to learning
(Immordino-Yang, 2011).

Culture and community

The idea that cultural vitality is essential for sustaining a healthy society (Hawkes, 2002),
and that the arts are significant for developing understanding and respect among cultures,
are established themes in the discourse about the role of the arts in education. Wellbeing is
increasingly regarded as a factor in evaluating a society’s progress and informing public policy
decisions (Smithies & Fujiwara, 2015). The Warwick Commission’s report (2015) characterised
the UK’s vibrant cultural and creative industries as an ecosystem that played a major role in
societal wellbeing, economic success, national identity and general influence.
In a rapidly changing and fractured world, surveys show that the arts are increasingly
critical to social cohesion and understanding other people and cultures. The Australia
Council for the Arts’ National Participation Survey (2017) of more than 7500 people found that
64 per cent of respondents believed this, whereas in the 2013 survey only 36 per cent felt the
arts had any significant impact on their empathy for others. A poll in the USA that surveyed
the perceptions of more than 3000 Americans found 72 per cent agreed that ‘the arts unify
our community regardless of age, race and ethnicity’ and 73 per cent agreed that the arts help
them ‘understand other cultures better’. Eighty-one per cent of respondents regarded the arts
as ‘a positive experience in a troubled world’ (Americans for the Arts, 2018). Consequently,
when the pandemic began sweeping the globe in 2020, it was observed that ‘the power of the
arts and creativity to connect and uplift us, to reduce expenditure across health and social
services and to stimulate tourism and local economies, has never been more important’
(Were, 2020).

12
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

Individual wellbeing
Humans, as social beings, need a sense of identity, meaning and belonging to thrive. When the
foundations of these dimensions are shaken, ways for processing or finding new meanings are
needed (Frankl, 2006). Rising mental health issues in our society are an increasing concern.
Research showing that 75 per cent of mental health problems develop before the age of 25, and
usually before the age of 14 (Kessler et al., 2005), reveals the extent to which adverse childhood
experiences have a significant effect on children’s development, and their social and health
outcomes as adults (Anda et al., 2006). In a turbulent world, the pervasive undercurrent of
threat has contributed to rising levels of anxiety and trauma in society generally, and in children
more particularly (Ojala, 2016; Oster et al., 2017). This has been made more evident by recent
devastating natural disasters and the COVID-19 pandemic.
For centuries it has been known that making art and listening to or viewing artworks,
contributes to wellbeing. In 15th-century Italy, musicians were a regular feature in hospital
wards because their music helped patients to recover. More recently, musicians have been
employed to play to children who are having difficult CT scans because this produces very
high success rates without anaesthesia, and significantly shortens procedure times (Sonke,
2012). The mental health benefits of arts exposure or participation are well represented in
health and therapeutic research (Staricoff, 2006), and in studies of recovery and self-healing
arts projects deployed within communities following disasters (Adnams Jones, 2018).
Research also points to strong evidence that arts education in the school context plays
a crucial role in children’s sense of wellbeing (Clift & Camic, 2015; Noble & Wyatt, 2008;
Thomson et al., 2015; Winner et al., 2013). The benefits of participating in art-making are
particularly seen in marginalised groups: disadvantaged students, students at risk, students
from refugee backgrounds and First Nations students (Catterall et al., 2012; Creativity, Culture
and Education (CCE), 2009; Fiske, 1999).
The reasons why the arts have a positive effect on wellbeing are varied, but relate to the way
they involve: attentional focus and flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; McCarthy et al., 2004); tapping
creative and generative resources (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); using imagination to envision
alternative outcomes or preferable futures (Hicks, 2014); meaning-making; transcendence; use
of metaphor in visual and kinaesthetic (movement) languages; interpersonal communication
and social bonding (Pearce, 2017); making (Gauntlett, 2011; Leone, 2021); and using the body
to ground thoughts in action (Adnams Jones, 2018; Christensen & Gomila, 2018). We see
that wellbeing is fostered in schools where creative engagement is highly valued (McLellan
et al., 2012).
The growing field of brain research has provided physiological explanations for many of the
positive effects of the arts on wellbeing (Huotilainen et al., 2018). The degree to which the arts
have ‘cognitive and emotional effects which are closely related to human psychobiological health
and wellbeing’ has led to the proposal of a ‘biopsychological science of the arts’ (Christensen &
Gomila, 2018, p. xxvii).

Sustainability
CCP In 1987, the United Nations’ World Commission on Environment and Development CROSS-CURRICULUM

published the report Our Common Future that, for the first time, linked sustainable development
PRIORITIES

SUST
to education. Sustainability incorporates an understanding of: the interplay between social,
ecological, economic and political systems (Taylor et al., 2015); the way culture sustains societies
through social cohesion (Hawkes, 2002); and how human rights, social justice, knowledges of
First Nations Peoples and ethical action are factors in the achievement of sustainable outcomes.

13
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

In 2002, the United Nations proclaimed 2005–2014 as the Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development, and in its subsequent report specifically examined the kind of learning processes
that had emerged over the decade (UNESCO, 2012). Observations about pedagogical approaches
that develop the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours underpinning sustainable living practices
have highlighted the special relevance of arts education (Blewitt & Cullingford, 2004; Carr, 2004;
Everett et al., 2015; O’Gorman, 2015; Tereso, 2012; Winograd, 2016). In 2016, this was the theme
for the sixth World Alliance for Arts Education Summit held in Hangzhou, China and a special
issue of the International Journal of Art & Design Education.

1.4 Developing children’s capabilities for

the new era through the Arts
So far in this chapter, we have reviewed how the nature and purpose of arts education evolves
in accordance with society’s circumstances, values and perceived needs; and how research
and policy have been part of this process. Now we can consider some of the dispositions and
capabilities that our educational system aims to develop in today’s children so they can be
successful in the globalised, digital society – and observe how arts practices contribute to
this development.

Visual and multimodal communication skills

Before the invention of the printing press, which allowed for the mass production of written
multimodal
Forms of
information, people needed to be able to function in a society that relied on oral forms of
communication that use communication. First Nations societies existed for thousands of years without a written
varied combinations language. Consequently, they developed highly sophisticated systems that supported learning
of text, images, sound,
and functioning in a world where knowledge and ideas were conveyed orally (and through
space and movement to
convey information. visual imagery, music, dance and demonstration) in daily life and from one generation to
multi-literacy the next.
A conceptualisation of When the printing press and the world of books transformed oral-based societies into
literacy that recognises
that meaning-making
societies based on the written word, new forms of literacy and pedagogy evolved. The advent
occurs in diverse of digital forms of communication is having a similar powerful effect on our society and
domains of learning. It has drawn attention to the multiple ways in which we understand, critique, construct and
proposes that people
communicate meaning.
need to be literate in
a diversity of learning Visual and multimodal communication forms are increasingly utilised by everyone who
domains in order to interacts with digital devices. As with any form of communication, the development of the
function in the world.
Multimodal forms of
relevant literacy skills is critical to good-quality and effective communication. Since the arts
communication are involve communicating with images, sound, movement, gesture and so on – and in various
another dimension of multimodal combinations such as those seen in a film, dance or drama performance – they
this concept.
offer engaging and significant ways for children to develop their multi-literacy (New London
arts literacy
Group,1996).
The development of
artistic languages and Representing ideas in varied formats (modes) has been shown to develop conceptual
practices for expressing understandings and influence knowledge production (Reid et al., 2016). What is becoming
ideas, making, and
communicating
increasingly apparent is that arts literacy is as important as numeracy and language literacy
meaning, as both an for functioning effectively in this emerging world (Huber et al., 2015; Mirzoeff, 1998, 2002;
artist and an audience. Stankiewicz, 2004 [cited in NRVE, 2006]).

14
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

Navigational approaches to learning

Interactive systems, the hallmark of network technology, have a notable influence on the
way knowledge is constructed, presented and accessed by individuals today. In the digital
environment, we are more inclined to adopt a navigational way of relating to knowledge.
This involves seeking out and assembling information around particular purposes – and is
seen as akin to the way artists work (Bourriaud, 2006). In the Arts, the curriculum is not
characterised as a series of topics to be learned but rather as a ‘web of activities’ (Orr &
Shreeve, 2018) through which children forge a way to explore the world and convey their ideas.
David Perkins from Project Zero explains artistic (or studio) learning as an ‘import’ paradigm
where knowledge is used ‘right now in a serious way for a complex and significant endeavour’
(Hetland et al., 2007, p. v). This he distinguishes from an ‘export’ paradigm traditionally
associated with other subjects, whereby information is learned so it can be applied at some
later stage. Since the navigational or import feature of arts learning is aligned to the cognitive
processes of the digital world, arts education is regarded as offering a way of understanding and
developing such capabilities.
Similarly, the way artworks merge with, or counterpoint, the environment and contribute
to the experience of places is well aligned to the fluid nature of network contexts. Musical
jam sessions and other context-driven behaviours exemplify navigational engagement with
knowledge and experience.

Flexible thinking and problem solving

Arts learning is recognised as qualitatively different from other areas of learning. Efland (1995)
and Short (1995) argue that subjects such as maths and physics are ‘well-structured’ learning
domains, based on laws and theorems that can be applied to a variety of situations with
predictability. Conversely, the Arts are ‘ill-structured’ domains. In such domains, concepts vary in
meaning from one context to another and prescriptive solutions are not the norm.
In the Arts, open-ended explorations represent a key pedagogical method. By their nature,
open-ended tasks invite interpretation and innovative ways of working with the material
presented; for example, Design a Mad Hatter’s hat to express what you’re mad about. There is not
one solution to an open-ended challenge but many solutions. This is not to suggest that anything
goes. Solutions are still subject to being critically scrutinised in the context of their intention and
execution. This type of learning demands application of creative and flexible thinking – skills
that are increasingly valued in our rapidly changing world. An authentic arts education program
can provide children with opportunities to develop their dispositions as flexible thinkers and
problem solvers.

Negotiating learning relationships

There are other features of arts education that are seen as desirable in today’s world. The
dominance of the scientific and empirical approach to knowledge and learning has sidelined
the emotional, social and cultural aspects of being in the world and of knowing our world.
The emergent networked and global world, with its emphasis on relationships, is changing that.
Holland and O’Connor (2004) observe that the pedagogy, learning environments and routines
in the non-linear ‘structured chaos’ of authentic arts lessons allow for critical reflection and
deeper personal understanding to occur, and for more human and negotiated relationships to
exist. They also observe that the co-constructed nature of an arts learning environment, in which
teachers and children are inclined to experiment and learn from each other, promotes mutually
respectful and negotiated learning relationships that develop creative behaviours and students’

15
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

sense of agency. Arts learning experiences therefore provide an authentic arena in which children
can develop these important capabilities.

Collaboration and teamwork

In the digital, networked, globalised world, projects and product developments invariably
involve teams of people where each brings their specialised expertise to the enterprise. Today,
there is a growing awareness that solutions to big problems and challenges are more likely
to come from insights that arise in transdisciplinary collaborations where individuals from
different disciplines, with diverse perspectives and ways of conceiving things, work together.
New frontiers in art are being forged by bringing together artists, scientists and ‘technologists’
(Miller, 2014, 2019). In an Antarctic research project investigating the role of tiny ice crystals
in climate, scientists found, for example, that the artists’ curiosity, the types of questions they
asked and their capacity to visualise concepts contributed significantly to the scientific project’s
outcomes (Sollod et al., n.d.). The incorporation of the arts into the STEM grouping of subjects –
as represented by STEAM – reflects this theme (Halpern & Rogers, 2021) and highlights the way
traditional work relationships are being redefined.
Working collaboratively requires certain skills, such as being open to ideas, flexible, and able
to negotiate a position. The evidence shows that having a project focus is an effective way to
promote meaningful collaboration (Morris & Miller-Stevens, 2016). Learning practices in the Arts
provide many engaging ways for children to experience working collaboratively on projects to
develop and realise ideas, such as working together to devise scripts for plays, produce videos,
choreograph and perform dances, and sing in choirs. These are real-world opportunities for
children to practise the skills and dispositions of collaboration and teamwork needed for the
emerging era.

Cultural competency
In a globalised world, establishing respectful and reciprocal relationships with people from
diverse cultural backgrounds is an important competency. Respect for diversity underpins
interacting, communicating, empathising and working with people whose worldviews and
cultural practices are potentially different from one’s own.
In the Arts curriculum, children learn about the artists, cultural artefacts and artistic
traditions of diverse societies. Through their studies they gain insights into the values, beliefs
and customs of a diversity of cultures. CCP An important dimension of this relates to First Nations
CROSS-CURRICULUM
PRIORITIES

ATSIHC cultures: specifically, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures in Australia. For children of
these cultural backgrounds, they see themselves and their culture respected and valued; and
for all children, understanding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures is a foundation
for understanding their own place in the world, living on an island continent that has been
continuously inhabited for more than 60 000 years.
When classroom arts projects are developed around themes such as ceremonies or domestic
life, children have the opportunity to explore diverse cultural contexts in concrete ways.
Alternatively, when a mosaic wall art project, for example, is prefaced by learning about Antoni
Gaudí’s mosaics in Parc Güell, Barcelona, Spain, or the Jãmeh Mosque of Yazd in Iran, or the Great
Pavement of Westminster Abbey in London, England, children see their artistic adventures
positioned within the wider world of artistic motivation and endeavour. In these experiences,
children see how they belong, how others belong, what unites us, what distinguishes us and
what is possible when people passionately strive to create something that speaks to our
humanity.

16
 CHAPTER 1 PUTTING YOU IN THE PICTURE – THE RATIONALE AND CONTEXT FOR ARTS EDUCATION

Dispositions for thinking and acting sustainably

CCP While children may learn about sustainability, the sustainable living imperative requires CROSS-CURRICULUM

children to build capacities as change agents – thinking, valuing and acting in ways that will
PRIORITIES

SUST
achieve a sustainable future. The arts are especially relevant because of the particular nature of
learning in the arts (Trott, 2019).
Arts practice is reflective and reflexive, whereby the artist contemplates, acts and reviews in a
natural spiralling work cycle. From a sustainability perspective, this way of working allows for new
formations of self and other, and the relationship to the natural world (Blewitt & Cullingford, 2004).
The arts engagement with the affective domain – the domain of feelings – means that
connections with the world, and the development of an attitude of caring and empathy, deemed
necessary for a sustainable disposition, can be cultivated (Everett et al., 2015).
reflective
The active engagement and personal commitment (learning by ‘doing’ or ‘making’) that are The reflective nature
hallmarks of arts learning are also required for building sustainability dispositions because it is of arts practice means
recognised that action, as well as awareness, is important. that the artist’s
critical contemplation
Meaning-making and self-expression in relation to identity, community and place are of the artwork is a
common arts-based preoccupations. Working from this perspective can help children identify significant part of the

place-based sustainable solutions that are meaningful to them and their communities (Haynes & work process. It is an
interrogation where
Tanner, 2015; Osnes, 2017). judgements are made
Wonderment and curiosity about the perceived world and the world of ideas underpins about how well the
artwork is progressing
artistic endeavours, to the extent that artists often describe their creative work as journeys towards communicating
into understanding. This characteristic is well aligned with the aims of developing children’s the artist’s intention
sustainability dispositions. and then decisions are
made about how to
The significance of mindfulness – paying close sensory attention to the world around us – is move forward towards
a feature of artistic practice. Drawing an insect, for example, requires close observation of every the goal.
detail. A study of young children who drew, as well as observed, an animal showed that they reflexive
recalled more factual details than the children in the control group who only observed (Fox, The reflexive nature
of arts practice is the
2010). This requirement to see and relate to the subject at a deep and focused level draws children intuitive and reactionary
into richer understandings of their world. response. It is an
From the earliest times, the natural world has been a source of inspiration for artists. ongoing dialogue with
the evolving artwork –
Consequently, a wealth of artistic creations provides study resources for developing children’s the artist’s action is a
aesthetic appreciation of the natural world (Carr, 2004). The traditions of cultural festivals reaction.
celebrating the natural world and its rhythms are also entry points to a heightened sense of
mindfulness and connection.
A number of early childhood centres adopt the Reggio Emilia approach to learning that is well
aligned to sustainability precepts. This approach has an art specialist as a core member of the
teaching team and positions children as capable, inquisitive, autonomous and active learners. In
an integrated approach to learning, emphasis is placed on expressing feelings and ideas through
arts activities like drawing and movement. Connections are pursued in a full-circle approach to
learning: children know where their art materials come from, they participate in acquiring them,
they are encouraged to use them judiciously, and they clean up and know what happens when
they dispose of the materials. From the beginning, they learn the consequences of their actions.

1.5 The heart of arts education

In the previous sections we have reviewed the changing expectations about the role of arts
education and, importantly, the significance of the arts as an arena for developing children’s
dispositions and capabilities to live meaningfully in the contemporary world. As future teachers,
17
PART 1 THE ABC OF ARTS EDUCATION

understanding these factors will help to bring purpose and direction to your teaching. However,
these factors ultimately relate to the nature of the arts experience – which is at the heart of
meaningful and good-quality arts education from which the benefits derive.

Artistic experience
The preponderance of research focusing on the instrumental benefits of the arts and arts
education has tended to marginalise the significance of artistic experience in itself (Crossick
& Kaszynska, 2016; White & Hede, 2008). However, as researchers and commentators have
emphasised, people are not usually motivated to paint or sing or dance because it will make them
better at maths or help them to develop perseverance. Rather, there are other, more direct gains
that come from the very nature of being involved in the arts – and being able to think, create,
express and appreciate the world in artistic terms.
The nature of ‘arts knowing’ and the value of the arts in terms of their significant contribution
to human understanding and knowledge is regularly overlooked. Potentially, this is because of
prevailing and narrow ideas about knowledge production that tend to focus on how things work.
Where the arts contribute significantly is in our exploration and understanding of the human
condition – as individuals and as societies (Johnson, 2011).
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the work of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate
School of Education has been instrumental in positioning the arts as forms of cognition (ways
of knowing) that are recognised as complementary to other ways of knowing. Arts knowing is
often described as being provisional because context plays a role in the meaning of things, unlike
other ways of knowing, such as scientific knowing, that tend to offer conclusive or fixed truths
(Zhuo, 2020). Knowing in the arts is also conceptualised as embodied knowing, involving the
body – senses and actions (Johnson, 2011) – which again makes it appreciably different from
meaning-making in other disciplines, such as language and maths, that tend to involve discursive
conceptualisations. A number of significant studies have examined the distinctive intellectual
and behavioural processes associated with the way learning occurs in the arts (Orr & Shreeve,
2018; Winner & Hetland, 2008), including a codification of the ‘studio habits of mind’ (Hetland
et al., 2007). This work highlights that the pedagogical practices in the arts disciplines – the way
you teach – are required to be notably different from pedagogical practices in other disciplines.
In looking to capture the important dimensions of personal experience (Foreman-Wernet &
Dervin, 2013) researchers observe how the arts provide aesthetic pleasure, emotional stimulation
and vivid personal experience of the world. Deep absorption in an arts experience, as either
creator or audience, removes us from the habitual world and opens up new ways of seeing and
experiencing. This feeling of rapt absorption when all sense of time and place is lost is described
as flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) or captivation (McCarthy et al., 2004).
The personal experience of engaging in the arts is fundamental to creativity and
transformative thinking (Zhuo, 2020) because the arts are arenas for the exercise of imaginative
thinking. Imagination involves the application of the subjective reality of the artist or audience
to transcend the present, existing world to explore new possibilities and alternative realities
through mentally envisioning or (re)creating things that are not present (Zhuo, 2020). This
exercise of imagination is an abiding feature of artistic experience as both artist and audience.
The transformative and transcendent elements are both personally satisfying and an important
human capability that pervades every aspect of life.
Important to the arts experience is the process of grounding thoughts in action through the
‘craft of making’ (Adnams Jones, 2018; Christensen & Gomila, 2018; Gauntlett, 2011) and by
engaging the senses such as the sense of touch (Stanko-Kaczmarek & Kaczmarek, 2016). This
unique feature of the arts has been described as ‘the sense of being alive within the process; the

18
Another random document with
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was a disk of the yellow metal, representing the sun with its rays, as
large as a carriage wheel, ten spans in diameter, ornamented in
demi-relief and valued at thirty-eight hundred pesos de oro.[168] A
companion disk of solid silver, of the same size, and equally
ornamented, represented the moon.[169] Then there were thirty
golden ducks, well fashioned; a number of other pieces in form of
dogs, lions, monkeys, and other animals; ten collars, a necklace with
over one hundred pendent stones called emeralds and rubies by the
Spaniards; twelve arrows, a bow with cord stretched, two staves
each five palms in length; fans, bracelets, and other pieces, all of
fine gold, beside a number of silver. What could have delighted the
Spaniards more? One thing only, and that was not wanting—the gilt
helmet returned full of virgin gold, fine dust and coarse, with a
plentiful mixture of nuggets of various sizes and shapes, all fresh
from the placers. The value of this was three thousand pesos, and
appreciation was attracted not so much by the amount as by the
significance of the gift, as Bernal Diaz remarks, for it afforded a sure
indication of the existence of rich mines in the country. “It was this
gift which cost Montezuma his head,”[170] says Torquemada.
The words which followed fell on closed ears. These so greatly
admired gifts are but a slight token of the high regard of the emperor,
who would be pleased to form a friendship with his king; but he could
not think of troubling Cortés to come to him through a hostile
country; besides, he was ailing. Everything the visitors might wish to
aid their departure would be instantly supplied. This and more. Poor,
foolish monarch! As well might he ask the ravenous wolf to depart
after giving it to lick a little blood from his scratched hand. For the
gifts, a thousand thanks; but after so long a voyage, undertaken
solely for the purpose, the Spanish captain dared not face his master
without having seen the great Montezuma. As for the road, its
difficulties or dangers were nothing. Would the chiefs present their
monarch these further articles, and bring speedy answer?[171]
 Meanwhile discussion was in order among the Spaniards, and
speculation as to what should be done. Some advised immediate
advance on Montezuma’s capital; some, fearful of the nation’s
strength, as manifested by its arts and refinements, favored return to
Cuba for reinforcements. Cortés let them talk, but said little. Traffic at
first was freely permitted among the men,[172] and as the result was
meagre Cortés did not think it worth while to require of them a
division. To this irregularity certain of the Velazquez leaders
objected, demanding at least that the royal fifth should be deducted;
the commander therefore ordered gold to be received only by
Gonzalo Mejía, as treasurer.[173]
Ten days elapsed before Teuhtlile returned, without the envoy,
[174]but followed by a file of slaves bearing, among other things, as
a present to the Spanish king, ten loads of rich feathers and robes,
some gold figures valued at three thousand pesos, and four
chalchiuite stones, each declared to be worth a load of gold, but of
no value to Europeans.
Teuhtlile then stated that further messages to the emperor were
useless, since the desired interview could not be granted. He hoped
the Spaniards would content themselves with the promised supplies
and depart in peace.
Turning to his companions, Cortés said: “Truly this must be a
great lord, and rich; and, God willing, some day we will visit him.”
Just then the bell struck for Ave María, and instantly, with uncovered
heads, the soldiers were kneeling round the cross. The priests, ever
ready to preach their faith where an opportunity presented, were
soon at work. His words, however, made a bad impression on the
governor, as had also the evasive answer of Cortés to his message.
He bade a cold farewell, and the next morning the Spaniards awoke
to find the native encampment deserted, and even the supplies
carried away. Precautions were now taken against probable attack,
by sending on board the provisions and all cumbrous articles,
leaving embarkation easy at any moment.[175]

FOOTNOTES
[149] See Native Races, iv. 434. Duran’s native records call this the ‘port’ of
Chalchuihqueyacan. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 389. The spelling by different authorities
differs greatly. Clavigero, and Veytia, Hist. Ant. Méj., iii. 377, give April 21 as the
date of arrival, while Bustamante, in Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. Mex. 1845), 135,
makes it the 22d. Year Ce Acatl. Ixtlilxochitl, Rel., 411. Sahagun, Hist. Conq., i. 7.,
says 13 conejos.

[150] Torquemada, i. 387. Bernal Diaz writes Pitalpitoque, named by the

Spaniards Ovandillo. Hist. Verdad., 25. Herrera, Pitalpitoc. Solis, followed by
Robertson, Pilpatoe. Bernal Diaz and Gomara name Teuhtlile, the chief governor
of the province, who lived farther in the interior, as the sender.

[151] According to Gomara, Hist. Mex., 40, and Herrera, dec. ii. lib. v. cap. iv., this
new interpreter is not discovered until four days later.

[152] ‘Entremetida, é desembuelta,’ slabbers that lecherous old soldier Bernal

Diaz. To call women loose comes well from men who spend their lives in making
them so. If, as has been stated, the women of her native district have borne a
reputation not altogether enviable, whose fault is it? Not theirs, truly. That this girl
was the mistress of men, under the circumstances, detracts not one iota from her
good name in the minds of right-thinking persons; nay, it detracts nothing from her
purity of mind, her honesty, or her innate morality. ‘Reprehensible medio de
asegurarla en su fidelidad,’ says Solis, Hist. Conq. Mex., i. 119, otherwise so
ready to cover up the defects of his hero.

[153] Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 24-5. According to Gomara she was born in
Viluta, in the direction of Jalisco, the daughter of rich parents, related to the
cacique. From them she was stolen by traders and sold in Xicalanco. Hist. Mex.,
40. The town and district may be a corruption of Huilotlan, in Xalatzinco, which
Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 287, gives as her native place, and this may be identical
with the present Oluta or Holuta, near Acayucan, on the isthmus of Tehuantepec.
Painala is no longer known. Fossey, who travelled through the region, states that
tradition makes Xaltipan or Altipan her birthplace, and in support of this belief a
mountain is pointed out, close to the town, bearing the name of Malinche.
Mexique, 26-7; Gomara, Hist. Mex. (Bustamante ed.), i. 41; Berendt, in Salazar,
Méx. en 1554, 178; Herrera, dec. ii. lib. v. cap. vi.; Sahagun, Hist. Conq. i. 15,
mentions Teticpac, and Oviedo names Mexico as Marina’s native place, iii. 259,
while Saavedra undertakes to reconcile the different statements by supposing that
her family came originally from Jalisco, west of Anáhuac, to Mexico city, and
thence to Goazacoalco. Her high intelligence indicates that she was educated in
the capital. Dic. Univ., ix. 774.

[154] Mexicans being unable to pronounce the ‘r,’ Marina became Malina, to which
the tzin was added in respect, equivalent to doña or lady. Malinche was a Spanish
corruption, which was at times applied by the Indians to Cortés, as the lord and
companion of Marina, and Juan Perez de Arteaga had also the appellation added
to his name, from being so often with her. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 52. Another
conjecture is that her original name was Malina, or Malinalli, signifying ‘twisted
thing,’ the term for one of the Mexican days, applied in accordance with a native
custom of giving children the name of their birthday. The name indeed is not
uncommon, the lord of Tlachquiauhco, for instance, being called Malinal or
Malinaltzin. Vetancvrt, Teatro Mex., ii. 31, 40. On finding her own name so similar
to Marina, the Spanish priest gave her this at the font. The Indians usually
acquired a surname after they grew up, and Tenepal is that found for Marina.
Sigüenza y Góngora, Paraiso Occid., 38; Salazar y Olarte, Conq. Mex., 217;
Arróniz, Orizaba, 171, 182. To Cortés she bore a son, who was recognized by his
father and raised to the rank of a knight of Santiago. While on the way with Cortés
to Honduras, in 1524, she was legally married to Captain Juan Jaramillo. This took
place at Ostoticpac, near Orizaba, and excited no little comment. Some believe
that the arrival of Cortés’ wife was the cause of the marriage; but although this
may have led to his separation from Marina, it could not have affected the
marriage, since the wife was already dead. Cortés no doubt found her an
incumbrance, and sought to be rid of it in a manner honorable to her at least.
Gomara accuses him of having made Jaramillo drunk for the purpose. Hist. Mex.,
251; but this Bernal Diaz corrects. He knew one of the witnesses at the ceremony.
Hist. Verdad., 25. Jaramillo had achieved a certain prominence as commander of
one of the brigantines which aided in the siege of Mexico, and in other affairs, and
is said to have been an hidalgo. Ixtlilxochitl marries her to Aguilar, probably
because this seemed a fit union. Hist. Chich., 287. Camargo, Hist. Tlax., 143.
Shortly after her marriage the army halted at Goazacoalco, whither all the chiefs of
the neighborhood were summoned to tender submission and to receive instruction
in the faith. Among them was a young cacique with his mother, whose
resemblance to Marina at once called the attention of all acquainted with the story,
and led to her recognition as the heartless parent. The old dame feared for her life,
but Marina reassured her with tender caresses, excusing her conduct as
controlled by the deceased stepfather, and cheered her with a number of presents.
She presented her husband, and referred with fond pride to the son she had given
to Cortés. Both mother and half-brother accepted baptism, he receiving the name
of Lázaro, and she that of Marta, an appropriate name for one who perhaps lived
long enough to lament the ruin of her people and country, an indirect result of her
unnatural treatment of Marina. Bernal Diaz, who witnessed all this, and became
further acquainted with the family, declares Gomara wrong, and says: ‘Conoci á su
madre, y á su hermano,’ concluding ‘todo esto que digo, se lo oî muy
certificadamente, y se lo jurò, amen.’ Hist. Verdad., 25; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii.
12-14; Cogolludo, Hist. Yucathan, 38. Returning to Mexico, she received lands
there and in her native province, but took up her residence in the capital, where
her husband held a prominent position through his wealth and offices, such as
regidor and as the first alférez of the city. ‘Recibieron pr Alferes de esta Ciudad a
Juan Xaramillo.’ ‘Primer Alferes.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS., 216. Reference is made
to lots and other grants made to him and his wife Doña Marina, on March 14,
1528, and other dates. Id. Both held repartimientos, one of which lay in Xilotepec.
Marina appears to have been still living in Mexico city in 1550, impressing her
memory upon the hearts of the grateful people, over whose welfare she even now
watches. Invoked by them, her spirit is frequently encountered in its twilight flights
on errands of mercy and consolation, issuing from the ancient groves of
Chapultepec, where centres the recollection of Aztec glories. Ballads still
perpetuate her virtues, and many a nature’s monument bears proudly the beloved
name of Malintzin. Tradition also transforms her into a naiad who daily rises from
the pool of Chapultepec, singing divinely. Rodriguez, Anáhuac, 461. She appears
to have had several children by Cortés. Peralta mentions five besides Martin, of
whom two died while young. The three remaining were daughters, of whom two
became nuns, and the third, Leonor, the wife of Martin de Tolosa. Nat. Hist., 75.
This is not wholly correct, however, for in the Libro de Gobierno del Virey Mendoza
is a document, dated April, 1550, wherein the viceroy grants a petition from her in
favor of her grandson, Don Alonso de Estrada, son of Luis de Saavedra,
deceased, and encomendero of Tilantongo town. Alaman’s notes, in Prescott’s
Mex. (Mex. 1844), ii. 268-9. In Cortés, Residencia, i. 123, ii. 70, 101, witnesses
refer also to a daughter of the interpreter Marina, with whom Cortés is accused of
having tampered, as he did with the mother. If so, this can hardly be Saavedra’s
wife, but a Tabascan child; yet Marina’s master would not have presented a
woman incumbered with a child when he sought to do honor to the Spaniards.
Saavedra allows Marina to proceed to Spain with her husband, who procured for
her a high position at court. Here she died, leaving several children, from whom
descended some of the first families in Spain. Dic. Univ., ix. 778. But this authority
is too full of blunders to be relied upon. Ideal portraits are given in Carbajal
Espinosa, Hist. Mex., ii. 65, and Zamacois, Hist. Méj., ii. 350.

[155] I have said, as the native record interpreted by Tezozomoc and Duran
relates, that the fleet is sighted and reported long before it reaches San Juan de
Ulua—from Tabasco, says Vetancvrt, Teatro Mex., ii. 114. Montezuma, who had
already begun to hope that the strangers would never return, becomes sad with
apprehension; yet he orders special relays to be stationed on the route to the
coast, in order to bring speedy news, commands his lieutenant to furnish the
strangers with all they need, and sends Tlillancalqui, the messenger who met
Grijalva, to ascertain their object. He is instructed to declare that Montezuma holds
the throne as mere deputy at the disposal of the white god, for he supposes that it
is Quetzalcoatl, as before. If the god intends to proceed to Mexico the roads will
be cleaned, and the towns and stations prepared for his accommodation.
Tlillancalqui delivers his message, together with a necklace of gold set with
precious stones, and in his eagerness to please the strange beings he offers fowl
and tortilla to horses as well as men. Cortés signifies his wish to go to Mexico, and
asks that chiefs be sent to guide him. Tlillancalqui hurries back with the message,
leaving orders to supply the Spaniards with all they desire. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS.,
ii. 389-96; Tezozomoc, Hist. Mex., ii. 250-3. According to the version by Sahagun
and Torquemada, Montezuma sends the same messengers whom he despatched
the year before to seek Grijalva, but who arrived too late. Their names are
Yohualychan, the leader, Tepuztecatl, Tizahua, Huehuetecatl, and
Hueycamecatleca. With them are sent the presents already prepared for Grijalva,
and the sacerdotal vestments of Quetzalcoatl. On reaching the flag-ship they
inquire for their king and god Quetzalcoatl. At first surprised, Cortés the next
moment catches the clue. Seating himself on an improvised throne, surrounded by
a large suite, he orders the messengers to appear. Being told that he is the
personage whom they seek, they prostrate themselves, kissing the deck. The
leader thereupon addresses him: ‘Welcome, god and master; long have we, your
servants and vassals, waited for you. Montezuma, your vassal and lieutenant,
sends us to salute you, and begs the acceptance of this small present and these
precious ornaments, once used by you as our king and god.’ They now array him
in the vestments of Quetzalcoatl, adding also many ornaments pertaining to the
gods Tezcatlipoca and Tlalocatecuhtli, as if to proclaim him the greatest of the
gods. The most attractive pieces are a bejewelled and plume head-dress, and a
necklace of precious stones. ‘Is this all the gift of welcome that you bring?’ asks
Cortés. ‘Lord and king, it is all that was given us for your Majesty,’ was the reply.
They are given food and accommodation for the night. In order to impress upon
them the full extent of Spanish power, they are tied hands and feet while the
horses are exhibited, the arms displayed, and the guns fired. They are then told
that the white men have heard the fame of Mexican warriors, as able to overcome
ten or even twenty times superior numbers, and desire a proof thereof by fighting
them in equal force. Swords and shields are given them, but they decline, pleading
their character as mere envoys. They are thereupon insulted as cowards, and told
that the white men will descend upon their country, kill all who resist, take
possession of the government, and secure better presents than those sent them.
The messengers now hurry back to Mexico without informing any one on the way
of what has occurred. Torquemada, i. 381-4; Sahagun, Hist. Conq., i. 7-11;
Sigüenza y Góngora, El Fenix, MS., 273-8.

[156] Teudilli, or Quitaluor, from Cotosta, is Gomara’s corrupt form. Hist. Mex., 39.
Herrera calls Teuthlille the chief governor, and Pitalpitoe a chief. dec. ii. lib. v. cap.
iv. Teutile, captain-general, and Pilpatoe, governor. Solis, Hist. Mex., i. 119. Teotlili
arrives on Monday. Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 286. ‘Tendile, y Pitalpitoque eran
Gouernadores de vnas Prouincias que se dizen, Cotastlan, Tustepeque,
Guazpaltepeque, Tlatalteteclo, y de otros pueblos que nueuamẽte teniã
sojuzgados.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 26. He means, however, that Tendile is
the chief governor. Pinotl had evidently left. Cuetlachtlan province appears to have
extended from Rio Papaloapan, or Alvarado, to Rio de la Antigua.

[157] Ixtlilxochitl and Gomara place the number attending at over 4,000.

[158] Here Solis takes Bernal Diaz to task for asserting that mass had been
already said on Friday. Hist. Mex., i. 121. But the scholar is too severe upon the
soldier, whose head is true enough, however may be his tongue.

[159] ‘All Gomara’s fictions,’ sneers Las Casas, Hist. Ind., iv. 484, who ignores
Marina’s ability to interpret, and thinks the interview was limited to the simplest
expressions conveyed by signs.

[160] Carta del Ayunt., ubi sup., 19. Gomara, Hist. Mex., 39-41, while he does not
refer to a helmet, states that Cortés asked for gold, as a remedy for heart disease,
from which he and his men were suffering.

[161] ‘Dexo alli dos hombres principales, como capitanes, con hasta dos mil
personas entre mugeres y hombres de servicio, y fuese a Cotosta.’ Gomara, Hist.
Mex., 41. He left over 1000 to wait upon the Spaniards, and over 1000 to carry
supplies. Las Casas, Hist. Ind., iv. 482; Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 287; Bernal Diaz,
Hist. Verdad., 26, supposes that Teuhtlile went in person to Mexico, but not so
Gomara and Ixtlilxochitl.

[162] ‘Y desque viò el casco, y el que tenia su Huichilobos, tuuo por cierto, que
eramos del linage de los que les auian dicho sus antepassados, que vendrian á
señorear aquesta tierra.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 26. This statement is followed
by a cut at Gomara for giving unreliable information. Camargo, Hist. Tlasc., 141.
The native version of Sahagun and Torquemada describes how the messengers
are sprinkled with fresh human blood, as customary with important bearers of
news, before presenting themselves before Montezuma. They arouse his
admiration by speaking of the wonders beheld, of the penetrating swords, the
sulphurous smell of the thunder smoke, and of the intoxicating food; but when they
relate how outrageously they have been treated and how the strangers threatened
to conquer the country, then the emperor wept, and with him all the city. Sahagun,
Hist. Conq., i. 12-13; Torquemada, i. 385-6; Acosta, Hist. Ind., 515-18. Brasseur
de Bourbourg incorporates all this native version in his narrative, and allows
Teuhtlile to reach Mexico with his report a few days after these messengers, thus
confirming their account. Hist. Nat. Civ., iv. 75-6. Duran writes that on hearing of
Cortés’ eagerness to obtain guides for Mexico, Montezuma began to grieve deeply
over the prospect of having to resign and die. The envoy consoled him by
representing the benignity of the white gods, but he nevertheless set about to
arrange for the safety of his children. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 396-7; Tezozomoc, Hist.
Mex., ii. 253.

[163] Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 287-8; Camargo, Hist. Tlasc., 141-2; Herrera, dec. ii.
lib. v. cap. ix. Torquemada refers to the similar mistake of King Hezekiah of Judea,
in exhibiting to the Assyrian envoys his wealth, and thus attracting invaders, i. 391,
404.

[164] This seems an incredibly short time in a country without horses, for Mexico
lies over 200 miles by road from this part of the coast; but with numerous relays of
runners and litter-bearers the distance would not take long to cover. ‘Estas
mensajerias fuerõ en vn dia, y vna noche del real de Cortés a Mexico, que ay
setenta leguas y mas.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 41.

[165] Torquemada. 389, assumes this to have been in token of divine adoration,
but the ceremony was a quite common mark of respect for distinguished persons.
See Native Races, ii. 284. ‘Nos llamaron Teules ... ó dioses.’ ‘Hence when I say
Teules, or Gods, it may be understood to mean us,’ says Bernal Diaz with
conscientious pride. Hist. Verdad., 32. But the teu or teo prefix to names must be
accepted in the same light as the incense burning, and in this case equivalent to
‘hero.’ See also Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 19. ‘Demonios’ is Oviedo’s translation
of teules, iii. 500.

[166] Some writers doubt the ability of native painters to have given a sufficiently
accurate portrait; but with the aid of explanatory signs there was little difficulty.

[167] Some of them were checkered, which to Peter Martyr is a sufficient proof
that the Mexicans played chess, dec. v. cap. x.

[168] Carta del Ayunt. de V. Cruz, in Cortés, Cartas, 29. ‘Pessaba la de oro quatro
mill y ochoçientos pessos ... tenia nueve palmos y medio de anchura é treynta de
çircunferençia,’ says Oviedo, who inspected the presents at Seville, evidently with
mathematical precision, iii. 259. ‘Pesaua cien marcos, hecha como Sol, y con
muchos follajes, y animales de relieue.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 42. Peter Martyr, dec.
iv. cap. ix., describes the central figure as a king enthroned, surrounded with
foliated ornaments. In the above Carta del Ayunt. a peso de oro and a castellano
are shown to be equivalent, and a marco contains fifty castellanos. Writers differ
widely in their calculations to reduce these coins to modern values, Prescott
estimating the castellanos at $11.67 in United States money, and Ramirez, in a
critical note thereupon, at $2.93. Prescott’s Mex., i. 321; also edition Mex. 1845,
app. ii. 79-92. See note on coins in Hist. Cent. Am., this series, i. 192-3.
Clemencin, in Mem. Real Acad. de Hist., vi. illust. 20, 525-45, enters fully into the
subject.

[169] Weighing 48 marcos. Carta del Ayunt., loc. cit. ‘De cincuenta y tantos
marcos, ternia de gordor como un toston de á 4 reales,’ says Las Casas, who
examined the gifts in Spain. Hist. Ind., iv. 485-6. ‘Otra mayor rueda de plata.’
Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 26. Robertson, Hist. Am., ii. 16, 449, misunderstanding
Diaz, places the value of this disk at 20,000 pesos or £5000.

[170] Monarq. Ind., i. 390. ‘Valdria el oro y la plata que allí habia 20 ó 25,000
castellanos, pero la hermosura dellas y la hechura, mucho más.’ Las Casas, ubi
sup. ‘Podia valer este presente veynte mil ducados, o pocos mas. El qual present
tenian para dar a Grijalua.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 42. ‘Q’lo reparta cõ los Teules que
cõsigo trae,’ says Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 27, intimating that another present
was coming for the white emperor; but it was applied to the expedition treasury
like nearly everything obtained by trade or seizure. Herrera, dec. ii. lib. v. cap. v;
Vetancvrt, Teatro Mex., pt. iii. 115. Brasseur de Bourbourg estimates the gold disk
alone at 357,380 francs. Hist. Nat. Civ., iv. 85. Peter Martyr, dec. iv. cap. ix., gives
a detailed description of several of the presents.

[171] This time the presents for the chiefs were some embroidered shirts, silk
sashes and other things, while to the emperor he sent a Florentine goblet, gilt and
enamelled with figures, three Holland shirts, and some bead articles, not a very
costly return for what he had received. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 27, and Herrera,
dec. ii. lib. v. cap. vi., enumerate the presents given to them. ‘Teudilli ... le rogo
mucho, q pues estaua mal aposentado en el cãpo y arenales, se fuesse con el a
vnos lugares seys o siete leguas de alli.’ But Cortés declined to leave the camp.
Gomara, Hist. Mex., 43.

[172] ‘Y aquel oro que rescatauamos dauamos â los hombres que traiamos de la
mar, que iban â pescar, â trueco de su pescado.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 27. If
so it was probably after the Indians deserted.

[173] Gomara refers to an order to stop all barter for gold, with a view to let it
appear that the Spaniards cared not for the metal, and thus to induce the Indians
to make no secret of the manner in which it was obtained. Hist. Mex., 39. As if the
natives had not already learned what we wanted, sneers Bernal Diaz.
[174] ‘Que se dezia Quintalbor, no bolvió mas, porque auia adolecido en el
camino.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 27.

[175] According to Gomara, Hist. Mex., 45, Cortés told the governor that he would
not leave without seeing Montezuma. Solis elaborates this as usual into a long
speech, to which Teuhtlile replies with threats, and turning his back stalks out of
the camp. Conq. Mex., i. 153-5; Herrera, dec. i. lib. v. cap. vi.
 CHAPTER IX.
THE MIGHTY PROJECT IS CONCEIVED.

May, 1519.

Serious Dilemma of Cortés—Authority without Law—Montejo Sent

Northward—Recommends another Anchorage—Dissensions at Vera
Cruz—Prompt and Shrewd Action of Cortés—A Municipality Organized
—Cortés Resigns—And is Chosen Leader by the Municipality—
Velazquez’ Captains Intimate Rebellion—Cortés promptly Arrests
Several of Them—Then he Conciliates them all—Important Embassy
from Cempoala—The Veil Lifted—The March to Cempoala—What was
Done there—Quiahuiztlan—The Coming of the Tribute Gatherers—
How They were Treated—Grand Alliance.

At this point in his career Hernan Cortés found himself less

master of the situation than suited him. The color of his command
was not sufficiently pronounced. He had no authority to settle; he
had no authority to conquer; he might only discover and trade. He
did not care for Velazquez; anything that pertained to Velazquez he
was prepared to take. But Velazquez had no legal power to authorize
him further. Cortés cared little for the authorities at Española; the
king was his chief dependence; the king to whose favor his right arm
and mother wit should pave the way. Some signal service, in the
eyes of the monarch, might atone for slight irregularities; if he failed,
the severest punishments were already come. But where was the
service? Had Montezuma granted him an interview, he might make
report of that, and find listeners. As it was, he could land and slay a
few thousand natives, but his men would waste away and no
benefits accrue. Nevertheless, if he could plant himself somewhat
more firmly on this soil than his commission seemed to justify,
chance might offer opportunity, and the signal service find
achievement. Such were the thoughts that just now filled his
sagacious brain, but the way was by no means clear before him.
While the events narrated in the preceding chapter were in
progress, Montejo, with two vessels, had been sent northward to
seek a harbor less unwholesome than the present, where many of
those wounded at Tabasco had died.[176] As second in command
went Rodrigo Álvarez Chico, and as pilots, Alaminos, and Álvarez el
Manquillo. On reaching the extreme point attained by Grijalva, the
strong current prevented further advance, as in the former attempt.
[177]They were obliged by a gale to throw overboard part of their
cargo. Water failed, and in the attempt to land an artilleryman
perished. Prayer was now their only recourse, and this not only
changed the wind, but brought rain. After a fortnight of
misadventures[178] they returned to San Juan de Ulua, and hastened
bareheaded to the cross to offer thanks. More wholesome airs were
not difficult to find, but good harbors were not abundant thereabout.
The only favorable spot found by Montejo lay some ten leagues
north of the camp, close to the native fortress of Quiahuiztlan.[179] A
high rock affording shelter from north winds gave the place some
resemblance to the Spanish harbor of Bernal, which name was
accordingly applied to it. Extending inland were green fields fringed
with fine timber, and supplied with creeks of good water.[180]
The fifty men comprising the expedition of Montejo had been
picked from the adherents of Velazquez, in order that by weakening
this faction Cortés might be allowed to develop his plans. For the
army was slowly but surely drifting into division, as we have so often
found in adventures of this kind, and the Velazquez party comprised
all who desired immediately to return. In this clique were many
wealthy and influential men who cared no more for Velazquez than
for Cortés, but who had possessions in Cuba, and were becoming
impatient to return to them. Nor was there much difficulty in giving
form to discontent. There were grave suspicions afloat as to the
loyalty of the commander; but these, which assuredly were more
conspicuous in Cuba than here, were of little moment when they
harmonized with the wishes of the men. What stupidity in forming
camp amidst such malaria, and in so early making enemies of the
people. It was evident, so they argued, that the commander intended
to sacrifice the company to his ambition.
The action of Cortés here as elsewhere marks the great man,
the man of genius, the born master of men, and rightfully places him
beside the Cæsars and the Napoleons of the world. The commander
wished to remain. All his fortune, all the fortunes of his friends were
staked on this adventure, and he would rather die than return
unsuccessful. Little hope there would be of his obtaining command
again; he would not return, neither would he just at present die. In
desperate cases spirited counsels and spirited actions are usually
safest.
Calling to him his most trusty followers, Puertocarrero, Alvarado
and his brothers, Ávila, Olid, Escalante, and Francisco Lugo, he laid
the situation fairly before them. Shortly after these captains were out
among the men, holding forth to them privately on the wealth of the
country, the ease and glory of conquest, and the prospect of
repartimientos. Where was the benefit of returning to Cuba? Surely
they might as well hold the country for themselves as to abandon it
and let others step into their places. It would be much easier to
increase the present force by adding to it than to raise a new army
better appointed or larger than this. Nor did they forget the argument
of religion, which, however hollow in practice, was weighty enough in
theory. “Elect therefore to remain,” they said in conclusion; “and
choose the able and generous Cortés for your general and justicia
mayor till the emperor decides in the matter.”[181]
The opposition was by no means ignorant of these manœuvres,
and Ordaz was commissioned to remonstrate with Cortés. He dwelt
on the danger of present colonization, denounced any attempt to
ignore Velazquez, and insisted on instant return. Suppressing the
anger naturally arising from these insinuations, true as they were,
Cortés disavowed any intention of exceeding the instructions of his
commission. For himself he preferred to remain, as, among other
reasons, the only means of reimbursing himself for his heavy
expenditures. If, however, it was the will of the army to return, he
would yield. A few hours later appeared an order to embark the
following day for Cuba. This, as was intended, brought public feeling
to a crisis. All saw their golden hopes suddenly dashed to the
ground, their visions of honors and repartimientos dispelled; even
the men so lately clamorous to return were not prepared to find their
request so readily granted. Would it not be well to think further of the
matter, and perhaps devise a plan to cover the emergency? After
noisy discussion the soldiers appeared in force before the captain-
general and demanded the revocation of the order. They had left
Cuba with the declared understanding that a colony was to be
planted, and now they were informed that Velazquez had given no
authority to settle. And if he had not, were not the interests of God
and the king paramount to the order of any governor? And did not
this same Velazquez defame Grijalva for not disobeying instructions
in this very regard? With no small satisfaction Cortés saw that he
was safe; then urging calm deliberation he graciously promised
delay,[182] which was employed first of all in impressing on their
minds how indispensable he was to their success.
Finally before the assembled army the captain-general appeared
and said: That he had invested his whole fortune in the fleet, and
controlled it; yet he was willing to subordinate his individual interest
to that of the whole. He had given the order to return because he
understood such to be the will of the majority. As this was not the
case, he would gladly remain; for God who had ever been with them
was now disclosing such a field of wealth and glory as had never
before been offered to Spaniard. Yet, if any wished to return, let them
freely speak, and a vessel would be at their disposal. What magic
power ruled, that, when the disaffected majority were thus given their
way, every mouth was dumb, and the commander remained more
potent than ever?
A colony being thus decided on, the founding ceremony was
performed by the quasi laying out of a town, the planting a pillory in
the plaza, and a gallows at some distance outside,[183] though
strictly speaking, the town was not properly located or laid out till
afterward. Referring to the treasures here obtained, and to the day of
landing, the new town was called Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.[184]
Cortés, as commander, appointed the municipal officers,[185] naming
for alcaldes Puertocarrero and Montejo, a judicious selection, both
for his own interests and as likely to meet general approval. And
here again is displayed the subtle policy of Cortés, who to this
important position nominates but one from among his own faction,
Montejo being for Velazquez. Thus of an opponent he made an
adherent, conciliating at the same time the entire Velazquez party.
[186] The regidores were Alonso de Ávila, Pedro and Alonso de
Alvarado, and Gonzalo de Sandoval; procurador general, Francisco
Álvarez Chico; alguacil mayor, Juan de Escalante; escribano, Diego
de Godoy. Beside these were appointed, in the interests of the
military department, as capitan de entradas Pedro de Alvarado;
maestre de campo, Cristóbal de Olid; alférez, Corral; alguaciles de
real, Ochoa and Romero; tesorero, Gonzalo Mejía; contador, Alonso
de Ávila.[187] Nearly all these men were devoted to Cortés, and were
therefore a powerful point d’appui for his project.
 Thus far all was well. The men of Velazquez and the men of
Cortés, Spaniards all, for the same God and the same king, had of
their own volition determined here to plant a Spanish settlement, and
had so planted it. By virtue of his office, and in the absence of any
higher authority, the captain-general had chosen temporary officers
for the new commonwealth. This was all. These men had elected to
transform the army into a civil society, for temporary or permanent
purposes as the case might be; and they had done so. But about
their leader? What position did he occupy? A general without an
army, de facto at the head of affairs, but by no legal right. Let him cut
his own knot.
Hat in hand, before the new municipality, Cortés appeared and
surrendered his commission. Authority, chief and absolute, was now
vested alone in the ayuntamiento. Then with the modesty of
Cincinnatus he retired.
It was then in order, on the part of the municipality, to choose a
chief ruler and representative of royal authority. This could be done
by the council alone, though in this instance, for obvious reasons, it
would be better to secure the appointment by popular vote. Cortés
felt safe enough either way. A glowing eulogy delivered by a fluent
speaker was followed by such noisy demonstrations that the
opposition found no opportunity to express their opinion.[188] The
following day a committee was sent to apprise Cortés of his election,
[189] in the name of their Catholic Highnesses, to the offices of
captain-general, and of justicia mayor of the town. On appearing
before the council to take the oath, the alcalde addressed Cortés,
giving as reason for the appointment his loyalty, his worth, and his
talents. The commission which was then given granted him one fifth
of all treasure acquired by trade or conquest, after deducting the
royal fifth. This was in consideration chiefly for his services as leader.
[190] Exitus acta probat. Las Casas insists that, since Cortés had no
authority to form a settlement, his appointment of an ayuntamiento
was illegal, and consequently their election of him. No one supposed
for a moment, least of all Cortés, that these proceedings were
regular. They were but make-believe legal. But in following Gomara’s
version Las Casas failed to understand that the appointment was
conferred by the popular majority in the name of the king, which
though not strictly legal threw over all the color of law. Beside, with
consummate skill Cortés made it appear that the expedition obliged
him to act as he did; and if these manœuvres did not legalize the
transaction, they were the means of weaving a strong bond between
the men and their leader, such as King Charles and all his
ordinance-makers never could have created. Cortés was no longer
the chief of Velazquez’ expedition, but the leader of the Vera Cruz
militia, as the army might now be termed, and removable only by the
power that placed him there, or by the emperor.[191]
Although opposition was now in vain, the adherents of
Velazquez loudly denounced the whole affair, called it a conspiracy
and a cheat, and refused to acknowledge Cortés as their leader. So
abusive did they become that open rupture was imminent. The
leaders of this faction were Velazquez de Leon, Ordaz, Escobar,
Pedro Escudero, Morla, and the priest Juan Diaz. Seeing the
necessity of prompt action, Cortés seized the first two, with a few
others, and sent them on shipboard in irons, while Alvarado went a-
foraging with a hundred men, chiefly adherents of the disaffected
leaders.[192] They found a fertile country, and several small towns.
The inhabitants fled at their approach, leaving signs of recent human
sacrifices in the temple. In one building, with pyramidal foundation
several feet in height, were found a number of fine rooms, some
filled with grain, beans, honey, and other provisions; others with
cotton fabrics and feathers, adorned in instances with gold and
silver. In obedience to strict orders nothing was touched save food.
The report brought back of the beauty of the country, together with
the ample supplies obtained, tended toward harmony; and while the
soldiers were thus easily reconciled to the new order of things,
Cortés with his usual tact won over nearly all his adversaries. Some
he bribed, some he flattered; others were allured with hopes of
preferment. Most remarkable was it that with such fire in his veins,
he could so control it; for however treacherous Cortés knew them to
be, seldom a sign escaped him that he suspected them. Even the
imprisoned officers yielded to his persuasive power, aided as it was
by irons, and soon were ranked among his devoted sustainers.[193]
And now came to pass an event such as the gods not
unfrequently fling their favorites, which was materially to brighten the
prospects of the Spaniards. While preparing their removal to a new
harbor, and shortly after the Mexican withdrawal from intercourse,
Bernal Diaz brought in from his outpost five Indians, different in
dress and features from any hitherto seen. Among other peculiarities
were large gold rings, set with stones, in their perforated ears, nose,
and lower lip. Two of them, who spoke Mexican, explained the
purport of their visit. The deeds of the Spaniards having reached the
ears of their master, the lord of Cempoala, in the Totonac country,
they had been sent to see these valiant beings, and invite them to
their city a few leagues distant.[194] Questionings revealed that the
Totonacs were a subjected nation, languishing like others under the
oppressive yoke of the Aztecs, and only too ready to welcome
deliverance.
It must be remembered that Cortés and his companions were
wholly in the dark as to the power and positions of the interior
nations. Now for the first time a little light was shed on the subject. It
appeared that the mighty monarch, with whom took place the late
interchange of courtesies, had enemies who, if not as powerful as
himself, were still strong, and in spirit, at least, unsubdued. Might not
this adverse influence be utilized and joined to other adverse
influences for the humbling of the great interior power? Possibly
Montezuma might grant Cortés audience under circumstances yet to
be. Thus the plan of the conquest was conceived. The messengers
were dismissed with presents and the assurance of a speedy visit.
[195]

According to Ixtlilxochitl, the first revelation of Aztec weakness

was made by his ancestor and namesake, the king of northern
Acolhuacan.[196] Fearing the power and treachery of Montezuma
and his allies, and hating the Aztecs with a perfect hatred, this prince
had hailed with joy the arrival of the Spaniards, and had gloated over
the terror with which their presence would inspire the emperor. The
prospect of gaining an ally who might aid his own ambitious plans for
supremacy, and for Mexican humiliation, impelled him to send an
embassy to Cortés with rich presents, and with instructions to
explain to the strangers the prevailing disaffection, the ease with
which the Aztecs might be overthrown, and the rare spoils that would
accrue to the conquerors. The interview with Cortés is placed at
about the same time as the Totonac visit, and Ixtlilxochitl is said to
have received the most friendly assurances from Cortés.[197] Be that
as it may, here was an incident which should crush all cavillings.
As well to examine the country as to inure the troops to whatever
experience should be theirs on this strange shore, Cortés with about
four hundred men and two light guns proceeded by land to
Cempoala, while the fleet with the heavy camp material and the
remainder of the expedition coasted farther northward to
Quiahuiztlan.
Burning overhead was the sun; burning underfoot were the
sands; while on the one side was the tantalizing sea, and on the
other the tantalizing wood, both inviting by their cool refreshing airs.
Behind the dark-fringed forests rose old Orizaba,[198] laughing at
their distress beneath its cap of snow, and wondering why mortals so
superior should choose the deadly tierra caliente country for their
promenade, when gentle, genial Anáhuac lay so near. But presently
the senses quickened to the aroma of vegetation; soft swards and
cultivated fields spread before them their living green, and the moist,
murmuring wood anon threw over them its grateful shade. If beside
grave thoughts on the stupendous matters then under consideration,
might find place such trifles of God’s creation as birds of brilliant
plumage and of sweet song, they were there in myriads to charm the
eye and ear; game to fill the stomach, though not so satisfying as
gold, always commanded attention, and was also plentiful.[199]
Through all, dispensing life and beauty on every side, flowed the Rio
de la Antigua, where a few years later rose old Vera Cruz.[200]
Crossing this stream with the aid of rafts and shaky canoes, the
army quartered on the opposite bank, in one of the towns there,
which was destitute alike of food and people, but which displayed the
usual ghastly indications of recent human sacrifice. The next
morning they followed the river westward, and soon after met a party
of twelve Totonacs, who had been sent by the Cempoalan ruler with
presents of food. By them the Spaniards were guided northward to a
hamlet where a bountiful supper was provided.[201] While marching
the next day, with scouts deployed as usual to guard against
ambuscades, they emerged from a dense tropical forest into the
midst of gardens and orchards, and by a sudden turn in the road the
bright buildings of Cempoala stood forth to view.
Just then twenty nobles appeared and offered welcome. They
were followed by slaves, and instantly the travel-worn army was
revelling in fruits and flowers. What more beautiful reception could
have been given? yet the Spaniards would have preferred a shower
of gold. To Cortés were given bouquets; a garland, chiefly of roses,
was flung around his neck, and a wreath placed upon his helmet.
Species of pineapples and cherries, juicy zapotes, and aromatic
anones were distributed to the men without stint. Almost the entire