CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

Celes%al naviga%on, also known as astronaviga%on, is the prac1ce of posi%on fixing using
stars and other celes%al bodies that enables a navigator to accurately determine their
actual current physical posi1on on the surface of the Earth without relying solely on
es1mated posi1onal calcula1ons. Celes1al naviga1on is performed without using satellite
naviga%on or other similar modern electronic or digital posi1oning means.

- NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY
Astronomical naviga1on requires some knowledge of astronomy.
The term Universe includes all the celes1al bodies, as well as the intervening space between
them. The Universe consists of innumerable galaxies separated from each other by
immense distances.

A normal galaxy is a large flaCened system consis1ng of millions of stars and gas clouds. The
galaxies rotate about their centers and are also moving away from each other at
phenomenal speeds. An average galaxy has a diameter of about 100,000 light years.

The planets in our solar system orbit around the sun. One orbit of the Earth takes one year.
Meanwhile, our en1re solar system - our sun with its family of planets, moon, asteroid and
comets - orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy. Our sun and solar system move at about
500,000 miles an hour (800,000 km/hr) in this huge orbit. So, in 90 seconds, for example, we
all move some 12,500 miles (20,000 km) in orbit around the galaxy's center. Our Milky Way
galaxy is a big place. Even at this blazing speed, it takes the sun approximately 225 million
years to complete one journey around the galaxy's center. This amount of 1me - the 1me it
takes us to orbit the center of the galaxy - is some1mes called a COSMIC YEAR

Light year -is the distance travelled by light in one year at the speed of 186,000 miles per
second (approx. 6 trillion miles).
The Sun is an average sized star and belongs to the Milky-Way galaxy. It is situated at a
distance of about 30,000 light years from the center of the galaxy. With the rest of the
galaxy, the Sun revolves about the center of the galaxy, comple1ng one revolu1on in about
225 million years.

From what has been stated above, it will be seen that stars including the Sun are not
sta1onary. The Sun's mo1on is not apparent to us on the Earth, because the Earth and the
other bodies of the solar system are also moving with the Sun. Due to their immense
distances from the Earth, stars also do not exhibit any apparent mo1on. For our purpose
therefore, we may consider the Sun and stars as sta%onary bodies.

All the stars we see belong to the Milky Way galaxy. For convenience, we group them into
different constella1ons. Apart from their proper names, stars may also be designated by the
constella1on to which they belong, pre-fixed by a Greek leCer, normally in the order of their
apparent brightness in that constella1on. Thus, apart from the Sun, the closest star situated
at a distance of about 4.3 light years from us is called Rigel Kent or Alpha Centaur
1.1 Magnitude System

The Absolute magnitude of a star is a measure of the actual amount of light emiCed by it.

The Apparent magnitude of a star is a measure of the brightness of that star as observed
from the Earth.

The magnitude number of stars decreases as their apparent brightness increases. The
increase in apparent brightness is in logarithmic propor1on to the decrease in their
magnitude number.

For instance, a second magnitude star is as much brighter than a third magnitude star as the
third magnitude star is brighter than a fourth magnitude star and so on.

Stars faintly visible to the naked eye are of the 6th magnitude. 6th magnitude stars are used
as the lowest reference for apparent brightness of other celes1al bodies. A first magnitude
star is 100 1mes brighter than a 6th magnitude star.
Since 100 - (2.51) S approximately, we can state that a 1st magnitude star is (2.51) 1mes
brighter than a 6th magnitude star from which the first magnitude star is separated by 5
magnitude classes.

It should be noted that the index of 2.51 is the difference in magnitude numbers of the two
stars. Accordingly, a star of magnitude 1.0 is 2.51 1mes as bright as a star of magnitude 2.0,
(2.51 )2 1mes as bright as a star of magnitude 3.0 and so on.

There are some stars and other celes1al bodies, namely the Planets, Moon and Sun which
appear brighter than first magnitude stars. Their magnitude numbers would obviously be
less than 0.1 or even nega1ve. The magnitude of Antares is 0.2, that of Canopus is -0.9, that
of Sirius is -1.6, that of the Full Moon is - 12.5 and that of the Sun is-26.7.
5.2 THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

To an observer on the Earth, the heavens appear to be an inverted hemisphere, with the
Earth at its center. The other half of the sphere, below his horizon, is not visible to him. All
the celes1al bodies appear projected on the inside of this sphere. Thus, the Earth appears to
be at the Centre of the Universe.

This, we know is not true. For the purpose of naviga1on however, we may assume the Earth
to be at the center of a sphere of infinite radius, on the inside surface of which, all the
celes1al bodies are situated.

Celes%al Sphere - is a sphere of infinite radius with the center of the Earth as its center. In
the following defini1ons, the similarity between the concepts and defini1ons pertaining to
the celes1al sphere and those pertaining to the Earth's surface should be noted.

Celes%al Poles - are the two points on the celes1al sphere where the axis of the Earth
produced would meet it.

Celes%al Equator (Equinoc%al) - is a great circle on the celes1al sphere in the same plane as
the plane of the Earth's Equator. Thus, the Equinoc1al is a projec1on of the Equator on the
celes1al sphere. Every point on the Equinoc1al is 90° from the celes1al Poles.

Parallels of declina%on - are small circles on the celes1al sphere, the planes of which are
parallel to that of the Equinoc1al. These correspond to parallels of la1tude on the Earth's
surface.

Celes%al meridians - are semi great circles on the celes1al sphere, the planes of which pass
through the celes1al poles. These correspond to the meridians on the Earth.

Eclip%c - is a great circle on the celes1al sphere in the same plane as the plane of the Earth's
orbit around the Sun. Thus, the Sun's apparent annual path on the celes1al sphere is the
Eclip1c. It is so called because the Sun, Moon and Earth must be on this plane for a solar or
lunar eclipse to occur.
Defini%on of Solar eclipse

Solar Eclipse is known as the eclipse of the sun, it occurs when the moon comes in between
the sun and the earth. The moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the earth's
surface, this occurs on a new moon phase. We can see up to 5 solar eclipses per year,

Defini%on of Lunar eclipse

When the Earth comes in between the sun and the moon then the moon is eclipsed. The
light that reached the moon's surface is blocked, hence the moon cannot give light. It occurs
on a full moon day.
Up to 3 lunar eclipses per year.
When the Earth is at E, in its orbit around the Sun the Sun appears to be at S, on the celes1al
sphere. When the Earth is at E, the Sun appears to be at S2, and so on. The apparent path of
the Sun around the Earth is therefore along a great circle called the Eclip1c, On the celes1al
sphere.

As stated later, in this chapter, the orbit of the Earth around the Sun and thus the Sun's
apparent orbit around the Earth is an ellipse. The Eclip1c is a projec1on of this ellipse on to
the celes1al sphere.

The plane of the Earth's orbit and therefore that of the Eclip1c is inclined at about. 23.5°
to that of the Equinoc1al. As the Sun appears to move along the Eclip%c, the maximum
declina1on of the Sun, North and South is equal to this angle.

Obliquity of the Eclip%c - is the angle between the plane of the Equinoc1al and that of the
Eclip1c. Its value is approximately 23.5°.

Zodiac - is a belt on the celes1al sphere extending 8° on each side of Eclip1c, within which
the Sun, the Moon and the planets are always found. The belt of the zodiac is divided into
12 equal parts of the length 30° each. These are named aaer groups of stars or
constella1ons within them. They are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, SagiCarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.

First Point of Aries - The two points on the celes1al sphere, where the Eclip1c intersects the
Equinoc1al are called the Equinoc1al points. On 21st March, at Vernal Equinox, the Sun
appears to cross the Equinoc1al from South to North. This point is known as the First point
of Aries. It is denoted by the symbol y.

First Point of Libra - On 23rd September, at Autumnal Equinox, the Sun appears to cross the
Equinoc1al from North to South. This point is known as the First point of Libra, denoted by
the symbol.

The First point of Aries and the First point of Libra were named aaer the constella1ons in
which they once lay. These points are however moving westward slowly, along the Eclip1c.
Due to this, the 1st point of Aries is no longer in the constella1on of Aries. It is now in the
constella1on of Pisces.
Solstices and Equinoxes

Sols%ces and Equinoxes are significant points in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, marking
changes in the length of daylight and the seasons. These events are related to the 1lt of the
Earth's axis.
Here's an overview of sols1ces and equinoxes:

1.Sols%ces:

Summer Sols%ce: Occurs around June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere (around December
21st in the Southern Hemisphere. It marks the longest day and shortest night of the year in
the Northern Hemisphere

Winter Sols%ce: Occurs around December 21st in the Northern Hemisphere (around June
21st in the Southern Hemisphere. It marks the shortest day and longest night of the year in
the Northern Hemisphere

1.Equinoxes:

Vernal Equinox: Occurs around March 21St. On this day, day and night are approximately
equal in dura1on across the globe. It marks the beginning of spring in the Northern
Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.

Autumnal Equinox: Occurs around September 23rd. Similar to the spring equinox, day and
night are roughly equal in dura1on on this day. It marks the beginning of autumn in the
Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
The terms perihelion and aphelion describe different points in our planet's orbit of the Sun.
This can also apply to other planets, comets, or bodies.

Aphelion is the point of the Earth's orbit that is farthest away from the Sun. It always
happens in early July, about two weeks aaer the June sols%ce,

Perihelion is the point of the Earth's orbit that is nearest to the Sun. This always happens in
early January, about two weeks aaer the December Sols%ce.
The words come from Ancient Greek, in which Helios means “Sun," apo means "far," and
peri means "close."

The Observer's Zenith - is the point on the celes1al sphere ver1cally above the observer.
The point at which a straight line from the center of the Earth through the observer meets
the celes1al sphere.
The Observer's Nadir - is the point on the celes1al sphere ver1cally opposite his Zenith.

Ver%cal Circles - are great circles on the celes1al sphere passing through the Observer's
Zenith and Nadir.

Prime Ver%cal - The observer's Prime ver1cal is the ver1cal circle passing through East and
West points of his ra1onal horizon.
5.3 EOUINOCTIAL SYSTEM

In this system the reference great circles are (a) the Equinoc1al and (b) the celes1al
meridian through the First point of Aries or the celes1al meridian of Greenwich or the
celes1al meridian of the observer. The coordinates used are declina1on, and hour angle
(Sidereal hour angle when measured from the celes1al meridian of Aries, Greenwich hour
angle when measured from that of Greenwich and local hour angle when measured from
that of the observer).

Declina%on - of a celes1al body is the area of a celes1al meridian or the angle at the center
of the Earth contained between the Equinoc1al and the parallel of declina1on through that
body. Declina1ons are measured from 0° to 90° N or S of the Equinoc1al or 0° to +90° and 0°
to -90°

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) - of a celes1al body is the arc of the Equinoc1al or the angle at
the celes1al poles contained between the celes1al meridian of the First point of Aries and
that through the body, measured westward from Aries.

Right Ascension (RA) - of a celes1al body is the arc of the Equinoc1al or the angle at the
celes1al poles contained between the celes1al meridian of the First point of Aries and that
through the body, measured eastward from Aries.
RA may also be expressed in hours, minutes and seconds, instead of an arc."
It should be noted that. since SHA is measured westward and RA is measured eastwards
from the same point, the SHA and RA of any body will together always add up to 360°

Greenwich hour angle (GHA) - of a celes1al body is the arc of the Equinoc1al or the angle at
the celes1al poles contained between the celes1al meridian of Greenwich and that of the
body, measured westward from Greenwich.

Local Hour angle (LHA) - of a celes1al body is the arc of the Equinoc1al or the angle at the
celes1al poles contained between the observer's celes1al meridian and the celes1al
meridian through that body, measured westward from the observer. If the angle or arc is
measured eastward from the observer, it is known as the Easterly Hour Angle (EHA) and not
LHA. It can therefore be seen that the LHA of a body equals 360°-its EHA.
5.4 HORIZON SYSTEM

In this system the reference great circles are

a) the observer's ra1onal or celes1al horizon and
b) his celes1al meridian.
The coordinates used are
a) al1tude or Zenith dist. and
b) Azimuth.

Celes%al or Ra%onal Horizon - The observer's ra1onal horizon is a great circle on the
celes1al sphere, every point on which is 90° away from his zenith.

True Al%tude - of a body is the area of the ver1cal circle through that body contained
between the ra1onal horizon and the center of the body.

Zenith Distance - of a body is the arc of the ver1cal circle through the body contained
between the observer's zenith and the center of the body.
Since every point on the ra1onal horizon is 90° from the observer's zenith, the zenith
distance = 90° - True Al1tude.

Azimuth - The azimuth of a celes1al body is the arc of the observer's ra1onal horizon or the
angle at his zenith contained between the observer's celes1al meridian and the ver1cal
circle through that body.

Amplitude - of a celes1al body is the arc of the observer's ra1onal horizon or the angle at
his zenith, contained between the observer's prime ver1cal and the ver1cal circle through
the body, when the body is on the observer's ra1onal horizon i.e. at theore1cal rising or
semng. Amplitude is therefore measured N or S from the observer's East point when the
body is rising, and his West point when semng.

Geographical posi%on - of a celes1al body is the point on the surface of the Earth, ver1cally
beneath that body i.e. the point at which a straight line from the Centre of the Earth to the
celes1al body meets the Earth's surface.

the GP being on the Earth's surface, is always expressed in terms of la1tude and longitude.
Since the center of the celes1al sphere is the Earth's center and as the Equator and the
Equinoc1al are in the same plane, the la1tude of a celes1al body's geographical posi1on is
equal to the body's declina1on.
The longitude of its GP corresponds to its GHA.
GHA is measured from 0° to 360°, westwards from Greenwich, while longitude is measured
from 0° to 180°E and 0° to 180°W from Greenwich. The GHA of the body, if less than 180°
will therefore be equal to the West longitude of its GP. If the GHA is more than 180°the
long, of its GP will be (360°-GHA) East.
5.5 IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIPS

With the help of the figures below, the student should note some important rela1onships.
He should be in a posi1on to draw such figures by himself and to prove similar rela1onships
or to deduce required values.

The below figures are drawn on the plane of the Equinoc1al i.e. looking down on the
celes1al sphere from above the North celes1al Pole. The outer circle therefore represents
the Equinoc1al. The celes1al Pole appears at the center. Celes1al meridians radiate from
the Pole. West-ward angles and Ares are measured clockwise.
Eastward angles and Ares are measured counterclockwise. The angle at the Pole, between
any two meridians is equal to the corresponding are on the Equinoc1al.