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* This article is part of the September 2021 special issue of International Affairs on ‘Deglobalization? The future
of the liberal international order’, guest-edited by T. V. Paul and Markus Kornprobst.
1
See Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan, The making of global International Relations: origins and evolution of IR at its
centenary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), p. 2.
2
John M. Hobson, The Euro-centric conception of world politics: western international theory, 1760–2010 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2012).
4
Jennifer Pitts, A turn to empire: the rise of imperial liberalism in Britain and France (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2009).
5
J. S. Mill, ‘Civilization’, in Gertrude Himmelfarb, ed., Essays in politics and culture (Gloucester, MA: Peter
Smith, 1973), p. 46.
6
Bhikhu Parekh, ‘Superior peoples: the narrowness of liberalism from Mill to Rawls’, Times Literary Supplement,
25 Feb. 1994, p. 11.
7
Uday Singh Mehta, Liberalism and empire: a study in nineteenth-century British liberal thought (Chicago: Chicago
University Press, 1997), p. 108.
8
Immanuel Kant, ‘What is enlightenment?’, in Foundations of the metaphysics of morals and what is enlightenment?,
trans. L. W. Beck (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1959).
9
Kant, cited in Bryan W. van Norden, Taking back philosophy: a multicultural manifesto (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2017), pp. 21–2.
10
Kant, cited in Norden, Taking back philosophy, pp. 21–2.
11
See Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment: a reader (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Björn
Freter, ‘White supremacy in eurowestern epistemologies: on the West’s responsibility for its philosophical
heritage’, Synthesis Philosophia 33: 1, 2019, pp. 237–49.
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12
Daya Krishna, Civilizations: nostalgia and utopia (New Delhi: Sage, 2012), p. 94.
13
See Martin Bernal, Black Athena: the Afroasiatic roots of classical civilization (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univer-
sity Press, 1987); Peter K. J. Park, Africa, Asia and the history of philosophy: racism in the formation of the philosophical
canon, 1780–1830 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 2013).
14
Exceptions included Mary Astell, A serious proposal to the ladies, parts I and II, ed. Patricia Springborg (Ontario:
Broadview, 2002; first publ. 1694, 1697); and Mary Wollstonecraft, A vindication of the rights of woman with
strictures on political and moral subjects (London: Joseph Johnson, 1792).
15
Eddy Souffrant, Formal transgression: John Stuart Mill’s philosophy of international affairs (Lanham, MD: Rowman
& Littlefield, 2000), p. 54 (emphasis added).
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16
Anibal Quijano, ‘Coloniality and modernity/rationality’, in Walter D. Mignolo and Arturo Escobar, eds,
Globalization and the decolonial option (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), pp. 22–32.
17
Amy Niang, ‘The international’, in Arlene B. Tickner and Karen Smith, eds, International Relations from the
global South: worlds of difference (Abingdon: Routledge, 2020), p. 107.
18
Quijano, ‘Coloniality’, p. 24.
19
‘Colonial modernity’ refers to the attempts by imperial powers to restructure colonies’ political, economic,
moral and cognitive orders on the basis of values derived from the European Enlightenment.
20
Sudipto Kaviraj, ‘Crisis of the nation-state in India’, in John Dunn, ed., Contemporary crisis of the nation-state?
(Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), p. 11.
21
Bernard S. Cohen, Colonialism and its forms of knowledge: the British in India (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1996), pp. 3–11.
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38
Navnita Chadha Behera, Kristina Hinds and Arlene B. Tickner, ‘Making amends: towards an anti-racist criti-
cal security studies in IR’, Security Dialogue, forthcoming.
39
D. R. Mutimer, ‘My critique is bigger than yours: constituting exclusions in critical security securities’, Studies
in Social Justice 3: 1, 2009, pp. 9–10.
40
Charles Tilly, ‘War making and state making as organized crime’, in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer
and Theda Skocpol, eds, Bringing the state back in (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 170;
Benno Teschke, ‘The origins and evolution of the European states-system’, in William Brown, Simon Brom-
ley and Suma Athreye, eds, Ordering the international: history, change and transformation (London: Pluto, 2004), pp.
21–64.
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41
Behera et al., ‘Making amends’.
42
Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey, ‘The postcolonial moment in security studies’, Review of International Studies
32: 2, 2006, p. 350.
43
Pinar Bilgin, ‘The “western-centrism” of security studies: “blind spot” or constitutive practice?’, Security
Dialogue 41: 6, 2010, p. 616.
44
Tickner and Waever, International Relations scholarship, p. 335.
45
Piya Chatterjee and Sunaina Maira, eds, The imperial university: academic repression and scholarly dissent (Minneapo-
lis: University of Minnesota Press, 2014).
46
E. Hazelkorn, The impact of global rankings on higher education research and the production of knowledge, occasional
paper no. 16 (New York: UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge, 2009); John
Welsh, ‘Ranking academics: towards a critical politics of academic rankings’, Critical Policy Studies 13: 2, 2019,
pp. 153–73.
47
Peter Marcus Kristensen, ‘Revisiting the “American social science”—mapping the geography of International
Relations’, International Studies Perspectives 16: 3, 2015, pp. 246–69.
48
Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan, ‘Why is there no non-western International Relations theory? An intro-
duction’, International Relations of the Asia–Pacific 7: 3, 2007, p. 289.
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59
Under Project 211, the Ministry of Education distributed US$ 2.2 billion in 1995; this was followed in 1999
by Project 985, granting US$4 billion to an elite group of 39 universities. The 2017 Double World-Class
University Project sought to establish 42 world-class, research-driven universities and 465 world-class disci-
plines by 2049. Chelsea Blackburn Cohen, ‘World-Class Universities and Institutional Autonomy in China’,
International Higher Education, no. 99, 2019, p. 27. See also Kathryn Mohrman, ‘Are Chinese universities glob-
ally competitive?’, China Quarterly, vol. 215, 2013, p. 4.
60
Yiwei Wang, ‘China: beyond copying and constructing’, in Tickner and Weaver, eds, International Relations
scholarship, p. 104.
61
Xining Song, ‘Building International Relations theory with Chinese characteristics’, Journal of Contemporary
China 10: 26, 2001, pp. 68–9.
62
Song, ‘Building International Relations theory’; Gerald Chan, ‘Toward an International Relations theory
with Chinese characteristics’, Issues and Studies, vol. 6, 1998, pp. 22–3.
63
Yan Xuetong, Ancient Chinese thought, modern Chinese power, ed. Daniel A. Bell and Sun Zhe (Princeton: Prince-
ton University Press, 2011).
64
Wang, ‘China: beyond copying’, p. 111; Zhao Tingyang, ‘Rethinking empire from a Chinese concept “All-
under-Heaven”’, Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture 12: 1, 2006, pp. 29–41.
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65
Qin Yaqing, A relational theory of world politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).
66
Wang, ‘China: beyond copying’, p. 111.
67
The zhongyong dialectics constitutes a key component of both the Confucian and Daoist philosophical views
of the universe. Like the Hegelian dialectics, Yaqing explains that ‘it sees things in opposite poles; but unlike
the Hegelian dialectics it assumes relations between the two poles are non-conflictual and co-evolve through
a harmonizing interactive process into a new synthesis or a new form of life, containing elements from both
and unable to be reduced to either. Yaqing, A relational theory, p. 152.
68
Linsay Cunningham-Cross, ‘(Re)negotiating China’s place in the house of IR: the search for a “Chinese
School” of International Relations theory’, unpublished paper, 2012, https://www.escholar.manchester.
ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:221785&datastreamId=FULL-TEXT.PDF.
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77
Quijano, ‘Coloniality’.
78
Walter D. Mignolo, ‘Decoloniality and phenomenology: the geopolitics of knowing and epistemic/ontologi-
cal colonial differences’, Journal of Speculative Philosophy 32: 3, 2018, p. 373.
79
Sankaran Krishna, ‘Race, amnesia and the education of International Relations’, Alternatives 26: 4, 2001, pp.
401–424.
80
For his original formulation, see W. E. B. Du Bois, ‘Worlds of colour’, Foreign Affairs 3: 3, 1925, pp. 423–44;
and for contemporary debates on racism in IR, see Alexander Anievas, Nivi Manchanda and Robbie Shilliam,
eds, Race and racism in International Relations: confronting the global colour line (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015).
81
Robert Vitalis, White world order, black power politics: the birth of American International Relations (Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 2015); Alexander E. Davis, Vineet Thakur and Peter Vale, Imperial discipline: race and
the founding of International Relations (London: Pluto, 2020).
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91
Trownsell et al., ‘Differing about difference’ (emphasis in original), p. 3.
92
Chaturvedi Badrinath, Dharma, India and the world order (Edinburgh: St Andrew’s Press, 1993), p. 91.
93
Mvuselelo Ngcora, ‘Ubuntu: toward an emancipatory cosmopolitanism’, International Political Sociology 9: 3,
2015, p. 260.
94
Deepshikha Shahi, ed., Sufism: a theoretical intervention in global International Relations (New York: Routledge,
2020).
95
Wang, ‘China: beyond copying’, p. 111.
96
Trownsell et al. , ‘Differing about difference’.
97
Louis Yako, ‘Deglobalizing knowledge production: a practical guide’, Counterpunch, 9 April 2021,
https://www.counterpunch.org/2021/04/09/decolonizing-knowledge-production-a-practical-
guide/?fbclid=IwAR0r1xa1_BnNMC9jbc-t_etfi58m5L4mZFcGYHgrrTrhIUfSIh373zTz3UY.
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