Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom

Author(s): Zoltán Dörnyei

Source: The Modern Language Journal , Autumn, 1994, Vol. 78, No. 3 (Autumn, 1994),
pp. 273-284
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/330107

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 Motivation and Motivating in the
Foreign Language Classroom
ZOLTAN DORNYEI

Department of English, E6tv6s University

1146 Budapest, Ajt6si Diirer sor 19, Hungary
Email: dornyei@ludens.elte.hu

MOTIVATION IS ONE OF THE MAIN DETER- tion research, which would be consistent with
minants of second/foreign language (L2) the perceptions of practising teachers and
learning achievement and, accordingly, the last which would also be in line with the current
three decades have seen a considerable amount results of mainstream educational psychologi-
of research that investigates the nature andcal research.
role of
motivation in the L2 learning process. Much It must
of be noted that Gardner's (32) motiva-
tionby
this research has been initiated and inspired theory does include an educational dimen-
sion and that the motivation test he and his
two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner
and Wallace Lambert (see 34), who, together
associates developed, the Attitude/Motivation
Test Battery (AMTB) (31), contains several
with their colleagues and students, grounded
motivation research in a social psychological
items focusing on the learner's evaluation of th
framework (for recent summaries, see 33;classroom
35). learning situation. However, the
Gardner and his associates also established sci- main emphasis in Gardner's model-and the w
entific research procedures and introduced
it has been typically understood-is on genera
standardised assessment techniques and instru- motivational components grounded in the so-
ments, thus setting high research standards cialand
milieu rather than in the foreign languag
bringing L2 motivation research to maturity. classroom. For example, the AMTB contains
Although Gardner's motivation construct section
didin which students' attitudes toward the
not go unchallenged over the years (see 2; language
44), teacher and the course are tested.
it was not until the early 1990s that a marked This may be appropriate for measurement pur-
shift in thought appeared in papers on L2 poses,
mo- but the data from this section do not
tivation as researchers tried to reopen the provide
re- a detailed enough description of the
search agenda in order to shed new light classroom
on the dimension to be helpful in generat-
subject (e.g., 10; 19; 51; 52). The main problem
ing practical guidelines. As Gardner and MacIn-
with Gardner's social psychological approach tyre (35) recently stated concerning the learn-
appeared to be, ironically, that it was tooing situation-specific section of the AMTB,
influ-
ential. In Crookes and Schmidt's words, it was "attention is directed toward only two targets,
"so dominant that alternative concepts have largely because they are more generalisable
not been seriously considered" (p. 501). This across different studies" (p. 2). Finally, Gard-
resulted in an unbalanced picture, involving a ner's motivation construct does not include de-
conception that was, as Skehan put it, "limited tails on cognitive aspects of motivation to learn,
compared to the range of possible influenceswhereas this is the direction in which educa-
that exist" (52: p. 280). While acknowledging tional psychological research on motivation ha
unanimously the fundamental importance ofbeen moving during the last fifteen years.
the Gardnerian social psychological model, re- The purpose of this paper-following Crooke
searchers were also calling for a more prag-and Schmidt's and Skehan's initiative-is to

matic, education-centred approach to motiva- help foster further understanding of L2 mo

tion from an educational perspective. A nu
ber of relevant motivational components (m
The Modern Language Journal, 78, iii (1994) of them largely unexploited in L2 research)
0026-7902/94/273-284 $1.50/0
C1994 The Modern LanguageJournal be described, and these will then be integr
into a multilevel L2 motivation construct. In

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 274 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)

addition, a set of practical stinct, drive, arousal, need,

guidelines on and howon personality
to
apply the research resultstraits to likeactual teaching
anxiety and will and
need for achievement,
be formulated; I believemore that the
recently question
on cognitive appraisals ofof
success
how to motivate students is an area on which L2 and failure, ability, self-esteem, etc. (53; 54).
motivation research has not placed sufficient L2 learning presents a unique situation due
emphasis in the past. to the multifaceted nature and role of language.
Interestingly, a very recent paper by Oxford It is at the same time: a) a communication coding
and Shearin sets out to pursue similar goals system
to that can be taught as a school subject,
those of the current author, by discussing b) mo-an integral part of the individual's identity in-
tivational theories from different branches of volved in almost all mental activities, and also
psychology--general, industrial, educational,
c) the most important channel of social organisation
embedded in the culture of the community
and cognitive developmental psychology-and
where it is used. Thus, L2 learning is more com-
by integrating them into an expanded theoreti-
plex than simply mastering new information
cal framework that has practical instructional
implications. This very comprehensive and andin-
knowledge; in addition to the environmen-
sightful study, together with the workstal and cognitive factors normally associated
cited
above and the author's current discussion,with
may learning in current educational psychol-
provide a firmer basis for new directions ogy,
of re-it involves various personality traits and so-
search in L2 motivation. cial components. For this reason, an adequate
L2 motivation construct is bound to be eclectic,
At the outset, I would like to acknowledge
once again the seminal work of Robert Gardner bringing together factors from different psy-
and his colleagues. Gardner's theory has pro- chological fields.
foundly influenced my thinking on this subject, Coming from Canada, where language learn-
and I share Oxford and Shearin's assertion that: ing is a featured social issue-at the crux of the
The current authors do not intend to overturn the relationship between the Anglophone and
Francophone
ideas nor denigrate the major contributions of re- communities--Gardner and
searchers such as Gardner, Lambert, Lalonde, and Lambert were particularly sensitive to the social
others, who powerfully brought motivational issues dimension of L2 motivation. The importance of
to the attention of the L2 field. We want to main- this dimension is not restricted to Canada. If we
consider that the vast majority of nations in the
tain the best of the existing L2 learning motivation
theory and push its parameters outward (p. 13).world are multicultural, and most of these are

Indeed, there will be an attempt in this papermultilingual,

to and that there are more bilinguals
in the world than there are monolinguals (32),
integrate the social psychological constructs
we cannot fail to appreciate the immense social
postulated by Gardner, Clement, and their asso-
ciates into the proposed new framework of relevance
L2 of language learning worldwide.
motivation. Integrativeness and Instrumentality. Gardner's
motivation construct has often been under-
stood as the interplay of two components, inte-
THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF L2
grative and instrumental motivations. The for-
MOTIVATION
mer is associated with a positive disposition
towardhas
One recurring question in recent papers the L2 group and the desire to interact
been how "social" a L2 motivation construct with and even become similar to valued mem-
should be and what the relationship between
bers of that community. The latter is related to
social attitudes and motivation is. To start with,
the potential pragmatic gains of L2 proficiency,
it must be realised that "attitudes" and "motiva-such as getting a better job or a higher salary. It
tion" tend not to be used together in the psy- must be noted, however, that Gardner's theory
chological literature as they are considered to and test battery are more complex and reach
be key terms of different branches of psychol-beyond the instrumental/integrative dichot-
ogy. "Attitude" is used in social psychology and omy. As Gardner and MacIntyre state, "The im-
sociology, where action is seen as the function portant point is that motivation itself is dy-
of the social context and the interpersonal/ namic. The old characterization of motivation
intergroup relational patterns. Motivational in terms of integrative vs. instrumental orienta-
psychologists, on the other hand, have been tions is too static and restricted" (p. 4).
looking for the motors of human behaviour in The popularity of the integrative-instru-
the individual rather than in the social being, mental system is partly due to its simplicity and
focusing traditionally on concepts such as in- intuitively convincing character, but partly also

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 Zoltdn D6rnyei 275
to the fact that broadly
ment that the most de
pressing difficulty motiva-
affective" and "pragmatic-
tion researchers face is that of "clarifying the
mensions doorientation-context
usually links that exist. There
emerg
studies of motivation. However, in the last dec- would seem to be a wider range of orientatio
ade, investigations have shown that these dimen- here than was previously supposed, and there
sions cannot be regarded as straightforward uni- considerable scope to investigate different con
versals, but rather as broad tendencies-or textual circumstances (outside Canada!) by
varying the L1-L2 learning relationship in dif-
subsystems- comprising context-specific clus-
ters of loosely related components. As Gardner
ferent ways" (p. 284). To put it simply, the exact
nature
and MacIntyre concluded, it is simplistic not to of the social and pragmatic dimensions
recognise explicitly the fact that sociocultural
of L2 motivation is always dependent on who
context has an overriding effect on all aspects
learns what languages where.
of the L2 learning process, including motivation.
Clement and Kruidenier found in their Cana- FURTHER COMPONENTS OF L2 MOTIVATION
dian research that in addition to an instrumental
Although the majority of past research
orientation, three other distinct general orienta-
tions to learn a L2 emerged, namely knowledge,tended to focus on the social and pragm
dimensions of L2 motivation, some studies have
friendship, and travel orientations, which had tradi-
attempted to extend the Gardnerian construct
tionally been lumped together in integrativeness.
Moreover, when L2 was a foreign rather than by aadding new components, such as intrinsic/
extrinsic motivation (9; 10), intellectual curi-
second language (i.e., learners had no direct
osity (41), attribution about past successes/
contact with the L2 community), a fourth, socio-
cultural, orientation was also identified. failures (26; 52), need for achievement (26),
self-confidence (13, 15, 40), and classroom goal
Investigating young adult learners in a for-
structures (38), as well as various motives re-
eign language learning situation in Hungary,
D6rnyei (26) identified three loosely related lated
di- to learning situation-specific variables
such as classroom events and tasks, classroom
mensions of a broadly conceived integrative
motivational subsystem: 1) interest in foreignclimate
lan- and group cohesion, course content
and
guages, cultures, and people (which can be associ-teaching materials, teacher feedback, and
grades and rewards (9-11; 14; 19; 25; 37; 38; 41;
ated with Clement and Kruidenier's "socio-
46; 51;one's
cultural orientation"); 2) desire to broaden 52). In the following discussion, I will
give an overview
view and avoid provincialism (cf., Clement and of these motivational areas and
then outline a L2 motivation construct that at-
Kruidenier's "knowledge orientation"); and
tempts
3) desire for new stimuli and challenges to integrate these components.
(sharing
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation and Related Theo-
much in common with Cl6ment and Kruidenier's
"friendship" and "travel orientations"). A ries. One of the most general and well-known
distinctions in motivation theories is that be-
fourth dimension, the desire to integrate into a new
tween intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrin-
community (cf., "travel orientation"), overlapped
with the instrumental motivational subsystem. sically motivated behaviours are the ones that
Investigating secondary school pupils in the the individual performs to receive some extrin-
same context, Clement, D6rnyei, and Noels sic reward (e.g., good grades) or to avoid pun-
found that, in this population, instrumental and ishment. With intrinsically motivated behav-
knowledge orientations clustered together, and they iours the rewards are internal (e.g., the joy of
identified four other distinct orientations, xeno- doing a particular activity or satisfying one's
philic (similar to "friendship orientation"), iden- curiosity).
tification, sociocultural, and English media. In an- Deci and Ryan argue that intrinsic motiva-
other foreign language learning context, tion is potentially a central motivator of the ed-
among American high school students learning ucational process:
Japanese, Oxford and Shearin also found that Intrinsic motivation is in evidence whenever stu-

in addition to integrative and instrumental dents' natural curiosity and interest energise their
orientations, the learners had a number of learning. When the educational environment pro-
other reasons for learning the language, rang-vides optimal challenges, rich sources of stimula-
tion, and a context of autonomy, this motivational
ing from "enjoying the elitism of taking a diffi-
wellspring in learning is likely to flourish (p. 245).
cult language" to "having a private code that
parents would not know" (p. 12). Extrinsic motivation has traditionally been
These studies confirm Skehan's (51) argu-
seen as something that can undermine intrinsic

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 276 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
motivation; several studies have
pointconfirmed that
out that tests and exams can be powerful
students will lose their natural intrinsic interest
proximal motivators in long lasting, continuous
in an activity if they have to do it to meet some behaviours such as language learning; they
extrinsic requirement (as is often the case with function as proximal subgoals and markers of
compulsory readings at school). Brown (10)progress that provide immediate incentive, self-
points out that traditional school settings with inducements, and feedback and that help mo-
their teacher domination, grades and tests, as bilise and maintain effort. Proximal goal-
well as "a host of institutional constraints that setting also contributes to the enhancement of
glorify content, product, correctness, compet- intrinsic interest through favourable, continued
itiveness" tend to cultivate extrinsic motivation involvement in activities and through the satis-
and "fail to bring the learner into a collabora- faction derived from subgoal attainment. At-
tive process of competence building" (p. 388). tainable subgoals can also serve as an important
Recent research on intrinsic/extrinsic mo- vehicle in the development of the students' self-
tivation has shown that under certain circum- confidence and efficacy-two concepts that
will be analysed below.
stances-if they are sufficiently self-determined
and internalised-extrinsic rewards can be com- Oxford and Shearin argue that in order to
bined with, or even lead to, intrinsic motiva- function as efficient motivators, goals should be
tion. The self-determination theory was introduced specific, hard but achievable, accepted by the
by Deci and Ryan as an elaboration of the students, and accompanied by feedback about
intrinsic/extrinsic construct. Self-determi- progress. As the authors conclude, "Goal set-
nation (i.e., autonomy) is seen as a prerequisite
ting can have exceptional importance in stimu-
lating L2 learning motivation, and it is there-
for any behaviour to be intrinsically rewarding.
In the light of this theory, extrinsic motiva-
fore shocking that so little time and energy are
tion is no longer regarded as an antagonistic
spent in the L2 classroom on goal setting"
counterpart of intrinsic motivation but has
(p. 19).
been divided into four types along a continuumCognitive components of motivation. Since the
between self-determined and controlled forms mid-1970s, a cognitive approach has set the di-
of motivation (24): External regulation refers rection
toof motivation research in educational
the least self-determined form of extrinsic mo- psychology. Cognitive theories of motivation
tivation, involving actions for which the locus view
of motivation to be a function of a person'
initiation is external to the person, such as thoughts
re- rather than of some instinct, need,
drive, or state; information encoded and trans-
wards or threats (e.g., teacher's praise or paren-
formed into a belief is the source of action.
tal confrontation). Introjected regulation involves
externally imposed rules that the student ac- In his analysis of current theories of motiva-
cepts as norms that pressure him or her totion, be- Weiner (53) lists three major cognitive
have (e.g., "I must be at school on time," or "I
conceptual systems: attribution theory, learned
should have prepared for class"). Identified regula-
helplessness, and self-efficacy theory. All three con-
tion occurs when the person has come to cern iden-the individual's self-appraisal of what he or
tify with and accept the regulatory processshe can or cannot do, which will, in turn, affect
see-
how he
ing its usefulness. The most developmentally or she strives for achievement in the
advanced form of extrinsic motivation is inte- future. The central theme in attribution theory is
the
grated regulation, which involves regulations study of how causal ascriptions of past fail-
that
are fully assimilated with the individual's ures otherand successes affect future goal expect-
values, needs, and identities. Motives tradi- ancy. For example, failure that is ascribed to
tionally mentioned under instrumental motiva- low ability or to the difficulty of a task decreases
the expectation of future success more than
tion in the L2 literature typically fall under one
failure that is ascribed to bad luck or to a lack of
of the last two categories-identified regula-
tion or integrated regulation-depending on effort. In his exploratory study among Hun-
how important the learner considers the goalgarian
of L2 learners, the current author (26)
identified an independent "attributions about
L2 learning to be in terms of a valued personal
outcome. past failures" component to L2 motivation and
Proximal goal-setting. The theories arguedpresented
that such attributions are particularly
above may suggest that extrinsic significant in foreign
goals such as language learning con-
tests and exams should be avoided as much as texts where "L2 learning failure" is a very com-
mon phenomenon.
possible since they are detrimental to intrinsic
motivation. Bandura and Schunk, however, Learned helplessness refers to a resigned, pessi-

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 Zoltan D6rnyei 277
mistic, helpless ing. Individuals
state with a high
that need for achieve-
deve
person wants to ment are interested in excellencebut
succeed for its own feel
sake, tend to initiate achievement
impossible or beyond him activities,
or he
son, that is, thework with probability
heightened intensity at these tasks, of
does not appear and persist
toin the be face of failure. Oxford and
increased
or effort. It is Shearin provide a detailed analysis
a feeling of on how
"I need sim
which, once established,
theories in general might be relevant tois L2 mo-ver
reverse. tivation research, and in an earlier paper (26) I
have argued
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's that in institutional/academic
judgement
of his or her ability to perform contexts,
a specificwhere academic achievement situa-
action.
tions are very
Attributions of past accomplishments salient,
play anneed for achievement will
play a particularly important
important role in developing self-efficacy, but role.
people also appraise efficacy from observa-
tional experiences (e.g., by observing peers), as
MOTIVATIONAL COMPONENTS THAT ARE
well as from persuasion, reinforcement, and
SPECIFIC TO LEARNING SITUATIONS
evaluation by others, especially teachers or par-
ents (e.g., "You can do it!" or "You Since theareend of the 1980s more importa
doing
fine!") (49). Once a strong sensehas ofbeen attached in the
efficacy is L2 motivation litera-
developed, a failure may not have turemuch
to motives related to the learning situation
impact.
Oxford and Shearin emphasise that (e.g., 9-11;
many 14; 19; 25; 37; 38; 51; 52). In order to
stu-
dents do not have an initial belief in their self- grasp the array of variables and processes in-
efficacy and "feel lost in the language class" volved at this level of L2 motivation, it appears
(p. 21); teachers therefore can and should help useful to separate three sets of motivational
them develop a sense of self-efficacy by provid- components (motives and motivational condi-
ing meaningful, achievable, and success- tions): 1) course-specific motivational components
engendering language tasks. concerning the syllabus, the teaching materials,
Self-confidence. Self-confidence-the belief the teaching method, and the learning tasks;
that one has the ability to produce results, ac- 2) teacher-specific motivational components concern-
complish goals or perform tasks competently-- ing the teacher's personality, teaching style,
is an important dimension of self-concept. It feedback, and relationship with the students;
appears to be akin to self-efficacy, but used in a and 3) group-specific motivational components con-
more general sense. Self-confidence was first cerning the dynamics of the learning group.
introduced in L2 literature by Clement (13) to Course-specific motivational components. Based
describe a secondary, mediating motivational on Keller's motivational system-which is par-
process in multi-ethnic settings that affects a ticularly comprehensive and relevant to class-
person's motivation to learn and use a L2. Ac- room learning-Crookes and Schmidt postu-
cording to his conceptualisation, self-confi- late four major motivational factors to describe
dence includes two components, language use L2 classroom motivation: interest, relevance, expect-
anxiety (the affective aspect) and self-eval- ancy, and satisfaction. This framework appears to
uation of L2 proficiency (the cognitive aspect), be particularly useful in describing course-
and is determined by the frequency and quality specific motives.
of interethnic contact (cf., 15; 40). The first category, interest, is related to intrin-
Although self-confidence was originally con- sic motivation and is centred around the indi-

ceptualised with regard to multi-ethnic settings, vidual's inherent curiosity and desire to know
Clement, D6rnyei, and Noels showed that it is a more about him or herself and his or her en-

major motivational subsystem in foreign lan- vironment. Relevance refers to the extent to

guage learning situations as well (i.e., where which the student feels that the instruction is
there is no direct contact with members of the
connected to important personal needs, values,
L2 community). This is in line with the impor-
or goals. At a macrolevel, this component coin-
tance attached to self-efficacy in the educa-
cides with instrumentality; at the level of the
tional psychological literature. learning situation, it refers to the extent to
Need for achievement. A central element ofwhich
clas- the classroom instruction and course
sical achievement motivation theory, needcontent
for are seen to be conducive to achievin
achievement is a relatively stable personality the
traitgoal, that is, to mastering the L2. Expectan
refers to the perceived likelihood of success
that is considered to affect a person's behaviour
is related to the learner's self-confidence and
in every facet of life, including language learn-

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 278 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
performance
self-efficacy at a general level; againstof
at the level external
the standards. Of th
two, the
learning situation, it concerns former should
perceived be dominant. For exam-
task
difficulty, the amount of ple,
effort required,
praise-a the
type of informational feedback-
amount of available assistance and guidance,
should attribute success to effort and ability, im
the teacher's presentation of the
plying task,
that and
similar fa- can be expected i
successes
miliarity with the task type.the future. Praise should
Satisfaction avoid, however, the in-
concerns
clusion of controlling
the outcome of an activity, referring to the com-feedback (e.g., the com
bination of extrinsic rewards such
parison asstudents'
of the praisesuccess
or to the successe
good marks and to intrinsicor
rewards
failures ofsuch
others)as en-
(7). Ames points out tha
joyment and pride. Attainable proximal
social comparison, sub-
which is considered ver
detrimental
goals (as discussed above) are related to primarily
intrinsic motivation, is often im-
to this component. posed in a variety of ways in the classroom, in
Teacher-specific motivationalcluding announcement
components. Per-of grades (sometime
haps the most important teacher-related motive
only the highest and lowest), displays of selecte
has been identified in educational
papers and psychology
achievements, and ability groupin
as affiliative drive (3), whichGroup-specific
refers to motivational
students' components. Class
need to do well in school in room learning
order takes place
to please the within groups a
teacher (or other superordinate figures
organisational like
units; these units are powerful
parents) whom they like socialandentities with a "life Al-
appreciate. of their own," so that
though this desire for teacher group approval
dynamics influence
is an student affects and
extrinsic motive, it is often cognitions (for a review,
a precursor to in-see 30; 50). In addi
trinsic interest (5), as is attested by good tion, group goals and the group's commitmen
teachers whose students become devoted to to these goals do not necessarily coincide with
their subject. those of the individual, but may reinforce or
A second teacher-related motivational com- reduce them.

ponent is the teacher's authority type, that

Withis,respect to L2 motivation, four aspects of
whether he or she is autonomy supportinggroup
or dynamics are particularly relevant:
controlling. Sharing responsibility with stu-
1) goal-orientedness, 2) norm and reward system,
dents, offering them options and choices, let- cohesion, and 4) classroom goal structures.
3) group
ting them have a say in establishing priorities, A group goal is best regarded as a composite of
and involving them in the decision making individual goals, that is, an "end state desired by
enhance student self-determination and intrin- a majority of the group members" (50: p. 351).
sic motivation (23, 24). Groups are typically formed for a purpose, but
A third motivational aspect of the teacher the is
"official goal" may not be the only group
goal and in extreme cases may not be a group
his or her role in direct and systematic socializa-
tion ofstudent motivation (8), that is, whethergoal
he orat all. For example, the goal of a group of
she actively develops and stimulates learners' students may be to have fun rather than to
motivation. There are three main channels for learn. The extent to which the group is attuned
to pursuing its goal (in our case, L2 learning) is
the socialization process: 1) Modelling: teachers,
in their position as group leaders, embodyreferred
the to as goal-orientedness.
"group conscience" and, as a consequence, stu- The group's norm and reward system is one of
dent attitudes and orientations toward learningthe most salient classroom factors that can af-
will be modelled after their teachers, both in fect student motivation. It concerns extrinsic

terms of effort expenditure and orientations of
interest in the subject. 2) Task presentation: effi-
cient teachers call students' attention to the
purpose of the activity they are going to
potential interest and practical value, and
the strategies that may be useful in achieving
the task, thus raising students' interest
metacognitive awareness. 3) Feedback: this
ess carries a clear message about the teacher's
priorities and is reflected in the students'
tivation. There are two types of feedback:
mational feedback, which comments on have
tence, and controlling feedback, whichgrades
motives that specify appropriate behaviours re-
quired for efficient learning. As has been dis-
cussed earlier, extrinsic regulations should be
internalised
do, its as much as possible to foster intrin-
sic motivation.
even Rewards and punishment (typ-
ically expressed in grades) should give way to
group and
norms, which are standards that the ma-
jority of group members agree to and which
proc-
become part of the group's value system. In
classes
mo-where, for example, doing home assign-
ments and preparing for tests conscientiously
infor-
compe-not become accepted group norms, bad
judgesand other punitive measures will not be

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 Zoltdn Dornyei 279
efficient in eclectic, multifaceted construct.
getting studentIn order to in-
their home studies. On the other hand, once a tegrate the various components, it appears nec-
norm has been internalised and has become a essary to introduce different levels of motiva-
self-evident pre-condition for the group tion,to
similarly but not in exactly the same way as
function, the group is likely to cope withwas done by Crookes and Schmidt.
devia-
tions by putting pressure on members whoBasedvio- on the research literature presented
late the norm. This may happen through a and the results of Clement, D6rnyei, and
above
Noels's
range of group behaviours-from showing ac- classroom study-in which a tripartite
tive support for teacher's efforts to have L2the
motivation construct emerged comprising
norms observed, to expressing indirectlyintegrative dis- motivation, self-confidence, and the
agreement with and dislike for deviant mem- appraisal of the teaching environment-we may
bers, and even to openly criticising them conceptualise
and a general framework of L2 mo-
putting them in "social quarantine." tivation. This framework consists of three levels:
Group cohesion is the "strength of the relation-the Language Level, the Learner Level, and the
ship linking the members to one another Learning and to Situation Level (see Figure I). The three
the group itself" (30: p. 10). In a meta-analysis,levels coincide with the three basic constituents

Evans and Dion found a consistent positive ofrela-

the L2 learning process (the L2, the L2
tionship between cohesion and group perfor- learner, and the L2 learning environment) and
mance, and the findings of Clement, D6rnyei, also reflect the three different aspects of lan-
and Noels confirmed that perceived group guage
co- mentioned earlier (the social dimension,
hesion is an important motivational component the personal dimension, and the educational
in a L2 learning context. This may be duesubject to the matter dimension).
fact that in a cohesive group, members want Thetomost general level of the construct is the
contribute to group success and the group's Language Level where the focus is on orienta-
goal-oriented norms have a strong influence tions and motives related to various aspects of
over the individual. the L2, such as the culture it conveys, the com-
munity in which it is spoken, and the potential
Classroom goal structures can be competitive, coopera-
usefulness of proficiency in it. These general
tive, or individualistic. In a competitive structure,
students work against each other and only motives
the determine basic learning goals and ex-
best ones are rewarded. In a cooperative situa- plain language choice. In accordance with the
tion, students work in small groups in which Gardnerian approach, this general motiva-
each member shares responsibility for the tional out- dimension can be described by two broad
come and is equally rewarded. In an individu- motivational subsystems, an integrative and an
alistic structure, students work alone, and one's instrumental motivational subsystem, which, as has
probability of achieving a goal or reward is nei- been argued before, consist of loosely related,
ther diminished nor enhanced by a capable context-dependent motives. The integrative
other. There is consistent evidence from pre- motivational subsystem is centred around the
school to graduate school settings that, com- individual's L2-related affective predisposi-
pared to competitive or individualistic learning tions, including social, cultural, and eth-
experiences, the cooperative goal structure is nolinguistic components, as well as a general
more powerful in promoting intrinsic motiva- interest in foreignness and foreign languages.
tion (in that it leads to less anxiety, greater task The instrumental motivational subsystem con-
involvement, and a more positive emotional sists of well-internalised extrinsic motives (iden-
tone), positive attitudes towards the subject tified and integrated regulation) centred
area, and a caring, cohesive relationship with around the individual's future career en-
peers and with the teacher (36; 42). Julkunen deavours (cf., 26).
(38) analysed the effects of these three goal The second level of the L2 motivation con-
structures on L2 motivation and his results sup- struct is the Learner Level, involving a complex of
ported the superiority of cooperative learning. affects and cognitions that form fairly stable
personality traits. We can identify two motiva-
tional components underlying the motivational
SUMMARY OF THE L2 MOTIVATION
CONSTRUCT
processes at this level, need for achievement and self-
confidence, the latter encompassing various as-
The variety of relevant motivation types andlanguage anxiety, perceived L2 compe-
pects of
components described above is in accordance tence, attributions about past experiences, and
with the earlier claim that L2 motivation is an self-efficacy.

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 280 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)

FIGURE I

Components of Foreign Language Learning Motivation

LANGUAGE LEVEL Integrative Motivational Subsystem

Instrumental Motivational Subsystem

LEARNER LEVEL Need for Achievement

Self-Confidence
* Language Use Anxiety
* Perceived L2 Competence
* Causal Attributions
* Self-Efficacy

LEARNING SITUATION LEVEL

Course-Specific Motivational Interest

Components Relevance
Expectancy
Satisfaction

Teacher-Specific Motivational Affiliative Drive

Components Authority Type
Direct Socialization of Motivation

* Modelling
* Task Presentation
* Feedback

Group-Specific Motivational Goal-orientedness

Components Norm & Reward System
Group Cohesion
Classroom Goal Structure

The third level of L2 motivation is the Learn- research (for two excellent overviews, see 6; 39
The reader is also referred to Oxford and
ing Situation Level, made up of intrinsic and ex-
trinsic motives and motivational conditions Shearin's article mentioned above, which con-
tains very useful practical instructional implica-
concerning three areas. 1) Course-specific motiva-
tions of the theories discussed, as well as to
tional components are related to the syllabus, the
Brown's recent book (9), which includes de-
teaching materials, the teaching method, and
tailed
the learning tasks. These are best described bydiscussion on how to capitalise on the
students' intrinsic motivation in the second lan-
the framework of four motivational conditions
proposed by Crookes and Schmidt: interest, rele- guage classroom.
vance, expectancy, and satisfaction. 2) Teacher- It must be emphasised that the following
strategies are not rock-solid golden rules, but
specific motivational components include the affilia-
rather suggestions that may work with one
tive drive to please the teacher, authority type, and
teacher
direct socialization of student motivation (modelling, or group better than another and that
task presentation, and feedback). 3) Group- might work today but not tomorrow as they lose
specific motivational components are made uptheir
of novelty. Nevertheless, such a list provides,
four main components: goal-orientedness, norm in Brophy's words, "a 'starter set' of strategies
to
and reward system, group cohesion, and classroom select from in planning motivational ele-
goal structure.
ments to include in instruction" (p. 48). The
strategies will be organised according to the cat-
HOW TO MOTIVATE L2 LEARNERS
egories introduced in the proposed L2 con-
struct above. As can be expected, most of the
strategies
In this last section, a list of strategies to moti- will concern the Learning Situation
vate language learners will be presented, Level.
draw-Motives belonging to the Language and
ing partly on the author's own experience Learner
and Levels tend to be more generalised and
established and, therefore, do not lend them-
partly on findings in educational psychological

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 Zoltdn Dornyei 281
selves as the L2 classroom, to
easily avoiding hypercritical
manipu or pu-
tions. nitive treatment, and applying special anxiety-
Language Level. reducing activities and techniques (for a sum-
mary, see 55).
1) Include a sociocultural component in the L2 syl-
labus by sharing positive L2- related experiences 9) Promote motivation-enhancing attributions by
in class, showing films or TV recordings, play- helping students recognise links between effort
ing relevant music, and inviting interesting na- and outcome; and attribute past failures to con-
tive speaking guests. trollable factors such as insufficient effort (if
this has been the case), confusion about what to
2) Develop learners' cross-cultural awareness system-
do, or the use of inappropriate strategies,
atically by focusing on cross-cultural similarities
rather than to lack of ability, as this may lead to
and not just differences, using analogies to make
the strange familiar, and using "culture teach- learned helplessness.
ing" ideas and activities (such as the ones in-10) Encourage students to set attainable subgoals for
cluded, for example, in 12; 20; 21; 27; 28; 47).themselves that are proximal and specific (e.g.,
learning 200 new words every week). Ideally,
3) Promote student contact with L2 speakers by ar-
ranging meetings with L2 speakers in your these subgoals can be integrated into a person-
alised learning plan for each student.
country; or, if possible, organising school trips
or exchange programs to the L2 community; orLearning Situation Level: Course-specific motiva-
finding pen-friends for your students. tional components.
4) Develop learners' instrumental motivation by dis-11) Make the syllabus of the course relevant by bas-
cussing the role L2 plays in the world and its
ing it on needs analysis, and involving the stu-
dents in the actual planning of the course
potential usefulness both for themselves and
their community. programme.
Learner Level. 12) Increase the attractiveness of the course content
5) Develop students' self-confidence by trusting by using authentic materials that are within stu-
them and projecting the belief that they will dents' grasp; and unusual and exotic supple-
achieve their goal; regularly providing praise, mentary materials, recordings, and visual aids.
encouragement, and reinforcement; making 13) Discuss with the students the choice of teaching
sure that students regularly experience success materials for the course (both textbooks and
and a sense of achievement; helping remove un- supplementary materials), pointing out their
certainties about their competence and self- strong and weak points (in terms of utility, at-
efficacy by giving relevant positive examples tractiveness, and interest).
and analogies of accomplishment; counter- 14) Arouse and sustain curiosity and attention by
balancing experiences of frustration by involv- introducing unexpected, novel, unfamiliar, and
ing students in more favourable, "easier" activ- even paradoxical events; not allowing lessons to
ities; and using confidence-building tasks (for settle into too regular a routine; periodically
example, see 22). breaking the static character of the classes by
6) Promote the students' self-efficacy with regard to changing the interaction pattern and the seat-
achieving learning goals by teaching students ing formation and by making students get up
learning and communication strategies, as well and move from time to time.
as strategies for information processing and 15) Increase students' interest and involvement in the
problem-solving, helping them to develop real- tasks by designing or selecting varied and chal-
istic expectations of what can be achieved in a lenging activities; adapting tasks to the stu-
given period, and telling them about your own dents' interests; making sure that something
difficulties in language learning. about each activity is new or different; includ-
7) Promote favourable self-perceptions of competence ing game-like features, such as puzzles, prob-
in L2 by highlighting what students can do in the lem-solving, avoiding traps, overcoming obsta-
L2 rather than what they cannot do, encouraging cles, elements of suspense, hidden information,
the view that mistakes are a part of learning, etc.; including imaginative elements that will
pointing out that there is more to communica- engage students' emotions; leaving activities
tion than not making mistakes or always find- open-ended and the actual conclusion uncer-
ing the right word, and talking openly about tain; personalising tasks by encouraging stu-
your own shortcomings in L2 (if you are a non- dents to engage in meaningful exchanges, such
native teacher) or in a L3. as sharing personal information; and making
8) Decrease student anxiety by creating a sup- peer interaction (e.g., pair work and group
portive and accepting learning environment in work) an important teaching component.

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 282 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)
16) Match difficulty of taskstivation
with by presenting
students' tasks asabilities
learning oppor-
so that students can expect to
tunities to besucceed
valued rather thanifimposed
they de-
put in reasonable effort. mands to be resisted, projecting intensity and
enthusiasm,
17) Increase student expectancy of task raising fulfillment
task interest by connecting
by
familiarising students with the
the task withtask type,
things that suffi-
students already find
ciently preparing them for coping
interesting or hold inwith the out
esteem, pointing task
chal-
content, giving them detailed guidance
lenging or exotic aspects of the about
L2) calling at-
the procedures and strategies that the
tention to unexpected task
or paradoxical re-
aspects of
quires, making the criteria for
routine success
topics, (or
and stating the purposegrad-
and util-
ing) clear and "transparent," ity of the and
task. offering stu-
dents ongoing assistance. 24) Use motivating feedback by making your
feedback informational
18) Facilitate student satisfaction by allowing rather than
stu-control-

ling; giving that

dents to create finished products positive competence
they can feedback,
perform or display, encouraging
pointing out thethem
value of tothe be
accomplishment
proud of themselves afterand not overreacting to aerrors
accomplishing task, (for a summary
taking stock from time to oftime
error correction
of their without
general
generating anxiety
see 55).of what the group
progress, making a wall chart
has learned, and celebrating success.
Group-specific motivational components.
Teacher-specific motivational25)
components.
Increase the group's goal-orientedness by initiat-
ing discussions
19) Try to be empathic, congruent, and with students about the group
accepting;
according to the principles goal(s),
of and asking them from time to time t
person-centred
education, these are the three basic teacher evaluate the extent to which they are approach
characteristics that enhance learning (48). Em-
ing their goal.
pathy refers to being sensitive to students' needs, 26) Promote the internalisation of classroom norm
feelings, and perspectives. Congruence refers by to establishing the norms explicitly right from
the start, explaining their importance and how
the ability to behave according to your true self,
that is, to be real and authentic without hiding
they enhance learning, asking for the student
behind facades or roles. Acceptance refers to agreement,
a and even involving students in for
nonjudgmental, positive regard, acknowledging mulating norms.
each student as a complex human being with27) Help maintain internalised classroom norms by
both virtues and faults. observing them consistently yourself, and no
20) Adopt the role of a facilitator rather thanletting
an any violations go unnoticed.
authority figure or a "drill sergeant," develop- 28) Minimise the detrimental effect of evaluation on
ing a warm rapport with the students. intrinsic motivation by focusing on individual im
provement and progress, avoiding any explici
21) Promote learner autonomy by allowing real
or implicit comparison of students to eac
choices about alternative ways to goal attain-
ment; minimising external pressure and control other, making evaluation private rather than
(e.g., threats, punishments); sharing respon- public, not encouraging student competition,
sibility with the students for organising their and making the final (end of term/year/
time, effort and the learning process; inviting course) grading the product of two-way nego
them to design and prepare activities them- tiation with the students by asking them to ex
selves and promoting peer-teaching; including press their opinion of their achievement in a
project work where students are in charge; and personal interview.
giving students positions of genuine authority. 29) Promote the development of group cohesion an
22) Model student interest in L2 learning by show- enhance intermember relations by creating class-
ing students that you value L2 learning room as a situations in which students can get to
meaningful experience that produces satisfac- know each other and share genuine persona
tion and enriches your life, sharing your per- information (feelings, fears, desires, etc.),
sonal interest in L2 and L2 learning with the organising outings and extracurricular activ-
students, and taking the students' learning ities, and including game-like intergroup com
process and achievement very seriously (since petitions in the course.
showing insufficient commitment yourself is 30) Use cooperative learning techniques by fre-
the fastest way to undermine student motiva- quently including groupwork in the classes in
tion). which the group's-rather than the individ-
23) Introduce tasks in such a way as to stimulate ual's-achievement is evaluated (for L2 teach-
intrinsic motivation and help internalise extrinsic mo- ing-specific guidelines, see 17; 18; 42).

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 Zoltdan D6rnyei 283
CONCLUSION 4. Bandura, Albert & Dale Schunk. "Cultivating Com-
petence, Self-Efficacy, and Intrinsic Interest
The intent of this paper was to make L2 mo-
Through Proximal Self-Motivation." Journal of
tivation research more "education-friendly,"
Personality and Social Psychology 41 (1981): 586-98.
that is, "congruent with the concept 5. ofBlumenfeld,
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Drawing on a long succession of research in sec- (1992): 272-81.
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Student Achievement." Handbook of Research on
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Teaching. Ed. Merlin C. Wittrock. New York
comprises three broad levels, the Language Level,Macmillan, 1986: 328-75.
the Learner Level, and the Learning Situation
8. -Level;
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re- Research and Theory. Ed. Robert S. Feldma
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986: 25
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88.
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Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994.
Based on the components of this model, a num-
10. . "M & Ms for Language Classrooms? An-
ber of practical motivational strategies were
other Look at Motivation." Georgetown University
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Round
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James E. Alatis. Washington, DC: Georgetown
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12. Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Zoltin D6rnyei & Sarah
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Thurrell. "Communicative Competence: A Ped-
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