CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a tuberous root crop grown in

the tropics, with low cost vegetative propagation. It belongs to the family

of Euphorbiaceae and originated from South America (Nhassico et al.,

2008). The root is drought resistant and capable of growing in different

types of soil and seasons (Taiwo, 2006). As one major staple food in the

tropical and subtropical region, cassava provides food for a population of

more than 500 million across Africa, Latin America and Asia (Opara, 1999;

Montagnac et al., 2009). In Nigeria, cassava is commonly processed and

consumed as gari.Cassava belongs to Euphorbiaceae family.[1] It is a

major starch producing root crop which ranks among the top staple foods

in the world. Cassava is processed into high-quality flour, gari, fufu, pellets,

kpokpogari [2] and presently into aromatized (unfermented)flour.[3] The

cassava tuber has high moisture content and shell life of 2 4 days.[4]

Cassava supplies about 75% of daily calorie intake to over 50 million

Nigerians in cassava growing areas.Nigeria is widely acknowledged as the

largest cassava producer in the world, accounting for over 70% of the total

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production in West Africa (NBS, 2007). Cassava roots deteriorate rapidly

within 72 hours of harvest, the post-harvest losses of cassava in developing

countries according to FAO (2011) ranges between 26- 40%. In a bid to

prevent the post harvest losses,cassava is processed into more viable

products; first reducing the size of the wholesome tuber by chipping, then

drying to increase the shelf life. Also the tubers are processed into a coarse

granule flour called Garri in Nigeria and Farinha in Brazil. The production of

fresh cassava to garri involves various processes after harvesting such as

peeling,washing, grating, dewatering seiving and then frying. But the

aspect of this research focuses on the dewartering of the grated cassava

mesh. According to Sinha et al (2000), dewatering is a pre-drying

alternative that deserves investigation. The simplest and common

traditional cassava mash dewatering process involves the use of logs of

wood and heavy stones, which serve as load, arranged on baged cassava

mesh for pressing out the moisture. Dewatering of cassava mash after

grating can be very laborious, expensive and time-consuming. Usually, the

method of extracting water from cassava mash is by mechanical pressing.

[5] The earliest machines used for dewatering cassava mash were presses

such as wedge press, plank press, curb press, bridge press, African
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traditional press type, hydraulic press, ram press and screw press. These

machines used for dewatering cassava mash were not able to meet the

industrial demand for dried cassava paste.[5] using manually operated

hydraulic jack cassava press with starch recovery facility. For the

production of gari, the moisture content of the dewatered mash is

expected to be 40% 45% moisture content wet basis (mcwb) of set

standard.[7] Samples tested with hydraulic jack press and rope/stick

methods showed that the cylindrical container with the hydraulic jack press

reduced the moisture content of mash to the acceptable level of 40% 45%

mc (wb) for gari production.[6] In production of garri, cassava root is

peeled, grated into pulp or mesh, tied in sack and allowed to ferment for a

fee days then dewatered. The dewartered mesh is sometimes dry fried

with palm oil to percentage dryness of about 12% and then miled. The

garri is eaten as a paste called eba, or soaked in water and eaten with fish

or meat.

This work is aimed at to design and manufacture a centrifugal cassava

dewatering machine. Recently, centrifuges are now utilized for the

dewatering. Because of the numerous advantages of the use of centrifuges

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for dewatering pulpy materials many review studies were carried out on

centrifuges.[8,9] Research findings on centrifuges show that they provide a

higher pressure difference than the conventional filter presses. As a result,

they are widely applied to moisture removal from agricultural products. The

use of a centrifuge machine for dewatering pulpy materials has some

inherent advantages over other processes used to perform this operation.

It is simple, compact, totally enclosed, flexible and can be used without

chemical aids. Its cost of operation is moderate. The process runs

continuously and requires little supervision. This project will solve problems

of limitations encountered in using suitable machines and equipment that

are necessary for industrial and even small scale production. Cassava

processing equipment operators have limited knowledge, and this limitates

against the success recorded in the research so far in cassava mesh

dewatering. New dewatering schemes to make food processing economical

to handle are in progress. The scheme experiment was conducted using a

sample while evaluating the difficulty in seperarating juice from mash cake.

This project will lead to rural development and creating empowerment

because rural farmers will be encouraged to produce more tubers of

cassava since it can be easily processed and preserved for exportation. In

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addition, there will be empowerment opportunities for both skilled labour

which will give time to economic achievement and increase standard of

living.

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Dewatering is an important process in the processing of fresh

cassava into garri. In time past, stones and logs of wood has been in us

locally whichlabouraus and time consuming. Mechanizing these process

over the years has brought about several designs of cassava dewatering

machine,and constructions of different dewatering machines or equipments

has been made, such as screw press, hydraulic press, logs of wood etc

were made to ease the rigous and time wasted associated with dewatering.

But non could effectively cerfify the need for efficient or effective drying of

the grated cassava mesh and enhance timeliness in operation, the

fermented liquid cassava mesh is dewartered using either a hydraulic

press, or screw press to produce a thick fermented cassava cake of about

40%-47% moisture content. The bulk of cassava grown in Nigeria is

produced by peasant smallholders under traditional agricultural practices.

Consequently, the average yield is low, ranging from 710 tonnes per

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hectare, which is much lower than the world average of 30-40 tonnes per

hectare. Moreover, the cost of cassava has been unstable during the last

five years. Increased labour wages for planting and harvesting and

increased cost of transporting harvested tubers to processing plants as well

as erratic climatic patterns seem to have affected the price of cassava.

Another constraint of utilizing cassava for feed is the competition for

cassava by man for food and industry. Cassava is utilized in the production

of gari, fufu, cassava flour for human consumption, and for industrial

starch used in textile industry. Thus, the amount of cassava available for

the production of animal feed is very much reduced. These challenges has

brought about the need for designing and construction of cassava

centrifuge dewatering machine which is highly efficient in dewatering

fermented cassava mash within few minutes and achieve a well dried

cassava cake and therefore, enhance timeliness in dewartering operation

and increase production.

1.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The aim of this work is to design and fabricate a centrifuge

cassava dewartering machine that will provide an ease to processing of

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cassava mesh compared to the manual type of dewartering machines that

is the use of Screw press, hydraulic presh, logs of wood, stone etc which

requires the fermented cassava mesh to stay more longer days up to 24

hours . Dewatering is usually aimed at reducing the moisture content in the

mesh to facilitate frying operations, reduces the hydogen cynide content

level, which is a colorless, rapidly acting, highly poisonous gas that has an

odor of bitter almonds and also affects respiratory track and the eyes when

in contact with them.

The Key Objectives Of This Work Are Stated Below.

i. To develop a cassava dewartering machine that will reduce reduce the

moisture content level fo further processing units.

ii. To identify the factors affecting dewartering machines.

iii. To identify the various parts of a centifuge cassava dewartering

machine.

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The demand for cassava in Nigeria will always increaseas long as

humanity survives. This is because it is consumed by all members of

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human population, industrial use for the production of raw materials and

feed for anomals(livestock). The purpose of this work is to fabricate a

centrifugal cassaval dewatering machine that will facilitate the reduction of

moisture in grated cassava mesh and achievement timeliness in operation.

This study will go a long way in teaching students about the centrifugal

cassava dewartering machine as well as it's importance and how some of

this components are combined to form the cassava dewartering machine.

This study will also educate populace on the importance of this machine so

that this machine will be adopted rather than using the crude methods.

Lastly this study will add to the already known knowledge of cassava

dewartering machines and as well aid future reseemaecher in their

research on this.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Dewatering in cassava processing involves applying pressure on the

grated pulp to reduce its moisture content. In the dewatering of cassava

mash, the particles are constrained while the liquid is free. The pressure

applied, varied depth, time, moisture content, volume of material and the

particles of material, these are some of the parameters identified by

Kolawole et al. (2007). The material moisture content, the mass and the

volume were easier to identify.

Traditionally, several methods are used for cassava mash dewatering these

include: use of sticks or logs, parallel board method, tying the pulp bags to

tree stumps, chain or string and screw jack methods. The need for more

efficient ways of dewatering cassava pulp has led to the application of

hydraulic pressing devices in this area of agricultural product processing.

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The modern use of hydraulic systems and other improved mechanical

means of pressing cassava mash have revolutionized the dewatering

process with its attendant problems such as, sack busting under excessive

pressure and leakage (wastage) of the product. The danger of product loss

is higher if unchecked with these modernized dewatering systems. To

minimize product wastages, the maximum amount of pressure required to

dewater any given quantity of cassava pulp given the strength of the sack

used need to be determined. This study is aimed at investigating selected

locally available jute fiber reinforced composites sack materials commonly

used for cassava pulp dewatering operations. This is with the view to

determine the acceptable pressure the selected sacks can withstand during

a cassava pulp dewatering operation so as to minimize product loss as a

result of sack busting under excessive dewatering force application.

Minimizing product losses will lead to increased food production as well as

reduced cost of production. On the other hand, obtaining relevant

information on the strength of the various sack materials will reduce the

constraints militating against the automation of pulp dewatering machines.

2.2. OVERVIEW OF CENTRIFUGE MACHINE

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 Centrifuge machine is a machine with rapidly rotating container, that

applies centrifugal force to it's content, typically to separate fluids of

different densities or liquid.

A centrifugal cassava dewartering machine is a machine which is made up

two cylindrical strainer, which is made up of stainless steel, the outer

stainless steel is call the casine or housing of the machine, while the inner

one is called the perforated rottery drum or strainer, it contains the sacked

fermented cassava mesh. An electric motor is used as the power source of

the machine it drives the strainer with the help of two pulleys and a belt,

one pully acts as the driver while the other acts as the driven or follower.

The shaft rotates when the electric motor generates power thereby causing

the rottery drum or stariner to rotate in a high speed causing the moisture

to disperse from the mesh through the perforated holes on the strainer,

and the water (moisture) is channeled to leave the system through a

discharge chut outlet.

2.3. TYPES OF CASSAVA DEWARTERING MACHINE.

The dewartering of cassava is an indispensable part of cassava

processing, whether is cassava starch processing, cassava floor processing

11
or garri processing. The purpose of dewatering is to remove excess water

from the cassava pulp, reduce the load on the drying section, save a lot of

energy, and lay the necessary foundation for rapid drying. The principle of

different types of cassava dewatering machine are basically the same, that

is to separate the broken cassava particles from free water by gravity,

mechanical force and drying method, so as to reduce the moisture content

and facilitate the drying process in the next step, which is a physical water

loss process.

 PEELER CENTRIFUGE

This is a types of cassava dewatering machine for cassava starch the

peeler centrifuge, is a continuous running, intermittent operation machine,

its control mode can be automatic control or manual control.

The peeler centrifuge operation is electrically and hydraulically controlled

types of cassava dewatering machine. The whole process of feeding, initial

filtration, washing, fine filtration, unloading are monitored automatically,

featuring with short single cycle time, large processing capacity, good

dewatering effect. Can be widely used in chemical, food, light industry,

pharmaceutical and other industries.

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1. The motor and peeler centrifuge main unit are integrally installed, the

compact structure makes it convenient for users to install and use, and

reduces the space occupied by the types of cassava dewatering

machine. The contact between peeler centrifuge and cassava pulp is

made of stainless steel, which improves the corrosion resistance and

hygiene requirements of the machine.

 PLATE FRAME FILTER PRESS

This is the type of cassava dewatering machine for cassava flour

processing the plate frame filter press, which is used for cassava

dewatering or large garri processing plants. It is also a machine widely

used in the separation of solids and liquids.

Compared with other solid-liquid separation equipment, the filter cake

filtered by the filter press has a higher solid content and excellent

separation effect. The principle of the types of cassava dewatering machine

is to use a special filter medium to apply a certain pressure to the wet

material, so that the liquid is dialysed out and acts as a dewatering

separation.

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The pump and input pipe parts of the plate frame filter press adopt quick-

connect connection, which is convenient for disassembly and cleaning. The

types of cassava dewatering machine has a large filtering area, a large flow

rate, and a wide application range. The filter plate features with advanced

structure, no deformation, easy cleaning, corrosion resistant and durable.

 HYDRAULIC PRESS

The last types of cassava dewatering machine for is hydraulic press, which

is normally used for small cassava flour or garri processing plant.

The hydraulic press uses the hydraulic principle to extrude the moisture in

the crushed cassava to achieve the purpose of dewatering. The device is

simple in structure, low in price and easy to operate, energy-saving, low

operating cost, easy to use and maintain, making it an ideal choice for

small garri processing plants.

The above are three different types of cassava dewatering machine used

for cassava processing. Doing Company is a professional manufacturer of

cassava processing equipment, which can provide you with different types

of cassava dewatering machine. The above mentioned and explained are

14
the three different types of cassava dewartering, used for cassava

processing.

2.4. EFFECT OF PRESSING AND OTHER PROCESS ON THE CASSAVA

FLAKES PRODUCTION

Cassava contains potentially toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides, made up

of linamarin (95% of total cyanogen content) and lotaustralin (5%).

Linamarin is present in all cassava tissues and is synthesized from the

amino acid valine. Cyanogenesis is initiated in physically damaged cassava

tissues because cyanogens and cyanogenic enzymes are differentially

compartmentalized in the cell Thus, after pounding or tissue maceration,

linamarin is released from vacuoles and broken down to glucose and

acetone cyanohydrin by linamarase, which is a cell wall and/or a laticifer‐

localized β‐glucosidase Acetone cyanohydrin can spontaneously decompose

into cyanide and acetone above pH 4 and temperatures above 30 °C.

Linamarase contained in cassava leaves has higher catalytic efficiency than

the cassava roots. Specifically in the leaves, acetone cyanohydrin

decomposition can be catalyzed by hydroxynitrile lyase (HNL);. Following

15
extraction with water or volatilization into the atmosphere, free cyanide can

be removed from the damaged cassava tissues.

2.4.1 Combination of several processing methods

To increase the efficiency of cyanogen removal, efficient processing

techniques are usually combined with others that are less efficient. Sun‐

drying cassava roots usually retains about 25% to 33% of total cyanogens.

Boiling thin pieces of cassava roots in water for 5 to 10 min prior to sun‐

drying removed only 50% of cyanogenic glucoside content. However, if

these pieces are further boiled in water, 50% of the remaining glucoside

can be removed. Furthermore, if cassava roots are soaked before sun‐

drying, cyanogen removal is greater (97.8% to 98.7%). Soaking fresh

cassava roots for 3 d followed by 3 d of drying resulted in the removal of

85.9% of total cyanogens. The flour of fufu obtained at the end of the

process had 2.2% retention of total cyanogens. Similarly, crushing and

then sun‐drying cassava roots into flour allowed a total cyanogen removal

of 96% to 99%. This last combination of processing steps is effective.

Indeed, chinyanya, which is obtained after pounding and sun‐drying fresh

cassava roots for 1 d, retains 22% of total cyanogens, while makopa,

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which is obtained after sun‐drying whole cassava roots, retains 33% of

total cyanogen. In fact, crushing cassava roots damages the plant cells

and, therefore, puts linamarase directly into contact with linamarin. Then,

sun‐drying reduces cyanohydrin and free cyanide to low levels.

The fermentation process can be improved. Soaking, fermenting, and then

roasting cassava roots into gari or farina reduces total cyanogen content to

1.8 to 2.4% in the final product. Soaking and fermenting cassava roots for

3 d allows a reduction of total cyanogen content to 5.7%. Peeling and

grating cassava before fermenting, and then sun‐drying or oven‐drying

with moderate heat can result in a cyanogen‐free product for any cassava

variety that is used. Sun‐drying for 6 h instead of roasting for 10 min

before fermenting for 2 d resulted in 22% less cyanogens. Regarding the

heap‐fermentation process, drying superficially peeled cassava roots,

heaping, and covering them for 3 d of incubation, and then crushing, sun‐

drying, and pounding into flour after prior removing of fungal mycelium

resulted in a high loss of cyanogen’s. Indeed, by monitoring the process at

6 Alur households in Uganda, showed that the initial total cyanogen level,

which ranged from 237 to 550 mg HCN equivalents/kg DW, was reduced to

17
8 to 41 mg HCN equivalents/kg DW in the final product (flour). In the field

preparation of Ghanaian akyeke, which involves grating, fermenting,

wetting, drying, and steaming, only 2% of the cyanogens were retained

after processing.

Another option that has been proposed is to further wet cassava flour just

prior to home use. In areas where cyanide‐related diseases are high this

could help alleviate disease. By further wetting and drying cassava flour,

cyanide content can be reduced to safe levels. This procedure would need

to be explained to individual households and widely adopted to be

successful in preventing the disease burden. It is noteworthy that

processing steps and their sequence are important in manipulating cyanide

content of the final product.

2.5. EFFECTS OF PROCESSING ON CASSAVA NUTRITIONAL VALUE

Processing cassava into different ready‐to‐eat products can affect the

nutritive value of cassava roots through modification and losses in nutrients

of high value, such as proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. A

combination of strategies may be needed to ensure a positive effect on

micronutrient adequacy. Raw and boiled cassava root retains the majority
18
of high‐value nutrients except riboflavin and iron. Gari (shucking +

fermentation + drying) and products obtained after retting of cassava root

with skin (flours and baton) are less efficient than raw and boiled cassava

root in keeping nutrients of high value but are better than products

obtained after retting of shucked cassava roots. However, the latter is

richer in riboflavin than sun‐dried flours obtained after retting of cassava

root with skin. In contrast, although its calcium content is high, medua‐me‐

mbong, which involves boiling and washing, has the poorest nutritional

value compared to other cassava ready‐to‐eat products because the

prolonged washing step removes most of its soluble nutrients and a

considerable part of its energy. In contrast with boiled cassava, gari, sun‐

dried flours after retting of cassava root with skin, smoked‐dried flours and

more general cassava products obtained after retting of shucked cassava

root lose a major part of dry matter, carbohydrates, and calories (26% to

35% of loss). By‐products of retting of shucked cassava root and medua‐

me‐mbong cause high protein loss (52% to 68% and 66%, respectively).

Similarly, high loss of ash (minerals) occurs during medua‐me‐mbong

preparations, smoked‐dried cassava flour preparations, and for products

obtained after retting of shucked cassava roots.

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Comparing processing techniques, boiling, gari, and retting cassava roots

with skin appear to be the most beneficial techniques on a nutritional basis.

Although peeling and soaking cassava roots are efficient at removing fiber

and cyanogenic glucosides, respectively, they cause considerable nutrient

losses because of solubility of the nutrients in water. Furthermore,

fermentation during soaking improves riboflavin status but fails to improve

digestibility. Although pounding cassava roots removes much of the

cyanogenic glucosides, it causes loss of raw material. Sun‐dried and

smoke‐dried cassava flours have significant losses of vitamins. In addition

to vitamin depletion, smoke‐dried cassava flours experience important

losses in protein and minerals, while sun‐dried cassava flours result in an

increase in ash probably due to the dust it contains.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION

i The perforated rotery drum (strainer); this is a cylindrical type

stainless (inert) material, with thickness of 8mm.

ii. Two Pullys; one is connected to the power source (electric motor)

of two horse power (2Hp) and the other pully was connected to a rotary

shaft. The rotary drum receives the transmitted power from the electric

motor (power source) thereby makes the rotation of the V-belt size of A59

on the driver's pully to rotate the driven pully attached to the machine.

iii. The frame; This is an iron made of mild steel, which is welded

and bolted at some ends.the thickness is made up of 8mm .

iv. Water outlet; This is an outlet chut, which allows the passage or

discharge of water from the system.

v. The shaft; This is a circular material made of stainless inert

material, having length of 300mm. It is used to drive the perforated rotery

drum, with the help of the pully connected to it.

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 vi. Bearings : There are two types of bearings used for the

construction, one is called the thrus bearing: this is located at the top of

the casing where the strainer was mounted. It's function is to carry a

vertical load mounted on the machine. The other bearing is called the ball

bearing, it is located at the base of the casing, very close to the driven

shaft. Its function is to station the shaft firmly while in operation.

vii. Electric motor: this is the power source of the machine, it is a

two phase type electric motor, with 2 horse power (2Hp) and it has a

speed of 1430 rpm. It is used to drive the machine.

3.2. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION AND EXPERIMENTATION

1. The material inlet: this is circular in shape, which is located at the

center of the inert material (stainless steel). The material was cut,

perforated and folded together to form a cylindrical drum, and it was later

welded together so it cannot be easily detatched.

2. Main housing of the machine; the main housing of the machine

consist of material inlet, perforated rotery drum strainer and water

discharge outlet casing.

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 3 Drive shaft of the machine; the shaft has a diameter of 32mm

and a length of 300mm. The cylindrical shaft length is enclosed in the main

housing, fixed at the center with two bearings known as thruss and ball

bearing.

4. Base and support of the machine; the base of the machine is

constructed using a miled stell of angle iron of 8mm thickness and it is cut

into several sections, welded together to form a frame.

5 Painting of the machine: the miled steel is painted with maroon to

avoid corrosion and also to enhance beautification of the frame.

3.2. INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF THE

MACHINE

The machine was constructed to have a four stands which help to

station the machine while in operation and to reduce vibration. The shaft

and pull allignment is essential for or used to prevent wobbling of the belt

and niose. The electric motor is mounted on an adjustable miles steel,

which is fastened with bolts and nuts for easy adjustment of the belt (for

tensionioning and slacking).

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 The equipment requires 2Hp electric motor to generate a high

pressure to enhance the operation.

3.2.1. PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

In the course of designing and fabricating cassava centrifugal

Dewartering machine, there are many problems that threatened the

completion of the project, and they were listed below.

(a) Transportation of materials:This brought about a lot of difficulties

from the market where the materials are bought to the workshop where

the workshop took place. This is due to road reconstruction going on from

Naze junction to Ogbosisi where materials were bought.

(b) Inadequate Fund: The high cost of materials made things difficult as

we kept on demanding money from our parents to finance the project.

(c) POWER FAILURE: Since everything involving this construction work

involved filling, cutting and welding of the metals involved the use of

power supply, so we found it difficult as there was no steady power suppy.

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3.3 DESCRIPTION OF CENTRIFUGE CASSAVA DEWARTERING

MACHINE

The centrifuge cassava dewartering machine consist of various

component parts which some of the parts are fastened together with bolts

and nuts while some are welded rigidly. The components are as follows.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Since the essence of the development and fabrication of a centrifuge

cassava dewartering machine is employed in the maximum production of

cassava granules(garri) and it's processing. The machine is seen to be a

productive type. The overview of this project seems to outline the

necessity of a motorized or electrical centrifuge dewartering cassava

granules (garri) machine the needs and benefits of cassava granules in our

society cannot be over emphasized, owing to the nature of food we feed

on in our daily lives.

The use of electrical cassava mesh dewartering machine of our local and

Small business that deal on cassava granules known as garri production.

Since the rate of unemployment and hungry and unemployment is high in

Nigeria, we therefore conclude that with the help of construction of a

26
centrifuge cassava dewartering machine, cassava granules (garri) will be

ate a cheap and constant rate in the country.

The rate at which cassaver greanules in the country get spoiled will be

reduced. Also with the designed, and fabricated locally in Nigeria will

reduce the rate of unemployment, and create empowerment for the youth

and also reduce the tedious and drugery in the lives of the farmer's. In

that, the machine is efficient, effective and economically used.

RECOMMENDATION

With the experience gotten from the fabrication and test running of the

electrical centrifuge cassaver dewartering machine, it is worth while

making some recommendations which if met will increase the efficiency of

the machine in subsequent design .

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