(c)Karen E.

Smith 2018 UM Math Dept

licensed under a Creative Commons
By-NC-SA 4.0 International License.

Math 412. Polynomial Rings over a Field.

For this worksheet, F always denotes a fixed field, such as Q, R, C, Zp for p prime.
T HEOREM 4.6: T HE D IVISION A LGORITHM FOR P OLYNOMIALS . Let f, d ∈ F[x], where
d 6= 0. There there exist unique polynomials q, r ∈ F[x] such that
f = qd + r where r = 0 or deg(r) < deg(d).
D EFINITION: Fix f, g ∈ F[x]. We say f divides g (and write f |g) if there exists an h ∈ F[x]
such that g = f h.
D EFINITION: Fix f, g ∈ F[x]. The greatest common divisor of f and g is the monic1 polyno-
mial of largest degree which divides both f and g.
T HEOREM 4.8 In F[x], the greatest common divisor of two polynomials f and g is the monic
polynomial of smallest degree which is an F[x]-linear combination of f and g.
D EFINITION: A polynomial f ∈ F[x] is irreducible if its only divisors are units in F[x] and
polynomials of the form uf where u is a unit.
T HEOREM 4.14 Every non-constant polynomial in F[x] can be factored into irreducible poly-
nomials. This factorization is essentially unique in the sense that if we have two factorizations
into irreducibles
f1 · · · fr = g1 · · · gs ,
then r = s, and after reordering, each fi is a unit multiple of gi for all i.

WARM U P ON A BUSES OF N OTATION . We write 1R for the multiplicative identity of

a ring R, but soon start abusing notation, writing 1 for short. Likewise, explain what the
symbols “2”, “ − 3” mean in an arbitrary ring. What about “ 31 ” ? Is it always defined in any
√
ring? What about “ 3”? Is this always defined? Is it well-defined? Now, √ state using the
1
proper notation [a]11 what the following symbols mean tn Z11 : 2, −3, 3 3?

2 means 1R +1R . −3 is the additive inverse of 1R +1R +1R . 13 is the multiplicative inverse
of 1R +1R +1R , if√it exists. Since the multiplicative inverse, if it exists, is unique, this symbol
is well-defined. 3 means any element x of R with the property that x · x = 1R + 1R + 1R .
Since we do not know whether or not there is only one square root of 3, this number may not
be well-defined. Note that in Z11 , we thus have 2 = [2]11 , −3 = [−3]11 or [8]11 , 31 = [4]11
√
and 3 can be either [5]11 or [−5]11 = [6]11 . Since there are two square roots of 3 in √Z11
and we have not agreed on some convention to know which is preferred, the symbol 3 is
NOT well-defined in the ring Z11 .

A. WARM U P.
(1) Prove that a polynomial f ∈ F[x] is irreducible if and only if it can’t be factored as a
product of two polynomials both of strictly lower degree.
(2) Compute the greatest common divisor of 2x2 − 10x + 12 and x7 − 3x6 in Q[x].
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A polynomial is monic if its leading (i.e. highest degree) term has coefficient 1.
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(3) Compute the greatest common divisor of (x2 + 1)(x3 + x2 ) and x7 (x + 1)2 in Z2 [x].
(4) Discuss Theorem 4.8 above with your partners. Write out what the theorem says about
the gcd’s you found (1) and (2)? [Your statement should use the words ”there exist”.]
(5) Factor x2 + 3x + 2 in the ring Q[x] in four different ways; observe that they are all
“essentially the same” in the same of Therorem 4.14.

(1) We use the fact that if f = gh for polynomials in F[x], then deg f = deg g + deg h.2
We also use the fact that if u is a unit, then degree u = 0, and degree uf = degree f .
First assume f is irreducible. By definition, the only divisors of f are units and
unit multiples of f , which have degrees zero and deg f respectively. If we could
factor f = gh, then both g and h are divisors of f , so their degrees could be only 0
and deg f . That is, they are not both less than deg f .
Conversely, assume f is not irreducible. Then f has a divisor, say g, which is not
a unit and not a unit multiple of f . Write f = gh. Since g is not a unit, this means
0 < deg g and deg h = deg f − deg g < deg f . So h is not a unit multiple of f . But
if deg h = 0, then h is a unit, and g = h−1 f is a unit multiple of f . So the degree of
h satisfies 0 < deg h < deg f and similarly for the degree of g.
(2) Factor: 2x2 − 10x + 12 = 2(x − 3)(x − 2) and x7 − 3x6 = x6 (x − 3) so (x − 3) is
the gcd.
(3) This is tricky because the coefficients are in Z2 . Note that (x + 1)2 = x2 + 1 in
Z2 [x]. So (x2 + 1)(x3 + x2 ) = (x + 1)3 x2 and x5 (x + 1)2 so the gcd is x2 (x + 1)2 .
(4) The theorem says that there exists f, g, ∈ Q[x] such that f (2x2 − 10x + 12) +
g(x7 − 3x6 ) = x − 3. Also that there exists f, g, ∈ Z2 [x] such that x2 (x + 1)2 =
f (x2 + 1)(x3 + x2 ) + gx5 (x + 1)2 .
(5) x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2) = ( 21 x + 21 )(2x + 4) = ( 13 x + 13 )(3x + 6) =
(−x − 1)(−x − 2).

B. D IVISION A LGORITHM P RACTICE . In high school, you learned to divide polynomials to

find a quotient and remainder.
(1) Let f = x3 + 4x2 + x + 1 in R[x]. Find q and r so that f = qx2 + r, where deg r < 2.
(2) In the ring F2 [x], divide the polynomial x5 +3x3 +x2 +1 by x2 +1. What is the quotient
and remainder?
(3) In the ring Q[x], divide x4 +3x3 −x2 +5 by x+1. What are the quotient q and remainder
r?

(1) q = x + 4, r = x + 1.
(2) q = x3 + 1, r = 0
(3) q = x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 3, r = 2.

C. T HE R EMAINDER T HEOREM AND THE FACTOR T HEOREM . Fix f ∈ F[x].

(1) Prove that for any λ ∈ F, the remainder when f is divided by (x − λ) is f (λ).
(2) Prove that (x − λ) divides f if and only if f (λ) = 0.
(3) Use (2) to check your remainder in B(3).

(1) Use the division algorithm to write f = q(x − λ) + r where r = 0 or deg r < deg(x − λ) = 1. This
tells us that r is a constant polynomial. To figure out what constant polynomial, plus in λ to both
sides and observe r = f (λ).
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(2) Since we know f = (x − λ) + f (λ), we see that that is f (λ) = 0, then (x − λ)|f . Conversely, if
(x − λ)|f , then in the unique division statement, the remainder is zero. But also the remainder is
f (λ).

D. E UCLIDEAN A LGORITHM IN F[x]. Fix a field F.

(1) Recall and discuss how the Euclidean algorithm is used to compute (2225, 500). You do not have to work
this out to the end, but recall how to it works!
(2) Suppose that f, g ∈ F[x], and we use the division algorithm to write f = qg + r for some appropriate
q, f ∈ F[x]. Prove that gcd (f, g) = gcd (g, r). [Hint: the proof is basically “the same” as for the ring Z.]
(3) Use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute (f, g), where f = x3 + 4x2 + ix and g = x2 + x in C[x].

(2) The proof is basically “the same” as for the ring Z. If d divides both f and g, write f = ad and g = db.
Then d must divide r = f − gq = da − dbq = d(a − bq). Similarly, if d divides both g and r, it must divide f .
So the common factors of {f, g} are the same as the common factors of {g, r}. So the common monic factor
with the largest degree is the same too.
(3). To compute (x3 + 4x2 + ix, x2 + x), we first write x3 + 4x2 + x = q(x2 + x) + r, where q = x + 3
and r = (−3 + i)x. We know that
(x3 + 4x2 + x, x2 + x) = (x2 + x, (−3 + i)x).
Now, by inspection we see that x is the highest degree monic polynomial dividing both.

E. C OMPARING F[x] WITH Z.

(1) What are the units in Z? What are the units in F[x]? Don’t write out a formal proof, but discuss why.
(2) The word “monic” is included in the definition of gcd to resolve some ambiguity. What ambiguity?
(3) For which ring F[x] is Theorem 4.14 above familar from high school? In what sense is Theorem 4.14
above an analog of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic? What other ring do you know where an
analog of the fundamental theorem holds? [Hint: Problem Set 2.]

(1) Units is Z are ±1. Units in F[x] are the non-zero constant polynomials.
(2) The largest degree polynomial is not well-defined, since is d divides f and g, so does any F-multiple,
which will have the same degree. But there is exactly one monic polynomial of largest degree dividing both f
and g.
(3) In high school, you used this theorem for R[x]. You often factored polynomials into irreducibles, and
probably never worried about whether there might be more than one way to do this. This is basically the
fundamental theorem. Instead of saying the factors are unique up to reordering and multiplication by ±1,
we say the factors are unique up to re-ordering and multiplication by a non-zero constant. In both cases, the
factorization is unique up to unit multiples. Same holds in Z[i], as you proved on PS 2.

F. G REATEST C OMMON D IVISORS AND LINEAR C OMBINATIONS IN THE RING F[x]. Fix any field F.
(1) Show that x is an R[x]-linear combination of 4x2 + x + 2 and 2x2 + 1.
(2) In Q[x], find a monic polynomial of degree 2 that is a linear combination of 3x3 +5x2 +1 and 6x3 +x2 +x.
(3) State the theorem in the ring Z expressing the greatest common divisor of two integers using the words
“Z- linear combination.”
(4) Compare and Contrast your Theorem in (3) to Theorem 4.8. In what ways are the words “monic” and
“positive” playing analogous roles in resolving some ambiguity?

(1) x = (4x2 + x + 2) + (−2)(2x2 + 1).

(2) −9x2 + x − 2 = (−2)(3x3 + 5x2 + 1) + (6x3 + x2 + x), so multiplying by a unit, we see
x2 + −1 2 3 2 1 3 2
9 x + 9 = (−2/9)(3x + 5x + 1) + 9 (6x + x + x) is a monic polynomial of degree two
that is a linear combination of the given.
(3) In Z, the greatest common divisor of m and n is the SMALLEST POSITIVE integer that is a Z linear
combination of n and m.
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(4) In F[x], the greatest common divisor of f and g is the SMALLEST DEGREE MONIC polynomial
that is a F[x] linear combination of f and g. In both cases, we get rid of the ambiguity of multiplica-
tion by a unit.

G. T HE P ROOF OF THE D IVISION A LGORITHM FOR P OLYNOMIALS : The proof for polynomial uses a similar
method as the proof for Z.
(1) Fix f and d in F[x] as in Theorem 4.6. Consider the set S := {f − gd |, g} ∈ F[x]. Explain why the
existence part of the Division algorithm is equivalent to the statement that 0 ∈ S or S contains an element
of degree less than deg d.
(2) Show that if S contains an element of degree zero, the division algorithm holds for f, d.
(3) Assuming S contains an element h of degree δ 0 > δ = deg(d), subtract a suitable multiple of d to find a
smaller degree element in S.
(4) Prove the existence statement.3
(5) Prove the uniqueness.

See page 92 in the book.

H. T HE P ROOF OF T HEOREM 4.8: There are two proofs of Theorem 4.8.

(1) Explain how to use the Euclidean algorithm in the ring F[x] to show that the gcd of two polynomials f
and g is a linear combination of f and g. This gives a constructive proof of a slightly weaker form of
Theorem 4.8. How is it weaker?
(2) Prove Theorem 4.8 by adapting the proof we gave for Z: consider the set S of all linear combinations of
f and g. Why is there a unique polynomial in S of smallest degree? Why is it the GCD of f and g?

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Hint: Chose an element of smallest positive degree in S. What axiom gaurantees we can do this?