Lesson 1: Kinetic Molecular Model

Kinetic Molecular Theory

-The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behavior of matter and that all
matter is made up of particles and these particles are always in motion. It is based on a series of
postulates.

SOME OF THE POSTULATES OF KMT ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic
energy.
 The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
 There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.
 Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
 There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of
these forces increase as particles get closer together.

Intermolecular forces vs Intramolecular forces

Intermolecular forces Intramolecular forces

It holds the molecules in a substance
Weaker than intramolecular force
Determine the state of matter (solid/liquid/gas)
and their physical properties such as melting
point/boiling point etc.
Attractive forces
Categorized into dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen
bonding, ion-dipole forces, Vander Waals
forces(London Dispersion forces)
It holds atom in the molecule
Stronger than intermolecular forces
Determine chemical behavior of a substance
Chemical bonds
Categorized into covalent, ionic and metallic
bond

Intermolecular Forces

1. Dipole-dipole forces

-Attractive force between polar molecules, that is, between molecules that possess dipole moments.

-Their origin is electrostatic, and they can be understood in terms of Coulomb’s Law.

-Dipole-dipole interactions are the strongest intermolecular force of attraction.

Example: AsH3, HCl

*Hydrogen bonding

-A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen atom in a polar bond such as N-H, O-H, or
F-H.

2. Ion-dipole forces

-It is attraction forces between an ion and a polar molecule to each other.

-The strength of this interaction depends on the charge and size of the molecule.

3. Vander Waals forces (London Dispersion forces)

-Weakest forces of attraction.

-Anything can do Vander Waals Forces.

Lesson 2: Properties of Liquid

PROPERTIES OF LIQUID

• The Liquid state of matter is an intermediate phase between solid and gas. Like the particles of a solid,
particles in a liquid are subject to intermolecular attraction; however, liquid particles have more spaces
between them, so they are not fixed in position. The attraction between them the particles in a liquid
keeps the volume of the liquid constant.

• The movement of the particles causes liquid to be variable in shape. Liquids will flow and fill the lowest
portion of container, taking on the shape of the container but not changing in volume. The limited
amount of space between particles means the liquids have only very limited compressibility.

• Effect of intermolecular forces – Intermolecular forces control how well molecules stick together. This
affects many of the measurable physical properties of substance:

• Melting and Boiling Points – If molecules stick together more, they’ll be tougher to break apart. - The
stronger the IMF the higher the Melting and Boiling Point. - The more electrons a molecule has, the
greater the IMF.

Intermolecular forces (IMFs) can be used to predict relative boiling points. The stronger the IMFs, the
lower the vapor pressure of the substance and the higher the boiling point. Therefore, we can
compare the relative strengths of the IMFs of the compounds to predict their relative boiling points.

• Viscosity – a measure of how well substance flow. - The stronger the IMF the higher viscosity. - The
viscosity of a liquid is its resistance to flow, liquids that have strong IMF tend to have high viscosities.

• Surface Tension – is a measure of toughness of the surface of liquid. - The stronger the IMF the higher
surface tension. - Surface tension is the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a
given amount.

• Vapor Pressure – This is small amount of gas that is found above all liquids. - The stronger the IMF the
lower the vapor pressure, because fewer molecules will have enough kinetic energy to escape at a given
temperature. - Substance with high vapor pressures are said to be volatile - that is, they easily
evaporate.

• Molar heat of Vaporization – The heat of fusion (heat required to melt a solid) and Heat of
Vaporization (heat required to vaporize a liquid) are determined by the strength of the IMF. Substance
with high IMF will have higher melting and boiling points.

PROPERTIES OF WATER

• A water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen atom. • Each end of a
water molecule has slight electrical charge.

• A molecule that has electrically charged areas is called a polar molecule.

• The positive hydrogen ends of one water molecule attract the negative oxygen ends of another nearby
water molecules causing them to stick together like weak magnets.

• This attraction called hydrogen bonds.

• Many of water’s unusual properties occur because of the attraction among its polar molecules. The
properties of water includes cohesion, adhesion, capillary action, surface tension, the ability to dissolve
many substances, and high specific heat.
• Both adhesion and cohesion allow water to move in one continuous column from a plant’s root to its
leaves.

• This upward movement is called Capillary Action.

• Capillary Action is the combined force of attraction among water molecules of surrounding materials
causing liquid to climb upward against the force of gravity.

• A solution is a mixture that forms when one substance dissolves another. The substance that does the
dissolving is called solvent.

• Water is called the universal solvent because it can dissolve more substances than any other known
substance.

• The main property of water that make it such a good solvent is its polarity.

Water is the universal solvent

• Specific Heat is the amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1˚C.
• Compared to other substances, water requires a lot of heat to increase its temperature.

• The specific heat of water is very high – 4,184 □(𝑱𝑱/𝒌𝒌𝒈𝒈) ˚C.

• Therefore, water takes a long time to heat up or cool down.

Lesson 3: CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

Crystalline and amorphous solids are two states that describe typical solids in chemistry. Using X-ray
diffraction experiments, the structure of solids can be categorized into amorphous or crystalline.

Amorphous solids

- The word amorphous is derived from the Greek word “Omorphe” which means “Shapeless”.

- This is the shapeless disordered, and irregular arrangement of the constituent particles of a solid. - The
IMF are not the same, nor are the distance between particles.

- When cleaved, amorphous solids yield fragments or curved surfaces because of irregular geometric
shapes.
Properties of Amorphous Solids

Amorphous solid are sometimes described as super cooled liquid because their molecules are arranged
in a random manner somewhat as in liquid state.

1. Lack of long-range order

Amorphous Solid does not have a long-range order of arrangement of their constituent particles.
However, they may possess small regions of orderly arrangement. These crystalline parts of an
otherwise amorphous solid are known as crystallites.

2. No sharp melting point

An amorphous solid does not have a sharp melting point but melts over a range of temperatures. For
example, glass on heating first softens and then melts over a temperature range. Glass, therefore, can
be molded or blown into various shapes. Amorphous solid does not possess the characteristic heat of
fusion.

3. Conversion into crystalline form

Amorphous solid, when heated and then cooled slowly by annealing, becomes crystalline at some
temperature. That is why glass objects of ancient time look milky because of some crystallization having
taken place.

Crystalline Solids

A crystalline solid is that in which the constituent particles are orderly arranged in three-dimensional
pattern called lattice with uniform intermolecular forces, and the particles intersects at angles
characteristic of crystal.

Properties of Crystalline Solids here are so many essential properties of crystalline solids. These are:

• Crystalline solids have well-defined edges and faces.

• They have a long-range of orders.

• They have a sharp melting point.

• Crystalline solids have definite heat of fusion.

• They are highly rigid and totally incompressible.

• They are anisotropic and symmetrical in nature, etc.

Ionic Solids

As the name suggests, the Ionic crystals consist of alternating positive and negative ions. Additionally,
these types of crystalline solids are generally hard, brittle, and tend to show a very high melting point.
For example, Calcium fluoride (CaF2) has a melting point of 1418 °C.

Metallic Solids

According to the crystalline solid definition, metallic crystals consist of atomic nuclei surrounded by the
“sea” of delocalized electrons. These delocalized electrons are nothing but valance electrons
surrounding the atomic nuclei of the metallic crystals.

Molecular Solids

As the name suggests, Molecular crystals consist of a number of different molecules. Not to mention,
Molecular crystals are held together by intermolecular forces between the constituent molecules.

Covalent Network Solids

According to the definition of crystalline solid, covalent network crystals consists of atoms being
covalently bonded with each other. These types of crystalline solids are not good conductors of
electricity. WHY? Because there are no free electrons or ions available to conduct electricity.

Some of the examples of covalent network crystals are:

Diamond (C)

Quartz

Boron (B)

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), etc.

Application of Crystalline Solids There are so many essential applications of crystalline solids such as:

Diamond is used for making jewelry.

They are also used for cutting glasses.

We use table salt in our food preparation.

We use Quartz for making watches and wall clocks, etc.

Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous Solid

Properties Crystalline Solid Amorphous Solid

Structure The constituent particles,
atoms, ions or molecules are
arranged in regular and definite
three dimensional patterns. For
example, sodium chloride,
diamond, sugar etc.
Cutting with a knife Gives clean, sharp cleavage.
Compressibility Rigid and incompressible
Melting point They have a sharp and definite
melting point.
The constituent particles are
arranged in irregular three
dimensional patterns.
Unclean cleavage
Usually rigid and cannot be
compressed to any appreciable
extent.
Melting point is not definite.
Melt over a range of
temperatures.
 Heat of fusion Definite Not definite.
Physical properties These are anisotropic in that These are isotropic, that is their
their physical properties are not physical properties are identical
identical in all directions. in all directions.

Lesson 4: PHASE DIAGRAM AND COOLING/HEATING CURVE

PHASE DIAGRAM

- is a graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under different conditions of

temperature and pressure.

-it gives the possible combinations of pressure and temperature at which certain physical state or states
a substance would be observed.

-each substance has its own phase diagram.

Summary

Triple point is a point which the three phases of water meets up in an equilibrium condition.

-Critical point is the end point of a phase equilibrium point.

-Substance with high IMF have high critical pressure and critical temperature.

-Carbon dioxide do not exist on liquid form under 5.11atm.

HEATING/COOLING CURVE

Heating Curve

- is a graph showing the temperature of a substance plotted against the amount of energy it has
absorbed.

-During heating, the energy (potential or kinetic) of the substance always increases.

Cooling Curve

-a cooling curve is obtained when a substance cools down and change state.

-During cooling, the energy (potential or kinetic) of the substance always decreases.

-The cooling curve is the reverse of the heating curve.

SUMMARY

- Melting and Freezing occur at the same temperature.

-Vaporization and condensation occur at the same temperature.

-During phase changes, temperature remains constant.

Lesson 5: Concentration of Solutions

Solutions

- A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances dissolved in another substance. -

Particles of solutions are too tiny to be seen by naked eye.

- Solutions cannot be filter. Unlike colloids, solutions do not scatter light. - Solutions are made up of two
parts: the solute and the solvent.

- The substance present in larger amount is known as solvent, while the present in smaller amount is
called solute. - Solutions where the solvent is water are generally termed as aqueous Solutions.

- The final state of the solution is often the same as state of the solvent.

Concentrations

- The concentration of a solutions is the quantity of solute in a given quantity of solvent.

Molarity

- Otherwise known as “molar concentration”.

-It is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The SI unit for molarity is mol/m3 ;
however, you will almost always encounter molarity with the units of mol/L.

-A solution of concentration 1 mol/L is also denoted as “1 molar” (1 M).

-It is important to keep in mind that molarity refers only to the amount of solute originally dissolved in
water and does not take into account any subsequent processes, such as the dissociation of a salt or the
ionization of an acid.

Example 1: How many grams of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) are required to prepare a 250-mL
solution whose concentration is 2.16 M?
Example 2: 13.36 g of NaOH is dissolved in 150 mL of water. What is the concentration of this solution in
molarity?

Molality

- It is an intensive property of solutions, and it is calculated as the moles of a solute divided by the
kilograms of the solvent. Unlike molarity, which depends on the volume of the solution, molality
depends only on the mass of the solvent. -Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg
(1000 g) of solvent.
Example 1: Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of
water. The molar mass of sulfuric acid is 98.09 g/mol.

Example 2: What is the molality of phosphoric acid, H3PO4, in a solution of 14.5 g of H3PO4 in 125 g of
water?
Percent by Mass

The Percent by Mass (also called percent by weight or weight percent) is the ratio of the mass of solute
to the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100 percent.

Example 1: In a solution prepared by dissolving 24g of Sodium chloride (NaCl) in 152g of water, what is
the percentage by mass of the solution?

Percent by Volume

-Percent by Volume or Volume Percent is a common expression used for expressing concentration. It is
related to the molar concentration, but the difference is that the volume percent is expressed with a
denominator of 100.

- It is used for reporting concentration of liquids solutes in solution.

- It is also called %V/V and it is always expressed as percentage (%) and the units of the volume should
be in mL.

- %V/V is also widely use in pharmaceutical field for expressing the concentration of different
components in solution.
Example 1: A solution of propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH) is prepared by dissolving 67 mL in enough water to
have a final volume of 250mL. What is the percent by volume of the propanol?

Parts per Million

-When the amount of solute is very small, as with trace impurities in water, concentration is often
expressed in parts per million. PPM is a term used in chemistry to denote a very, very low concentration
of a solution. One gram in 1000 ml is 1000 ppm and one thousandth of a gram (0.001g) in 1000 ml is one
ppm. Parts per Million (ppm) is a measurement of the concentration of a solution.

Example 1: What is the concentration of a solution in parts per million, if 0.02 grams of NaCl is dissolved
in 1000 grams of solution?
Mole Fraction

-It is a dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio of the number of moles of one component to the
number of moles of all components present. For a mixture of two substances, A and B, the mole
fractions of each would be written as follows:

Example 1: 0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0 grams of pure H2O. What is the mole fraction of
NaCl? What is the mole fraction of H2O?

FORMULAS

mole of solute (mol)

Molarity: M =
mass of solution( L)
mole of solute (mol)
Molality: m=
mass of solvent (Kg)

( ww )= mass of solute
Percent by Mass: %
mass of solute ( g )
( g )+ mass of solvent∗( g )
x 100 %

Percent by Volume:( % )=
v volume of solute ( mL )
x 100 %
v volume of solute ( mL )+ volume of solvent ( mL )

mass of solute ( g )
Parts per Million: x 10 6
mass of solution ( g )
 mole of A ( mol ) mole of B ( mol )
Mole Fraction: XA¿ ; XB¿ ;
mole of A ( mol )+ mole of B(mol) mole of A ( mol )+ mole of B(mol)
ni
X i=¿ n ¿
T

Lesson 6: COLLIGATIVE PROPORTIES

Colligative Properties of solution

-Properties that depend on the number of solute particles in a solution and on the nature of solute
particles.

Nonelectrolytes: ≤0.2M

-N-Vapor Pressure Lowering

-Boiling Point Elevation

-Freezing Point Depression

-Osmotic Pressure

Vapor Pressure Lowering

-Roult's Law: the pressure of a solvent over a solution is given by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent
times the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution.

P1 = X1Po1

-A true colligative property is independent of the nature of solute but directly proportional to its
Concentration.

Boiling Point Elevation

-the difference between the boiling points of the solution and the pure solvent

ΔTb= Tb-To1

ΔTb= kbm

Freezing Point Depression

-A positive quantity that gives the difference between freezing points of the solvent and the solution.

ΔTf= Tof-Tf

ΔTf= Kfm

Osmotic Pressure

-The pressure required to stop osmosis.

nRT
π= = MRT
v
CALCULATION OF MOLAR MASS FROM COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Example:

A Laboratory Experiment on colligative properties directs students to determine the molar mass on an
unknown solid. Each student receives 1.00g of solute, 225mL of solvent, and information that may be
pertinent to the unknown. (Tf=6.18oC; Tfo= 6.50oC; Kf=20.28oc/m), and density (0.779g/mL).

1. determine the freezing point

2. find the molality of the solution
3. find the mass of the solvent using the density
4. using the definition equation for molality, find the moles of solute
5. find the molar mass using the mass and the number of moles of solute
Lesson 7: REACTION RATE

What is Reaction Rate?

The rate of chemical reaction is the speed at which the reaction occurs (i.e. speed at which the
reactants are used or products are produced

Δ concentration
Rate =
Δ time
NAHCO3(s) + CH3COOH(l) → CO2(g )+ H2O

Example problem:

For this reaction NAHCO3(s) + CH3COOH(l) → NaC2H3O2(l) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) what is the rate of reaction if
baking soda is reacted to 0.5 CH3COOH(l). Assume that the reactants completely consumed at 40
seconds.

0.5 M −0 M
Rate =
40 s
=0.0125 m/s or mol/L/s
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate

1. Temperature

Increasing the temperature of a reaction increases the kinetic energy of the particles, causing them to
move faster and collide more frequently. This leads to a higher rate of reaction.

2. Surface Area

The smaller the size of the reactant, the higher the rate of reaction

3. Concentration

4. Presence of Catalyst

Substances that can speed up a reaction without being consumed in the process

5. Nature of Reactants

How easily and quickly the reactant molecules can collide and form products.

-type of bonding

-molecular size

-acid-base reaction