GenChem

Lesson 1: quantum numbers

A quantum number- is a value that is used when describing the energy levels available to atoms and
molecules.

Atomic orbitals are associated with energies, size, shapes, and orientation in space. These values
assigned as the quantum numbers

Four quantum numbers:

n - principal quantum number: describes the energy level

ℓ - azimuthal or angular momentum quantum number: describes the “shape” of the orbital

mℓ or m - magnetic quantum number: describes the orientation of the orbital in space.

ms or s - spin quantum number: refers to the “spin” of an electron in a given orbital.

n - principal quantum number

- which may have only a positive, nonzero integral value. The maximum number of electrons possible in
a given shell is 2n2. The larger n is, the greater the average distance of an electron in the orbital from
the nucleus and therefore the larger (and less stable) the orbital.

ℓ - angular momentum quantum number

tells us the “shape” of the orbital. which may be zero or a positive integer, but not larger than (where n
is the principal quantum number). ℓ = n-1

Physicist noted that some of the lines were Sharp; some were Diffuse or spread out; and some were
very strong and hence referred to as Principal lines. Subsequently, the initial letters of each adjective
assigned to those energy states. However, after the letter d and starting with the letter f (for
Fundamental), the orbital designations follow alphabetical order

mℓ or m - magnetic quantum number

- describes the orientation of the orbital in space The number is also an integer, and its values are
restricted to a range of +1 down through 0 to -1.
ms or s - spin quantum number

- refers to the “spin” of an electron in a given orbital. - half-integer value that is either -1/2 (called "spin
down") or +1/2 (called "spin up").

Paramagnetic materials are those that contain unpaired electrons or spins and are attracted by a
magnet.

Diamagnetic materials are those with paired spins and are repelled by a magnet.

Writing electron configuration

The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom is called the electron configuration. The
electrons are filled in according to a scheme known as the Aufbau principle (“building-up”), which
corresponds (for the most part) to increasing energy of the subshells: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s,
4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f.

Electron configurations are based primarily on three principles:

1. Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli exclusion principle states that “a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite
spins, can fit in a single atomic orbital.” Wolfgang Pauli (1900- 1958), an Austrian physicist,
proposed this principle after observing atoms in excited states.
2. Hund’s Rule
This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a
subshell. It states that “every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a
second electron is filled in an orbital.”

3. Aufbau Principle
Aufbau principle is named after the German word “Aufbeen” which means “build up”. The
Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before
occupying higher energy orbitals based on the principal energy levels and sublevels where they
are in. The principal energy levels are assigned values from one to seven in the order of
increasing energy: n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… as they get farther from the nucleus.

Lesson 2: Lewis Structure

A Lewis structure is a structural representation of a molecule where dots are used to show electron
positions around the atoms and lines or dot pairs represent covalent bonds between atoms.

Molecule- is a neutral group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
FORMATION OF THE COVALENT BOND

It was Gilbert Lewis who suggested that the chemical bond is formed by sharing of electrons in atoms.

For the hydrogen molecule, this is depicted by the two electrons are shared equally between the two
atoms forming a covalent bond. The bond is typically depicted by a single line, H - H. The electrons are
attracted to the nuclei of both atoms keeping the atoms together to form a molecule.

Valence electrons are involved in forming chemical bonds. Chemists used a shorthand method to
visually represent valence electrons. This is called as the electron-dot structure.

Octet rule

The octet rule in chemistry is the principle that bonded atoms share their eight outer electrons.

(A pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms is called a bond pair. A pair of electrons that is not
shared between two atoms is called a lone pair.)

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

C, N, O and F should always be assumed to obey the octet rule.

B and Be often have fewer than 8 electrons around them in their compounds.

Second row elements never exceed the octet rule.

Third row and heavier elements often satisfy the octet rule but can exceed the octet rule by using their
empty valence d orbitals.
FORMULA OF MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Chemical Nomenclature

The primary function of chemical nomenclature is to ensure that a spoken or written chemical name
leaves no ambiguity concerning to what chemical compound the name refers. The most widely accepted
format for nomenclature has been established by IUPAC.

Molecular compounds are made when two or more elements share electrons in a covalent bond to
connect the elements. Typically, nonmetals tend to share electrons, make covalent bonds, and thus,
form molecular compounds.

Rules for Naming Molecular Compounds

1. Remove the ending of the second element, and add “ide” just like in ionic compounds.

2. When naming molecular compounds prefixes are used to dictate the number of a given element
present in the compound.

3. If there is only one of the first element, you can drop the prefix. For example, CO is carbon monoxide,
not monocarbon monoxide.

4. The a or o at the end of a prefix is usually dropped from the name when the name of the element
begins with a vowel. As an example, four oxygen atoms, is tetroxide instead of tetraoxide.

Examples of Molecular Compound Names:

• SO2 is called sulfur dioxide

• SiI4 is called silicon tetraiodide

• SF6 is called sulfur hexafluoride

• CS2 is called carbon disulfide

Geometrical shapes of some simple compounds

The shape of molecules can be predicted by the combination of the Lewis theory and VSEPR theory.
VSEPR (pronounce as vesper) model means valence shell electron-pair repulsion model. It is formed
from molecules.
Lesson 3: Polarity of molecules

Polarity- refers to the distribution of electric charge around atoms, chemical groups, or molecules.

2 Factors that Determine the Polarity of molecules

I. The polarity of the bonds between atoms can be studied based on which electronegativity.

2. The geometrical shape of the molecule which can be predicted via the valence shell electron pair
repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

Bond Polarity

•ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN)

•It is the measure of relative tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when chemically
combined with another atom.

• The higher the value of electronegativity, the more it tends to attract electron toward itself.

Polarity of Molecules

• All compounds can be classified based on what type of chemical bond formed when the atoms
combined.
• The classification of the compound can be used to determine whether a molecule is polar or non-
polar.

The two classifications of compounds are covalent and ionic.

Electronegativity Difference

Difference in Electronegativity Type of compound(Bond Polarity)

Greater than or equal to 1.7 Ionic
0.5-1.6 Polar
Less than 0.5 Covalent Non-Polar

Dipole Moments and Polarity of Molecules

The polarity of the bond can be experimentally measured in terms of the dipole moment, µ . When
atoms in a molecule share electrons unequally.

Polarity of Simple compounds

Polar Non-Polar

Polar molecules must contain polar bonds due to

a difference in electronegativity between the
bonded atoms.
A polar molecule with two or more polar bonds
must have a geometry which is asymmetric in at
least one direction, so that the bond dipoles do
not cancel each other.
A molecule may be nonpolar either when there is
an equal sharing of electrons between the two
atoms of a diatomic molecule or because of the
symmetrical arrangement of polar bonds in a
more complex molecule.

Lesson 4: Functional Group

Organic compounds may also be classified according to the functional groups they contain. A functional
group is a group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical behavior of the parent molecule.
Compounds containing the same functional groups undergo similar reactions.

Alcohols

Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It is highly toxic and causes blindness.

Ethyl alcohol is a common solvent and starting material for various commercial uses. It is produced
commercially by the addition reaction of ethylene with water at high pressure and temperature. It is
also produced from the fermentation of sugar.
Isopropyl alcohol- is commonly called rubbing alcohol.

Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze. Ethyl alcohol can be oxidized by inorganic oxidizing agents to
acetaldehyde and acetic acid.

Ethers are usually prepared by a condensation reaction. A condensation reaction is characterized by the
joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually water.

Aldehydes and Ketones- A common aldehyde is formaldehyde. An aqueous solution of formaldehyde is

used in the laboratory to preserve animal specimens. A common ketone is acetone, which is mainly used
as solvent for organic compounds and as nail polish remover. Alcohols can be oxidized to produce
aldehydes and ketones.

Carboxylic Acids- The functional group in carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group, - COOH. Among the
common carboxylic acids are formic acid, acetic acid, and butyric acid.

Esters are sued in flavoring and perfumery owing to their characteristic smells. The smell of many fruits
come from esters. A common reaction of esters is saponification. In this reaction, an ester reacts with
aqueous NaOH solution to produce back the carboxylic acid and the alcohol. This reaction originates
from soapmaking. Soap (Latin “sapo”) was originally produced by the hydrolysis of fats.
Isomerism- the existence of molecules that have the same numbers of the same kinds of atoms (and
hence the same formula) but differ in chemical and physical properties.

Two general types of Isomerism

Constitutional isomers are molecules of different connectivity— analogous to simple bracelets in which
the order of red and green beads is different.

Stereoisomer. Generally defined, stereoisomers are isomers that have the same composition (that is,
the same parts) but that differ in the orientation of those parts in space.

Two kinds of stereoisomers

Enantiomers are a pair of molecules that exist in two forms that are mirror images of one another but
cannot be superimposed one upon the other.

Diastereomers are defined as compounds which have the same molecular formula and sequence of
bonded elements but which are nonsuperimposable, non-mirror images.

Lesson 5: Organic reactions of some simple compounds

Combustion of organic fuels-The most common reaction of organic compounds and is also known as
burning. This is an exothermic process wherein oxygen reacts with a hydrocarbon.

CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O Combustion of Methane

Addition reaction-Addition reaction takes place to a hydrocarbon with multiple bonds and components
A and B are added to the bonds being broken. Take note of the double/triple bond breaks because it is
where added molecules will be attached.

Condensation reaction - a reaction between two molecules forming single molecule and a release water
molecule as a product. Biological process such as production of protein, Amino acids combine during
condensation reaction.
Saponification came from the Latin sapo which means soap, and is made from hydrolysis of fats.
Because of basic conditions, a carboxylate ion rather a carboxylic acid is produced and an alcohol,
represented by the general formula of saponification below.

Lesson 5: Polymers

The word polymer is derived from the classical Greek word poly meaning “many” and meres meaning
“parts.”

Polymer Synthesis- The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked together to form
polymers is called polymerization. During a polymerization reaction, a large number of monomers
become connected by covalent bonds to form a single long molecule, a polymer.

Two types of Polymerization

Addition polymerization- also known as chain reaction polymerization, is a type of polymerization in

which monomers are linked together by rearranging the bonds with each other. The molecular weight of
the formed polymer is the same as the sum of all monomers included in the polymerization.

Condensation polymerization is a process of polymerization that involves a condensation reaction,

where a small molecule, such as water or methanol, is produced as a byproduct. It is a form of step-
growth polymerization and can be formed by polycondensation or condensative chain polymerization.

Some Example of Polymers Made by Addition polymerization

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polyethylene

Acrylic

Polystyrene

Polyoxymethylene (acetal)

Some Example of Polymers Made by Condensation polymerization

Polyester (Polyester is one of the polymers that our indigenous people from mindanao are using,
examples are: malong, balabal, carpets and etc.)
Nylon

Polymers are the giant molecules of chemistry. Chemists also call them macromolecules. The small
building block molecules are called monomers. They can be natural or synthetic.

Classification of Polymers

Natural polymers- Polymers which occur in nature and are existing in natural sources like plants and
animals.

examples: Proteins, Cellulose, Starch, Rubber

Synthetic polymers- Polymers which humans can artificially create/synthesize in a lab. Commercially
produced by industries for human necessities.

Some commonly produced polymers which we use day to day are:

-Polyethylene (a mass-produced plastic which we use in packaging)

-Nylon Fibers (commonly used in our clothes, fishing nets etc.)

Polymers in Our Daily Life

1. PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) – Fizzy drink bottles, ovenready meal trays and water bottles

2. HDPE (High-density polyethylene) – Milk bottles, detergent bottles, yogurt and margarine tubs, cereal
box liners and grocery, trash and retail bags.

3. PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) – Cling film (plastic food wrap), vegetable oil bottles, loose-leaf binders and
construction products such as plastic pipes.

4.LDPE (Low-density polyethylene) – Dry cleaning bags, produce bags, trash can liners, bread bags,
frozen food bags and squeezable bottles, such as mustard and honey.

5. PP (Polypropylene) – Ketchup bottles, medicine bottles, aerosol caps and drinking straws.

6. PS (Polystyrene) – Compact disc jackets, grocery store meat trays, egg cartons, aspirin bottles, foam
packaging peanuts and plastic tableware.

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

Linear polymers resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The long chains are typically held together by the
weaker van der Waals or hydrogen bonding

Branched polymers resemble linear polymers with the addition of shorter chains hanging from the
spaghetti backbone.

Cross-linked polymers resemble ladders. The chains link from one backbone to another. So, unlike linear
polymers which are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, cross-linked polymers are tied
together via covalent bonding.

Networked polymers are complex polymers that are heavily linked to form a complex network of three-
dimensional linkages. These polymers are nearly impossible to soften when heating without degrading
the underlying polymer structure and are thus thermosetting polymers.

The following list describes some of the important properties of a polymer:

Heat capacity/ Heat conductivity -The extent to which the plastic or polymer acts as an effective
insulator against the flow of heat. (The polystyrene in disposable plastic glasses isn't a very good
insulator. However, blowing air through styrene while it is being polymerized gives the Styrofoam used
for disposable coffee cups, which is a much better insulator.)

Thermal expansion - The extent to which the polymer expands or contracts when heated or cooled.
(Silicone is often used to seal glass windows to their frames because it has a very low coefficient of
thermal expansion.) Thermal expansion is also concerned with the question of whether the polymer
expands or contracts by the same amount in all directions. (Polymers are usually anisotropic. They
contain strong covalent bonds along the polymer chain and much weaker dispersive forces between the
polymer chains. As a result, polymers can expand by differing amounts in different directions.)

Crystallinity- The extent to which the polymer chains are arranged in a regular structure instead of a
random fashion. (Some polymers, such as Silly Putty and Play Dough, are too amorphous and lack the
rigidity needed to make a useful product. Polymers that are too crystalline often are also too brittle.)

Permeability- the tendency of a polymer to pass extraneous materials. (Polyethylene is used to wrap
foods because it is 4000 times less permeable to oxygen then polystyrene.)

Elastic modulus- the force it takes to stretch the plastic in one direction.

Tensile strength- the strength of the plastic. (The force that must be applied in one direction to stretch
the plastic until it breaks.)

Resilience- the ability of the plastic to resist abrasion and wear.

Refractive index- the extent to which the plastic affects light as it passes through the polymer. (Does it
pass light the way PMMA does, or does it absorb light like PVC?)

Resistance to electric current- is the material an insulator, like most polymers, or does it conduct an
electric current? (There is a growing interest in conducting polymers, which can be charged and
discharged, and photoconducting polymers that can pick up an electric charge when exposed to light.)