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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration: Lessons from the
National Greening Program in the Philippines

Article in Small-scale Forestry · July 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s11842-016-9344-z

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Small-scale Forestry
DOI 10.1007/s11842-016-9344-z

RESEARCH PAPER

Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest

Restoration: Lessons from the National Greening
Program in the Philippines

Nestor Gregorio1 • John Herbohn1,2 •

Steve Harrison1 • Arturo Pasa3 • Angela Ferraren3

Accepted: 8 July 2016

 Steve Harrison, John Herbohn 2016

Abstract The use of low quality planting material is one of the major reasons for the
limited success of past reforestation programs in the Philippines and elsewhere in the
tropics. In the Philippines, a national policy has been in place since 2010, which
regulates the quality of seedlings. As part of the policy, government reforestation
programs are required to use only high quality seedlings from accredited seedling
suppliers. A survey of nurseries producing seedlings for the National Greening Pro-
gram in Eastern Visayas and Northern Mindanao regions was carried out to determine
the effectiveness and challenges in implementing the forest nursery accreditation
policy. The survey identified factors that limit the effectiveness of seedling quality
regulation including lack of auditing of seedling quality in accredited nurseries,
insufficient monitoring of the seedling supply chain among the network of nurseries
supplying seedlings for reforestation programs, inadequate seedling production
schedules, and inappropriate criteria for seedling quality assessment. The limited
sources of high quality germplasm, nursery operators’ limited information on the
attributes of high quality planting materials and lack of knowledge about high quality
seedling production technologies contributed to the widespread production of low
quality seedlings. The lack of seedling quality checks makes the government’s bidding
scheme of seedling purchases prone to favouring the proliferation of low quality
seedlings that are usually sold at lower prices. Nursery accreditation represents a major
initiative in promoting the success of Philippine reforestation but our study found that

& Nestor Gregorio

ngregori@usc.edu.au
1
Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast,
Maroochydore DC, QLD 4558, Australia
2
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane,
QLD 4072, Australia
3
ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project, Visayas State University, Baybay City 6521-A, Leyte,
Philippines

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 N. Gregorio et al.

considerable improvement of the policy and of its implementation is necessary. From

our study, key lessons can be learned for the implementation of forest landscape
restoration initiatives in other tropical developing countries.

Keywords Nursery accreditation
Reforestation policy
Seedling morphology

Planting stock
Forest landscape restoration
FLR
Forest restoration
Seedling
quality

Introduction

Restoring forested landscapes is recognized as one of the important measures to

improve resilience and mitigate impacts of major global environmental problems,
particularly climate change (Kumar et al. 2015). Recently many countries within the
Asia Pacific region have developed substantial reforestation initiatives and set
national targets for reforestation. For example the Philippines has recently
committed to restoring a further 7.1 M ha under the National Greening Program
(NGP)1 from 2017 to 2028 (Ranada 2015). Also, Indonesia aims to reforest
5.5 M ha between 2015 and 2019. At a regional scale the Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) forum in 2015 pledged to boost its forestland by 20 M ha by
2020 and there are moves to dramatically increase this target (Forestry Bureau
2015). Many of the planned initiatives are included as commitments under the Bonn
Challenge,2 which has aspirations to restore 350 M ha of degraded forest by 2030.
Underlying the Bonn Challenge is the forest landscape restoration (FLR) approach,
which aims to restore ecological integrity at the same time as improving human
wellbeing through multi-function landscapes (Lamb et al. 2012; Gregorio et al.
2015a). However, despite the optimism associated with aspirational targets set by
various groups such as the Bonn Challenge, there are many challenges for
successful implementation of reforestation programs, especially those involving
communities (e.g., Baynes et al. 2015).
The use of high quality planting stock is an important contributor to the success
of reforestation, including efforts to rehabilitate watersheds in tropical developing
countries (e.g. Le et al. 2012, 2014, 2015). Biodiversity International (2015)
emphasized that risks of failure in achieving the global forest landscape restoration
target are largely associated with the quality and composition of planting materials.
However, ensuring the use of high quality seedlings in forest restoration programs
presents many challenges. Gregorio et al. (2015b) argued that some requisites are
imperative, including the implementation of policies that regulate the quality of
seedlings from the nursery sector. While policies to control the quality of forestry
seedlings have been institutionalized in various countries (see House of Parliament
2002; Department of Forestry and DANIDA 2007; Nyoka et al. 2011; He et al.
1
The NGP is a government-initiated and stakeholder-based reforestation flagship program of former
President Aquino which aims to reforest 1.5 M ha of public domain land from 2011 until 2016 for
poverty reduction, food security, biodiversity conservation, environmental stability and climate change
mitigation and adaptation (DENR 2012).
2
See http://www.bonnchallenge.org.

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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

2012; Sheil 2013), there is a dearth of knowledge regarding the constraints and
challenges encountered in the implementation of such policies and the intervention
measures that were adopted. A number of studies suggest that developing an
effective seedling quality regulation system is fraught with problems and constraints
(e.g., Graudal and Lilleso 2007; Ha et al. 2011; Nyoka et al. 2014; Hoang et al.
2015). In addition, the way in which nursery sectors are organised (e.g.,
government, smallholder and community nurseries) is also an important contributor
to a sustainable supply of high quality planting materials (Gregorio et al. 2008).
In the Philippines, it is well recognised that low quality seedlings are responsible
for poor outcomes of reforestation programs (Carandang et al. 2006; Israel and
Lintag 2013). Drawing on lessons from past reforestation initiatives, the National
Greening Program included a requirement for implementers to use planting
materials of high quality in respect to both genetic and morphological character-
istics (DENR 2011). The requirement to use high quality planting material was
operationalised through DENR Administrative Order 2010-11 Revised Regulations
Governing Forest Tree Seed and Seedling Production, Collection and Disposition,
which sets out the appropriate methods of collecting and handling high quality
germplasm, and distribution to nursery operators in various regions of the country. It
also sets out the protocol for accrediting germplasm sources and forestry nurseries.
DAO 2010-11 also mandates that only seedlings from accredited nurseries shall be
used for government reforestation programs including tree plantation development,
tree farms, agroforestry, and urban forestry (DENR 2010).
Reforestation success can be measured in many ways, including short term
indicators such as area or seedlings planted, seedling survival and early growth
through to longer term indicators including tree survival and growth rates, and
socio-economic and environmental benefits (e.g., Le et al. 2012). In assessing the
NGP, the DENR has focused on a very narrow set of criteria (i.e., limited to number
of seedlings produced, size of area planted, seedling survival, and number of
workers employed) to measure success, and even the accuracy of these relatively
easily measured criteria have been questioned.
The official government reports indicate that the NGP has succeeded in achieving
the specified targets set for seedlings produced and area of planting. The
accomplishment report of the NGP for calendar years 2011 to 2014 indicates that
the area planted under the program exceeded the annual target for reforestation
(Table 1) (DENR 2014a). In 2015, the total cumulative area planted reached

Table 1 The area of NGP

Year Target size of Area of land NGP achievement
plantations in relation to the
area to be actually in relation to
annual target areas for
planted (ha) planted (ha) planting target (%)
reforestation
2011 100,000 128,558 129
2012 200,000 221,673 111
2013 300,000 333,160 111
2014 300,000 334,302 111

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 N. Gregorio et al.

1.3 M ha using 800 M seedlings, exceeding the program’s target for the past
4 years of implementation. With this success, former President Benigno Aquino III
signed Executive Order 193 on November 12, 2015, expanding the NGP
implementation until 2028 to reforest another 7.1 M ha of degraded forestland
(Ranada 2015).
The DENR’s claim of NGP success is however viewed with scepticism because
of inaccurate reporting of accomplishments (Ranada 2015). While the DENR at the
national level revealed the number of seedlings used and area of land planted,
reports on seedling survival and growth performance are lacking (Israel and Arbo
2015). Assessment of seedling survival of 2012 NGP plantations in the Philippines
undertaken by another government agency revealed an average seedling survival
rate 1 year after establishment of only 61 % (COA 2013). A performance validation
of DENR at the local level for 3-year-old NGP plantations in 10 barangays in
Philippines Region 8 (Eastern Visayas) revealed an average seedling survival rate of
only 39 % (DENR 2014b), very low compared to the 80 % seedling survival target
of the DENR. This finding was corroborated by the recent assessment of NGP
plantations in Region 8 and Region 10 (Northern Mindanao) undertaken by the
ACIAR Watershed Project (Baynes et al. 2013).
The use of low quality seedlings has been widely cited as a major contributor to
the low survival rate of seedlings in NGP plantations (Israel and Lintag 2013;
Ranada 2014, 2015; Egento 2016). The problem with low quality seedlings is also
recognised within at least some sections of the DENR, with a senior staff member of
the Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau of DENR admitting publically
that low quality planting materials is a major reason for the low survival of
seedlings in NGP plantations (Barriga 2013). This is a surprising situation given the
recent legislation regulating the quality of planting materials for reforestation
programs in the Philippines and the requirement to use high quality seedlings for the
NGP.
This paper discusses the seedling production system for the NGP in the
Philippines, and effectiveness and challenges in regulating the quality of seedlings.
The study is designed to generate information to improve the success of regulating
the quality of forest reproductive materials for reforestation programs in the
Philippines and other developing countries implementing a similar policy on
seedling quality control. This study was undertaken as a component of the review of
the effectiveness of NGP implementation in Philippines Regions 8 and 10, which is
one of the major research activities of the ACIAR Watershed Rehabilitation project
(ACIAR 2015).

The Study Site

Researchers from the ACIAR Watershed Rehabilitation project in partnership with

staff members of DENR carried out a survey of forestry nurseries in six provinces in
Regions 8 and 10 of the Philippines in June and July 2013. The provinces in Region
8 were Biliran, Leyte, Southern Leyte and Samar while the provinces in Region 10
were Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental (Fig. 1). These regions were selected because

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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

Fig. 1 Map of the Philippines with location of the study sites indicated by circles. Source: Google
Maps 2016

they are the research sites of the ACIAR Watershed Rehabilitation project. Region 8
is situated in the central part of the country and composed of three islands and six
provinces. It comprises 7.2 % of the total Philippines land area, and 52 % of the
area is classified as forestland.3 Among all regions in the Philippines, Region 8 had
the highest plantation target in the 2011 NGP planting. The massive loss of forest
cover was identified as the primary reason for the flash flood during the typhoon
Haiyan in 2013, which killed thousands of people in Region 8 particularly in
3
In the Philippines, all land having a slope of 18 % or more is classified as forestland or public land
(although many are without forest cover) and managed by the DENR. Land with a slope of less than 18 %
is categorized as alienable and disposable, which can be privately acquired and titled (Emtage 2004).

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 N. Gregorio et al.

Tacloban, which is the capital city of the region. Region 10 is composed of five
provinces located in the southern part of the Philippines. It has a total land area of
2.05 M ha, with more than 60 % classified as forestland. Agriculture and plantation
forestry make the greatest contribution to the regional income. In 2011, Region 10
achieved 100 % of its NGP plantation target.

Research Methods

Surveys were conducted to determine the effectiveness and challenges in

implementing the forest nursery accreditation policy in the Philippines. These
included a survey of operators and managers of nurseries supplying seedlings for the
NGP, and a key informant survey with relevant officials of the DENR at the local,
provincial and regional levels. Assessment of the quality of seedlings in nurseries
was undertaken. A workshop with nursery operators and key officials of the DENR
was conducted to validate and complement the survey results. The survey sample
included 23 nurseries, nine from Region 10 (eight from Bukidnon and one from
Misamis Oriental) and 14 from Region 8 (five from Biliran, three from Leyte, three
from Southern Leyte, and three from Samar). Of these nurseries, private operators
owned nine, 12 were managed by people’s organisations (POs) involved in the NGP
implementation, and two were established and operated by the DENR.

Selection of Nurseries and Interviews of Survey Respondents

Nurseries included in the survey were selected based on recommendations of the

DENR, particularly the Forest Management Service (FMS) of Region 8 and the
Ecosystems Research and Development Service (ERDS) of Region 10. Operators of
the nurseries were notified and approval was sought for the project staff and DENR
personnel to conduct the survey. Using an open-ended questionnaire as a guide,
information on seedling production systems including nursery silvicultural practices
and quality control measures, and the market for seedlings, were gathered during
interviews. The respondents were asked about constraints experienced in nursery
operations and marketing of forest reproductive materials. Discussions were also
held with senior personnel of the FMS and ERDS in both regions to obtain
information regarding the organisation of seedling production for the NGP. The
seedling quality control protocol of the DENR and challenges encountered in its
implementation were also discussed. Interviews with nursery seedling producers
and DENR staff allowed corroboration of information provided by each group.

Selection of Sample Seedlings and Assessment of Morphological Quality

The quality of seedlings was assessed using the criteria developed by Gregorio et al.
(2009), which have been promoted in DAO 2010-11. These criteria have been used
in some offices of the DENR in Regions 8 and 10, although the policy for
nationwide adoption is still in process. The assessment involved destructive
sampling of 50 seedlings of plantable size (i.e., at least 20 cm tall) at each nursery

123
Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

and recording five morphological criteria: seedling health, stem form, root form,
sturdiness and root-to-shoot ratio. Base stem diameter and seedling height were
measured to compute the sturdiness value. The root-to-shoot ratio was determined
by obtaining the ratio of oven dry weight of root and shoot biomass. Importance
weights4 ranging from 0 to 3 points were attached to each criterion. Description of
importance weights for each criterion is presented in ‘‘Appendix’’. The maximum
overall score for a nursery was set at 15 and the minimum acceptable score was 10.
The nursery operators identified the seedlings of all species available during the
survey period that they believed were appropriate for field planting. These seedlings
were considered as a population unit, and 50 sample seedlings were chosen
following a systematic selection procedure. To select the 50 sample seedlings, the
total number of seedlings was divided by 50, and the quotient corresponds to the nth
observation. The samples were identified by counting along from the first seedling
on the hardening bed until the nth observation corresponding to the first sample was
reached. The location of the first sample was used as the starting point in counting
the seedlings to identify the second sample. The process was repeated until the 50
sample seedlings were collected. A total of 1150 seedlings of 54 species from 23
nurseries in two regions were examined.

Validation of Survey Methods and Results

A workshop with key representatives of the DENR in Regions 8 and 10, seedling
production contractors (private nursery operators, non-government organizations/
NGOs, people’s organizations/POs), NGP implementers and researchers of the
ACIAR Watershed Project was held in the municipality of Naval in Biliran Province
to convey and validate the methods used and survey results. The methods used in
the interview survey and key findings were presented, and reactions and comments
from participants were sought. Discussions on some critical issues including the
awarding of seedling production contracts and monitoring of seedling quality were
facilitated. Relevant information arising from discussions and comments of
stakeholders were documented and incorporated into the results below.

Results and Discussion

Organisation of Seedling Production for the NGP

The implementing guidelines of the NGP described in DMC 2011-01 Guidelines

and Procedures for the Implementation of the National Greening Program (DENR
2011) stipulated that seedling production should be a collaborative undertaking of
several groups including government agencies, state colleges and universities
(SCUs), the private sector and community groups. People’s organisations,

4
The criteria and importance weights followed the method of assessing seedling physical quality that
was developed under the ACIAR Quality Seedling Project (ASEM/2006/091) with details presented in
Gregorio et al. (2009).

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 N. Gregorio et al.

commercial large-scale individual nurseries and non-government organisations

produced most of the seedlings for the NGP. Attempts were also made by the DENR
to mass-produce genetically superior seedlings through clonal propagation in
partnership with SCUs (DENR 2014a, b), although the complexity of legal
arrangements to transfer funds, the period required to construct clonal nurseries and
the small number of centralised clonal nurseries limited the use of government-
produced seedlings in most regions of the Philippines.
The conceptual model of the seedling production system for NGP implemen-
tation in Philippines’ Regions 8 and 10 is presented in Fig. 2. The model illustrates
that the production of planting materials is divided between the government (i.e.,
DENR, other government agencies, and academic institutions) and non-government
sectors (i.e., private nursery operators, POs and NGOs), with the latter having the
greater share of production (approximately 75 %). Seedling production with the
non-government sector is categorised into two arrangements, viz. direct contracting
with POs and open bidding from accredited nurseries (including private seedling
producers, POs and NGOs). In areas with a prior tenurial agreement with
communities (including Community-based Forest Management and Protected Area
Community-based Resource Management), the PO beneficiaries were given direct
contracts by DENR to produce seedlings. Seedling production by POs provides
income to the organisations, an important livelihood activity associated with
reforestation. Importantly, it also avoids damage to seedlings during transport when
seedlings are purchased outside the community where the reforestation project is
located. The solid arrow in Fig. 2 from PO nurseries to NGP sites with tenure
agreement indicates that POs produce most of the seedlings (approximately 70 %)
for these places.
In areas without existing tenure arrangements,5 selection of nurseries to supply
seedlings is conducted through a bidding process following the Philippine
Government Electronic Procurement System (PhilGEPS) as explained in RA
9184 ‘An Act Providing the Modernization, Standardization and Regulation of the
Procurement Activities of the Government and Other Activities’ (PhilGEPS 2013).
PhilGEPS is an internet-based bidding system that provides seedling producers
access to government bid notices, allowing them to enter the bidding and view bid
results. For a nursery operator to participate in the bidding, the nursery existence
must be acknowledged by ERDS and the operator must hold a PhilGEPS certificate
of registration. The government tends to take the lowest bidder and the lack of
seedling quality checks makes the bidding scheme prone to favouring the
proliferation of low quality seedlings that are usually sold at lower prices.
Monitoring the quality of seedlings from accredited nurseries and those managed
by POs and SCUs is the responsibility of the DENR. Specifically, DENR
Memorandum Circular 2011-01 indicates that it is the responsibility of the ERDS to
ensure the production of high quality seedlings for the NGP. However, in practice
5
Reforestation projects are mainly implemented in public land and participating communities obtain a
tenurial contract with DENR to possess the land, develop, and utilize the resources therein for 25 years
and usually renewable for another 25 years. Untenured areas are public land subjected to reforestation by
POs or NGOs but without existing tenurial agreement. In this case, the role of POs and NGOs is limited to
rehabilitation of the area, which usually spans for three years.

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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

Fig. 2 A conceptualized model of the seedling production pathway and quality regulation system for the
NGP

the ERDS regulates the quality of seedlings for the program in untenured planting
sites and the FMS regulates seedling production for tenured areas including sites of
Community-based Forest Management Program (CBFMP). There is no agency that
evaluates the quality of seedlings in DENR nurseries.
About 80 % of accredited seedlings suppliers of the NGP in Regions 8 and 10 are
NGOs and private seedling producers, hence the solid lines in Fig. 2 connecting
NGOs and private nurseries to NGP sites without tenure arrangements. A relatively
small quantity of seedlings from POs (approximately 20 % of the overall seedling
requirement) is planted in sites without existing tenure instruments (indicated by
dotted line in Fig. 2) because few POs have been able to obtain nursery
accreditation. A DENR officer in Region 8 indicated that the technical requirements
set out in DAO 2010-11 and lack of familiarity with the online bidding system
discouraged POs from applying for nursery accreditation. In addition, many POs
lacked the financial resources to establish nurseries that met the required standards.
In contrast, NGOs and private seedling producers can obtain accreditation more
easily than POs because of their greater financial resources and technical capability.
Unlike POs, the activities of which are usually dependent on the mobilisation fund
provided by the DENR, the NGOs and private seedling producers have the financial
resources to produce seedlings and bridge the usually delayed disbursement of
funds. Also, it is presumed by the DENR that NGOs and private seedling producers
have the experience and technical skills to produce high quality seedlings. With the
NGP having limited funds to support the capacity-building of POs to produce high
quality planting materials, assigning of seedling production to experienced private
seedling producers and NGOs is considered by the DENR as the safest way to
quickly satisfy their high quality seedling requirement in the NGP.
The conceptual model of seedling production for the NGP sets out the most
prominent production processes, but other mechanisms for seedling supply also
exist. For instance, the POs with contracts to produce seedlings for their respective
NGP areas also purchase seedlings from other nurseries (particularly from other POs

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 N. Gregorio et al.

and private nurseries mostly unaccredited by DENR) instead of establishing their

own nurseries. Although POs with contracts to purchase seedlings from other
nurseries are uncommon (hence the broken line in Fig. 2), seedlings from
unaccredited seedling producers enter into the NGP seedling supply system through
this scheme. In such cases, seedlings are often sold at lower prices than indicated in
the seedling production contract between the DENR and the PO. For example, the
DENR pays PhP12 to the PO for each seedling, but the latter purchase the seedling
from another seedling producer at PhP8, hence imposing a mark-up of PhP4/
seedling. While this may appear desirable in terms of providing income to the POs,
a major drawback is that the capacity of POs to produce high quality planting stock
is not improved. Also, with seedlings purchased from unaccredited sources, the
objective of using high quality seedlings in the program can be undermined.
Accredited seedling producers (i.e., accredited private nursery operators and
NGOs) having seedling production contracts with the DENR also engage in the
purchasing of seedlings from unaccredited nurseries. Approximately 80 % of
accredited private nurseries included in the study have purchased seedlings from
unaccredited seedling suppliers. This practice is very pronounced, hence indicated
in Fig. 2 by solid lines from unaccredited nurseries to accredited private and NGO
nurseries. An extreme case is that some accredited nursery operators cease operating
their nurseries and purchase seedlings from unaccredited seedling producers. This
practice is widespread because of the lack of auditing and monitoring of the
seedling production of accredited seedling suppliers. The accreditation process
involves examination of the quality of seedlings of the supplier at the time of
application for accreditation. The quality of seedlings on subsequent production
runs is less regularly monitored, due to a lack of DENR personnel and hope that
nursery operators conscientiously comply with the requirement to produce high
quality planting materials.
Another variation to the model presented in Fig. 2 was that in some
municipalities the DENR purchased seedlings from accredited nurseries and
delivered these to POs for planting in tenured and untenured sites. For example,
seedlings for the NGP in some municipalities in Region 8 were provided by an NGO
operating outside the municipalities but contracted by DENR at the regional level.
The POs that are recipients of the seedlings indicated that this approach is
undesirable. In particular, there was seldom any attempt to take into account the
characteristics of the site at which the seedlings were to be planted, resulting in a
mismatch between species provided and the site. In addition, the communities were
seldom consulted as to what species they would prefer to grow. Also, seedlings were
frequently damaged during transportation to planting sites. Purchasing seedlings
from private seedling producers removes the opportunity of the PO to derive income
from seedling production. Roshetko et al. (2013) reported a similar problem in
Indonesia wherein purchasing seedlings at distant locations resulted in seedling
damage during transport and missed opportunities for farmer groups and
communities.
The bidding process to supply seedlings for most of the untenured sites is open to
all nursery seedling producers recognized by the DENR. It was noted in Biliran
Province in Region 8 that the majority of contracts were awarded to only a small

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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

number of nursery seedling producers. While a single nursery winning most of the
bids for nursery seedling production quota could result from a fair and unbiased
bidding process, several seedling producers have expressed their suspicions that
award of contracts is greatly influenced by strong affiliations of the successful
nursery operators with officials involved in the contract and awarding process.

The Seedling Quality Regulation Policy of the DENR

DMC 2011-01 stipulates that seedling production for the NGP must be governed by
DAO 2010-11. This departmental order requires the seedling documentation and
registration system for effective and sustainable forest tree seed and seedling
production. It also sets out the protocol for accrediting germplasm sources and
forest nurseries, illustrates the methods of establishing and maintaining seed
production areas and outlines the criteria for assessing the physical quality of
mother trees. The accreditation of germplasm sources (e.g., seed stands, seed
production areas, seed orchards and seed trees) implies the necessity to use
genetically superior germplasm. However, no process currently exists which
requires seedling producers to procure germplasm from accredited sources.
Although seedling producers have an obligation to indicate germplasm sources
when applying for accreditation, the mechanism to monitor the collection and use of
germplasm from accredited sources is lacking. A senior officer of the DENR Region
10 indicated that the number of identified, established and recognised germplasm
sources nationwide is not enough to supply the volume of high quality planting
materials for the NGP. Also, the distribution network of high quality germplasm is
not well established. Given this scenario, suppliers of seedlings for the program
including the accredited seedling producers are not strictly required to use high
quality germplasm. This condition in effect defeats one of the fundamental purposes
of forest nursery accreditation.
The forest nursery accreditation process, as stipulated in DAO 2010–11, involves
the two stages of submitting the application, and assessing the nursery and the
seedling quality. The set of assessment criteria for seedling quality includes seedling
health (leaf colour and absence of infestations), size of seedlings (height and stem
diameter), stem form, root form, sturdiness, age of seedling and sun hardening state.
However, details on how the criteria should be applied—for example, specific
weights assigned to each criterion and information on how the seedlings will be
rated—is absent. It was emphasized by a DENR officer that their office uses the
subjective judgement of their trained staff when assessing seedling quality.
However, without specific guidelines, seedling producers will lack clear guidance
on seedling production procedures. Also, the absence of guidelines leaves seedling
quality assessment decisions by DENR staff members subject to questions and
arguments particularly for nursery operators who fail to reach the passing mark.
A seedling production contract obtained from a PO in Region 8 indicates that
DENR officers may have devised a modified set of criteria in their respective
jurisdictions. The contract stipulates that seedlings should be assessed based on
having a height of more than 30 cm from the root collar, at least 5 mm base
diameter, with a straight stem, good health, and having at least six leaves.

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Apparently, the seedling height requirements of more than 30 cm (up to 50 cm

depending on the species) do not preclude overgrown seedlings because the
evaluation criteria do not indicate an upper limit on seedling height. The number of
leaves is not a particularly useful criterion in judging seedling physical quality. A
large number of leaves together with low root volume are detrimental to seedling
survival (Ritchie 1984). This is aggravated when there is low soil moisture, which is
a common characteristic of reforestation sites in the Philippines.
Root system assessment is stipulated in DAO 2010-11, but not included in the
evaluation criteria even though root form and volume in relation to aboveground
biomass are crucial indicators of seedling survival and establishment in the field
(Wilson and Jacobs 2006; McDowell et al. 2008).

Observations on the Quality of Planting Stock in Survey Nurseries

Interviews with seedling producers revealed that the quality of mother trees was
given little emphasis in germplasm collection. Only about half of the nursery
operators (48 %) were found to deliberately collect germplasm from phenotypically
superior trees. The limited number of mother trees, lack of concern for the
importance of genetically superior germplasm for tree performance, and need to
grow a high volume of seedlings in a short period are among the main reasons for
the lack of attention to producing high quality germplasm. This finding is consistent
with previous studies of the nursery sector of Leyte and Mindanao Islands reported
in Koffa and Roshetko (1999), Gregorio et al. (2010), and Edralin and Mercado
(2010). While substantial efforts to improve the supply of high quality seedlings in
Regions 8 and 10 were undertaken by local and international research and
development agencies, it is clear that the constraints have not been resolved. DENR
officials of Regions 8 and 10 unanimously indicated that lack of sources is a
bottleneck in the availability of genetically superior germplasm.
Of the 23 nurseries investigated, only three were found to have produced
seedlings, which met the quality criteria used in assessing the seedlings during the
survey. Overall, the mean score of physical quality was 4.5 out of a possible
maximum of 15, with average scores of the 50 seedlings collected from each
nursery ranging from 0 to 11. Most of the sampled seedlings (88 %) appeared
healthy with relatively straight stems. However, many of them (36 %) had either
root systems that were deformed (J-rooting and coiling) or grew outside the base of
the container. Further, the majority of the seedlings were not sturdy (82 %) and had
an unbalanced shoot-to-root ratio (79 %).
The average height of seedlings was 38 cm. Jaenicke (1999) argued that the
optimal height of seedling for outplanting should be between 20 and 25 cm.
Overgrown seedlings, as tall as 100 cm, were noted in several nurseries.
Grossnickle (2012) argued that tall seedlings could be ideal for planting if
seedlings have to compete with other vegetation regarding aboveground growth
requirements notably sunlight and space. However, when the competition is below
ground (i.e., for moisture and nutrients), height is of less importance than root
system development. In soil with limited moisture, when compared to small
seedlings, tall seedlings will have greater water stress, lower photosynthesis and

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Table 2 Number of seedlings

Species category Number of sample seedlings Total
by species category and
germplasm type Seed Wildlings

Exotic 257 128 385

Native 75 690 765
Total 332 818 1150

reduced growth (Hahn and Smith 1983; Bernier et al. 1995; Lamhamedi et al. 1997).
In most reforestation sites in the Philippines, sunlight is not as limiting a factor as
soil nutrients and moisture, hence seedlings need not be tall, but root systems should
be well developed.
A negative correlation coefficient (r = -0.450; p = 0.031) was found between
the use of wildlings and the resulting seedling physical quality scores. This implies
low seedling quality is more likely when wildlings are used. For example, more
seedlings produced using wildings had unbalanced shoot-to-root ratios and lanky
and less developed root systems. This observation was attributed to the insufficient
recovery period of wildlings in the nursery due to tight production time schedules
because of delayed disbursement of funds. With the late release of funds, a fixed
planting schedule and the need to satisfy the seedling quality assessment criteria of
the DENR, nursery seedling production is squeezed into a short period, usually
2–3 months. Growing seedlings from seeds or clones will not meet the height and
diameter requirements from DENR (i.e., more than 45 cm tall, with a diameter of at
least 5 mm and with at least six leaves) within this period. Consequently, wildlings
(generally relatively old ones) are used for planting in order to meet the seedling
evaluation criteria. However, relatively old wildlings are more prone to root damage
during collection and have a lower capability to recover from the collection and
potting stress. With limited recovery time in the nursery, seedlings appeared healthy
with suitable height for outplanting but having root systems that were under
developed.
The use of wildlings is common in propagation of native tree species. The cross
tabulation of frequencies in Table 2 shows that most of the native species were
grown using wildlings while exotics were produced from seed. Chi squared tests
also indicated that the utilization of either wildlings or seed in production of
planting stock is related to the nature of the species, being native or exotic
(v2 = 152; p = 0.005). The lack of information about the location of germplasm
sources, and phenology and seed technology of native species is one of the reasons
why seedling producers use wildlings. The use of wildlings has escalated due to the
DENR Memorandum Circular 2012-01 recommendation to plant more native tree
species in the NGP (DENR 2014a, b).

High Quality Seedling Production by DENR

The DENR through the ERDB has been undertaking initiatives to improve the
supply of high quality seedlings for the NGP. The ERDB has established seed

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production areas and identified individual plus trees6 in many regions of the
Philippines. Also, the agency has been producing high quality seedlings in their
clonal nurseries. The ERDB also collaborated with 29 SCUs in the Philippines with
forestry expertise to establish clonal propagation nurseries for native tree species
(DENR 2014a). In 2015, almost 2 million seedlings were produced from DENR
clonal nurseries, of which about 26 % were clones, 49 % were from seeds and 33 %
from wildlings. About 800,000 seedlings were produced from clonal nurseries in
SCUs, although only 41 % of these were clones (DENR 2015).
The ERDB emphasized that germplasm used in DENR clonal nurseries and those
managed by partner SCUs should be taken from plus trees and seed production
areas. Presumably, most of the seedlings were of high genetic quality, although only
about a quarter of the DENR seedling production and almost half from SUCs were
clones. There was less opportunity during the fieldwork to assess the morphology of
seedlings from DENR clonal nurseries. Only two clonal nurseries from Regions 8
and 10 were evaluated, and only one of the two nurseries passed the assessment.
While the data on seedling morphological quality assessment are insufficient to
draw inferences about the morphological quality of seedlings from DENR clonal
nurseries, it is speculated that most of the seedlings were of high quality given the
technical expertise of personnel managing the clonal nurseries and resources
available for nursery operation.
It appears that the high quality seedling production quantity of the ERDB only
comprises a small proportion of the overall seedling requirement for the NGP. For
example, the nationwide demand for NGP in 2015 was 300 million seedlings. In that
year, the seedling production from DENR clonal nurseries and SUCs was only about
three million seedlings. With such a limitation on high quality seedling production
by DENR and SCUs, it is apparent that regulating the quality of seedlings from
other seedling producers (POs, private nurseries and NGOs) is imperative to
improve the overall quality of seedlings for reforestation programs in the country.

General Discussion and Policy Implications

The forest nursery accreditation policy of the DENR represents a major initiative to
promote the success of forest landscape restoration programs in the Philippines by
ensuring the use of high quality planting materials. However, improvement of the
policy and of its implementation is necessary. A review of the seedling quality
assessment criteria stipulated in DAO 2010–11 could be undertaken. The present
criteria do not consider important attributes for seedling survival including
adequacy of root systems. It is particularly necessary to consider root systems
during seedling inspection, especially given that wildlings dominate the production
system for planting materials.

6
Plus trees exhibit superior phenotypic characteristics making them suitable seed sources. These features
include straight, clear and cylindrical bole; considerable merchantable height, prolific seeder, and absence
of pests and diseases.

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Regulating the Quality of Seedlings for Forest Restoration…

It is apparent that an effective process to monitor the operation of accredited

nurseries is required. Nursery accreditation should not culminate in the issuance of
accreditation certificates and assume that accredited seedling suppliers will always
deliver high quality seedlings. A mechanism should be established for auditing the
performance of accredited nurseries to ensure that the accreditation serves its
intended purpose and the standards for high quality seedlings are established.
Without stringent monitoring on the quality of forest reproductive materials from
participating nurseries, the bidding system for recognised seedling suppliers
becomes a portal for low quality seedlings to dominate in reforestation programs.
Also, it is ideal to establish a transparent process and promote equitable opportunity
in providing seedling production contracts to nursery operators. This will reduce
possibilities for corruption in the selection and awarding process.
People’s organisations are the primary partners of the government in imple-
menting the NGP. Recognizing the aim of the program is to reduce poverty, and the
need to provide livelihood projects for communities, it is worthwhile providing
support to the POs to achieve accreditation and venture into seedling production
enterprises. The opportunity to enhance community livelihoods through engagement
in reforestation programs in developing countries is widely recognised (Estoria et al.
2004; Scherr et al. 2004). He et al. (2012) observed that incentives in the form of
providing market information and capacity-building are essential in promoting the
participation of smallholders in the sustainable supply of high quality planting
materials for the national reforestation program in China.
Capacity-building support is needed for nursery operators. This may include
information dissemination to improve nursery operators’ understanding of the
attributes of seed quality and high quality seedlings. Also, more training could be
provided to enhance their skills in high quality seedling production, especially for
native tree species. Providing support to enhance their knowledge about the forest
nursery accreditation process and online bidding procedure is clearly necessary.
The promotion of indigenous tree species in the NGP is highly relevant to the
global recognition of the importance of using native trees in ecosystem restoration
(Davis et al. 2012). This requires a strategy to promote a sustainable supply of high
quality germplasm for indigenous tree species. It is necessary to scale up the
identification of superior mother trees and the establishment of seed production
areas. A database of high quality mother trees and seed production areas is needed
to provide information about mother tree distribution and corresponding seed years.
Mother tree identification could be conducted in partnership with communities, and
an effective mother tree conservation program could be instigated.
Adequate planning of forest restoration activities including appropriate seedling
production schedules is necessary for seedlings to develop desirable morphological
qualities (including appropriate planting size and well-developed root system)
before outplanting. Short seedling production time leads to inappropriate nursery
cultural practices. Dumroese et al. (2009) argued that inappropriate nursery cultural
practices, even if minor, could have major implications for seedling quality and
suitability for establishment.
Many lessons have been learned from past reforestation programs around the
world but it appears that insufficient effort is being made to improve reforestation

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outcomes. The widespread practice of using low quality seedlings, which resulted in
failures of forest restoration programs, is a recurring result of most reforestation
initiatives in many countries. Regulating the quality of seedlings appears to be a
crucial requirement to satisfy the global aspiration to restore massive areas of
degraded forest ecosystems. The attempt of the Philippines to regulate seedling
quality provides lessons not only to the Philippine government but also to other
countries that strive to improve the supply of high quality seedlings in forest
restoration programs by regulating the quality of seedlings from the forest nursery
sector.

Lessons for Seedling Production for FLR and Other Reforestation

Initiatives

Our study provides some important insights into how the quality of planting
materials can be improved in Forest Landscape Restoration initiatives and the role
they can play in achieving broader objectives. The key lessons are:

• Quality standards for seedlings need to be developed as an integral part of the

design and implementation of reforestation programs.
• If nursery accreditation is in place, an effective process to monitor the operation
of accredited nurseries is required.
• In promoting the planting of indigenous species, efforts need to be made to
identify sources of high quality germplasm of broad species base for nursery
operators to access.
• Capacity-building support is needed for nursery operators.
• Adequate planning of forest restoration activities including appropriate seedling
production schedules is necessary to allow ample production time for seedlings
to develop desirable morphological qualities before outplanting.
• Seedling production by people’s organization is an important reforestation-
based livelihood activity and helps provide tangible economic benefits to
communities implementing reforestation programs.
• Seedling damage during transport is a problem and is ideal for seedling
production to be on-site rather than for seedlings to be purchased at distant
locations. Local production of seedlings also provides social and economic
benefits to communities engaged in forest restoration programs.
• While seedling price is a factor to consider in forest restoration programs, it
should not undermine the use of high quality seedlings.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Australian Centre
for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) through the project ASEM/2011/050 Improving
Watershed Rehabilitation Outcomes Using a Systems Approach (known locally as the Watershed
Rehabilitation Project) and the collaboration of local and regional officials of the Philippines Department
of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in Regions 8 and 10 in undertaking the survey. The
authors are also indebted to the nursery operators for providing crucial information during the interviews
and allowing the authors to carry out destructive sampling of their seedlings without cost.

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Appendix

See Table 3.

Table 3 Description of scales for each criterion used to assess the quality of seedlings
Criterion and Description
weight

Health Absence of pest and diseases

0 Poor—more than 15 samples affected by pests and diseases
1 Moderate—10–15 samples affected by pests and diseases
2 Good—5–9 samples affected by pests and diseases
3 Excellent—less than 5 samples affected by pests and diseases
Stem form Straightness of the stem
0 Poor—more than 15 samples with two or more stem leaders and bent shoots more
than 30 from stem axis
1 Moderate—10–15 of samples with two or more stem leaders and bent shoots more
than 30 from stem axis
2 Good—5–9 of samples with two or more stem leaders and bent shoots more than 30
from stem axis
3 Excellent—less than 5 samples with two or more stem leaders and bent shoots more
than 30 from stem axis
Root form Evidence of root deformation (e.g. J-roots, pot-bound roots and root curling) and roots
growing out from the container
0 Poor—more than 10 samples have deformed root system
1 Moderate—5–10 samples have deformed root system
2 Good—1–4 of samples have deformed root system
3 Excellent—none of the samples have deformed root system
Sturdiness Robustness of the stem; assessed using Sturdiness Quotient (SQ); ideal value is less
than 6
0 Poor—more than 15 samples have SQ of more than 6
1 Moderate—10–15 samples have SQ of more than 6
2 Good—5–9 samples have SQ of more than 6
3 Excellent—less than 5 samples have SQ of more than 6
Shoot—root Balance of shoot biomass to root biomass (ideal value is 1 but 2 is acceptable)
ratio
0 Poor—more than 15 samples have S:R value greater than 2
1 Moderate—0–15 samples have S:R value greater than 2
2 Good—5–9 samples have S:R value greater than 2
3 Excellent—less than 5 samples have S:R value greater than 2

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 N. Gregorio et al.

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