Issue for layer
*Reliability- Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of
bits while data transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the
information transferred is not distorted.
*Addressing- At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between
large numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist so that each
layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.
*Error Control- Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that
are communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection and error
correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are transferred.
*Routing- There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing
involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time.
There are several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.
*Scalability- Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing
leading to congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added
components, it may lead to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so
that the networks are scalable and can accommodate such additions and alterations.
*Flow Control- If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate
at which data is received b the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the receiver. So,
a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.
*Resource Allocation- Computer networks provide services in the form of network
resources to the end users. The main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources
to processes, The allocation/ deallocation should occur so that minimal interference
among the hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.
Osi layer
*Physical Layer
a) The physical layer of the 0sI model defines electrical and mechanical specifications
used in networking including transmission distances, the various types of media available
and electrical issues
b) This layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication Channel.
*Data Link Layer
a) The main task of the data link layer is to transform the raw input data into data frames
and transmit the frames sequentially
b) It takes care of flow control a fast transmitter should not drown a slow receiver of data
¢) This layer also controls the access to the shared channel.
*Network Layer
a) The main task of the network layer is to determine how packets are routed from
source to destination
*Transport Layer:
a) The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into
smaller units, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive
correctly at the other end
b)Error recovery is done in the layer
*Session Layer
a) The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions betn them.
b) Session layer, establishes manages and terminates sessions between application.
*Presentation layer
a) The presentation layer is concerned with syntax and semantics of the info transmitted.
b) The presentation layer manages these data structures and allows higher-level data
structures to be defined & exchanged through network with a standard encoding format.
*Application Layer
a)Application layer defines the communications services used by the user's applications
to transmit data over the network
b)This layer defines application protocols such as FIP, Email clients, Web browsers, Telnet
IPV4 protocol
-VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4
-HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header. The
minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.
-Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)
-Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes and
the maximum is 65,535 bytes.
-Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP
datagram (16 bits)
-Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more
fragments flag (same order)
-Fragment Offset: Represents the no. of Data Bytes ahead of the particular fragment in
the particular Datagram. Specified in terms of no. of 8 bytes, which has the max value of
65,528 bytes.
-Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through the
network by restricting the no of Hops taken by Packet before delivering to Destination.
-Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)
-Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram header
-Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender
-Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver
-Option: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the Network
administrator to check whether a path is working or not.
Explain csma protocol
The CSMA protocol operates on the principle of carrier sensing. In this protocol, a
station listens to see the presence of transmission on the cable and decides to act
accordingly.
*Non-Persistent CSMA: In this scheme, if a station wants to transmit a frame and it
finds that the channel is busy then it will wait for fixed interval of time.
-After this time, it again checks the status of the channel and if the channel is free
it will transmit.
*1-Persistent CSMA: In this scheme station which wants to transmit, continuously
monitors the channel until it is idle and then transmits immediately.
-The disadvantage of this strategy is that if two stations are waiting then they will
transmit simultaneously and collision will take place. This will then require
retransmission.
*P.-Persistent CSMA: The possibility of such collisions and retransmissions is
reduced in the p-persistent CSMA. In this scheme all the waiting stations are not
allowed to transmit simultaneously as soon as the channel becomes idle.
-A station is assumed to be transmitting with a probability "p". For example if p =
1/6 and if 6 stations are waiting then on an average only one station will transmit
and others will wait
How collision handle in csma/cd
-The problem in CSMA explained earlier is that transmitting station continues to transmit
its frame even though a collision occurs.
-The channel time is unnecessarily wasted due to this. In CSMA/CD, if a station receives
other transmissions when it is transmitting, then a collision can be detected as soon as it
occurs and the transmission time can be saved.
-As soon as a collision is detected, the transmitting stations release a jam signal.
-The jam signal will alert other stations. The stations then are not supposed to transmit
immediately after the collision has occurred.
-Otherwise there is a possibility that the same frames would collide again.
-After some "back off' delay time the stations will retry the transmission. If again the
collision takes place then the back off time is increased progressively.
-A careful design can achieve efficiencies of more than 90% using CSMA/CD.
Framing methods
*Character Count :
This method is rarely used and is generally required to count total number of characters
that are present in frame. This is done by using field in header. Character count method
ensures data link layer at the receiver or destination about total number of characters
that follow, and about where the frame ends.
*Character stuffing :
Character stuffing is also known as byte stuffing or character-oriented framing and is
same as that of bit stuffing but byte stuffing actually operates on bytes whereas bit
stuffing operates on bits. In byte stuffing, special byte that is basically known as ESC that
has predefined pattern is generally added to data section of the data stream or frame
when there is message or character that has same pattern as that of flag byte. But
receiver removes this ESC and keeps data part that causes some problems or issues. In
simple words, we can say that character stuffing is addition of 1 additional byte if there is
presence of ESC or flag in text.
*Bit stuffing :
Bit stuffing is also known as bit-oriented framing or bit-oriented approach. In bit stuffing,
extra bits are being added by network protocol designers to data streams. It is generally
insertion or addition of extra bits into transmission unit or message to be transmitted as
simple way to provide and give signaling information and data to receiver and to avoid or
ignore appearance of unintended or unnecessary control sequences. It is type of protocol
management simply performed to break up bit pattern that results in transmission to go
out of synchronization. Bit stuffing is very essential part of transmission process in
network and communication protocol. It is also required in USB.
*Physical Layer Coding Violations :
Encoding violation is method that is used only for network in which encoding on physical
medium includes some sort of redundancy
*Advantages of variable size framing :
I. Although the whole message could be packed in one big frame, it is not done
practically because for large frames the flow and error. control becomes inefficient. Also
even for a single error the whole message needs to be retransmitted.
When the same message is divided into smaller frames, the flow and error control
become efficient.
2. In LANs there are more than one senders. The messages sent by them could be of
different size. Hence it makes system efficient by keeping frame size variable as it is
possible to select an optimum frame size as per requirements.
Guided media
*Twisted pair:
-Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and itis a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted
pair cable is from0to 3.3KHz.
-A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
-The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
*Unshielded Twisted Pair: An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in
telecommunication
*Shielded Twisted Pair: A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh
surrounding the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
*Coaxial Cable
- Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually
a coaxial cable
- The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
- It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
- The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor
is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
- The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EM(Electromagnetic interference)
*Fiber Optic
-Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
-Fiber optics cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the
data by pulses of light.
-The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
-Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
*Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the more light
will be transmitted into the fiber.
*Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The rain functionality of
the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber
*Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. main purpose of
a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber protection.
What is Congestion Control?
Congestion control is a crucial aspect of network management that deals with the
prevention and alleviation of congestion within a computer network. The goal of
congestion control mechanisms is to optimize the utilization of network resources,
ensure fair sharing among users, and maintain the overall stability and efficiency of the
network. Key components and techniques involved in congestion control include:
*Traffic Monitoring:
Network devices monitor the traffic flow to detect signs of congestion. Metrics such as
packet loss, round-trip time, and queue lengths may be observed.
*Feedback Mechanisms:
Feedback mechanisms provide information to both endpoints and intermediate network
devices about the current state of the network. This information helps adjust the rate of
data transmission to prevent or alleviate congestion.
*Flow Control:
Flow control mechanisms regulate the rate at which data is transmitted to prevent a fast
sender from overwhelming a slower receiver or the network. This can be implemented at
various layers of the network stack.
*Quality of Service (QoS):
QoS mechanisms prioritize certain types of traffic over others, ensuring that critical
applications receive preferential treatment in terms of bandwidth and latency.
*Congestion Avoidance:
Congestion avoidance mechanisms aim to prevent congestion from occurring in the first
place by dynamically adjusting the transmission rate based on the perceived state of the
network.
ARP and RARP protocol in detail
*Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Address Resolution Protocol is a communication protocol used for discovering physical
address associated with given network address. Typically, ARP is a network layer to data
link layer mapping process, which is used to discover MAC address for given Internet
Protocol Address. In order to send the data to destination, having IP address is necessary
but not sufficient; we also need the physical address of the destination machine. ARP is
used to get the physical address of destination machine.
Before sending the IP packet, the MAC address of destination must be known. If not so,
then sender broadcasts the ARP-discovery packet requesting the MAC address of
intended destination. Since ARP-discovery is broadcast, every host inside that network
will get this message but the packet will be discarded by everyone except that intended
receiver host whose IP is associated. Now, this receiver will send a unicast packet with its
MAC address (ARP-reply) to the sender of ARP-discovery packet. After the original sender
receives the ARP-reply, it updates ARP-cache and start sending unicast message to the
destination.
*Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Reverse ARP is a networking protocol used by a client machine in a local area network to
request its Internet Protocol address (IPv4) from the gateway-router’s ARP table. The
network administrator creates a table in gateway-router, which is used to map the MAC
address to corresponding IP address. When a new machine is setup or any machine
which don’t have memory to store IP address, needs an IP address for its own use. So the
machine sends a RARP broadcast packet which contains its own MAC address in both
sender and receiver hardware address field.
A special host configured inside the local area network, called as RARP-server is
responsible to reply for these kind of broadcast packets. Now the RARP server attempt to
find out the entry in IP to MAC address mapping table. If any entry matches in table,
RARP server send the response packet to the requesting device along with IP address.
-LAN technologies like Ethernet, Ethernet II, Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI) support the Address Resolution Protocol.
-RARP is not being used in today’s networks. Because we have much great featured
protocols like BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) and DHCP( Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol).
What are Berkley Socket Primitive?
Berkeley Sockets are widely used for network programming and are the foundation for
developing applications that communicate over a network using protocols like TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Here are some key features and
concepts associated with Berkeley Sockets:
*Socket Creation:
The socket() system call is used to create a new socket. It returns a socket descriptor that
is used in subsequent socket operations.
*Socket Types:
Berkeley Sockets support different types of sockets, including stream sockets
(SOCK_STREAM) for reliable, connection-oriented communication (e.g., TCP) and
datagram sockets (SOCK_DGRAM) for connectionless, unreliable communication (e.g.,
UDP).
*Addressing:
Sockets are associated with network addresses using structures like struct sockaddr and
struct sockaddr_in for IPv4 addresses. These structures hold information about the local
and remote addresses of the communication endpoints.
*Binding:
The bind() system call is used to associate a socket with a specific local address and port.
*Listening and Accepting:
For servers, the listen() function prepares a socket to accept incoming connections, and
the accept() function is used to accept a connection from a client.
*Connecting:
For clients, the connect() function establishes a connection to a remote server.
*Data Transmission:
Data can be sent and received using functions like send(), recv(), write(), and read().
*Closing Connections:
The close() function is used to close a socket and release associated resources.
channel Allocation Problem in Computer Network Aloha and its type
-Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and allotted to pure Aloha:
multiple users in order to carry user specific tasks. There are user’s quantity may vary *Operation:
every time the process takes place. If there are N number of users and channel is divided In Pure Aloha, stations transmit data whenever they have a frame to send without
into N equal-sized sub channels, Each user is assigned one portion. If the number of users checking for the availability of the channel.
are small and don’t vary at times, then Frequency Division Multiplexing can be used as it After transmitting a frame, the station waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the
is a simple and efficient channel bandwidth allocating technique. receiver.
-Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs: If the ACK is not received within a certain time window, the station assumes a collision
It is the classical or traditional approach of allocating a single channel among multiple has occurred and retransmits the frame after a random back off time.
competing users using frequency division multiplexing if there are N users, the frequency *Efficiency:
channel is divided into N equal sized portions (bandwidth), each user being assigned one Pure Aloha is not very efficient, as the probability of collision is relatively high, especially
portion. since each user has a private frequency band, there is no interference between as the load on the channel increases.
users. *Throughput:
*Dynamic Channel Allocation: The maximum throughput of Pure Aloha is around 18.4% of the channel capacity.
Possible assumptions include: Slotted Aloha:
*Station Model: Assumes that each of N stations independently produce frames. The *Operation:
probability of producing a packet in the interval IDt where I is the constant arrival rate of Slotted Aloha divides time into discrete slots, and stations are required to transmit only
new frames. at the beginning of a time slot. Stations must be synchronized to the slot boundaries.
*Single Channel Assumption: In this allocation all stations are equivalent and can send If a station has a frame to transmit, it waits until the beginning of the next time slot.
and receive on that channel. *Efficiency:
*Collision Assumption: If two frames overlap in time-wise, then that’s collision. Any Slotted Aloha is more efficient than Pure Aloha because it reduces the probability of
collision is an error, and both frames must re transmitted. Collisions are only possible collisions.
error. *Throughput:
*Time can be divided into Slotted or Continuous. The max throughput of Slotted Aloha is approximately 36.8% of the channel capacity.
*Stations can sense a channel is busy before they try it. Comparison:
*Collision Handling:
Pure Aloha detects collisions by monitoring the channel after transmission.
Slotted Aloha reduces the probability of collisions by having stations transmit only at
specific time slots.
*Efficiency:
Slotted Aloha is more efficient than Pure Aloha due to reduced collision probabilities and
improved channel utilization.
*Implementation Complexity:
Pure Aloha is simpler to implement because it does not require synchronization to time
slots.
Slotted Aloha requires synchronization, which adds a level of complexity.
*Throughput:
Slotted Aloha achieves a higher throughput compared to Pure Aloha.
TCP 3-Way Handshake Process The receipt of a FIN only means that there will be no more data flowing in that direction. A TCP
-The process of communication between devices over the internet happens according to can send data after receiving a FIN. The end that first issues the close (example, send the first FIN)
the current TCP/IP suite model(stripped out version of OSI reference model). The executes the active close. The other end (that receives this FIN) manages the passive close.
Application layer is a top pile of a stack of TCP/IP models from where network referenced
applications like web browsers on the client-side establish a connection with the server. Leaky bucket algorithm and difference.
From the application layer, the information is transferred to the transport layer where -Step 1 − Let us imagine a bucket with a small hole at the bottom where the rate at which
our topic comes into the picture. The two important protocols of this layer are – water is poured into the bucket is not constant and can vary but it leaks from the bucket
TCP, UDP(User Datagram Protocol) out of which TCP is prevalent(since it provides at a constant rate.
reliability for the connection established). However, you can find an application of UDP in -Step 2 − So (up to water is present in the bucket), the rate at which the water leaks does
querying the DNS server to get the binary equivalent of the Domain Name used for the not depend on the rate at which the water is input to the bucket.
website. -Step 3 − If the bucket is full, additional water that enters into the bucket that spills over
-TCP provides reliable communication with something called Positive Acknowledgement the sides and is lost.
with Re-transmission(PAR). The Protocol Data Unit(PDU) of the transport layer is called a -Step 4 − Thus the same concept applied to packets in the network. Consider that data is
segment. a device using PAR resend the data unit until it receives acknowledgement. If coming from the source at variable speeds. Suppose that a source sends data at 10 Mbps
the data unit received at the receiver’s end is damaged(It checks the data with checksum for 4 seconds. Then there is no data for 3 seconds. The source again transmits data at a
functionality of the transport layer that is used for Error Detection), the receiver discards rate of 8 Mbps for 2 seconds. Thus, in a time span of 8 seconds, 68 Mb data has been
the segment. So sender has to resend the data unit for which positive acknowledgement transmitted.
is not received. You can realize from the above mechanism that three segments are That’s why if a leaky bucket algorithm is used, the data flow would be 8 Mbps for 9
exchanged between sender(client) and receiver(server) for a reliable TCP connection to seconds. Thus, the constant flow is maintained.
get established.
-Step 1 (SYN): In the first step, the client wants to establish a connection with a server, so Leaky bucket Token bucket
it sends a segment with SYN(Synchronize Sequence Number) which informs the server -Token independent. -Token dependent.
that the client is likely to start communication and with what sequence number it starts -If bucket full packet or data is discarded. -if bucket is full token are discarded but
segments with not the packet.
-Step 2 (SYN + ACK): Server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal bits set. -Packets are transmitted continuously. -Packets can only transmitted when there
Acknowledgement(ACK) signifies the response of the segment it received and SYN
are enough token.
signifies with what sequence number it is likely to start the segments with
-Step 3 (ACK): In the final part client acknowledges the response of the server and they -it sends packet at constant rate. -it allow large burst to be sent faster rate
both establish a reliable connection with which they will start the actual data transfer after constant rate.
-It does not save token. -It save token to send large burst.
Connection Termination Protocol (Connection Release)
While it creates three segments to establish a connection, it takes four segments to
terminate a connection. During a TCP connection is full-duplex, each direction should be
shut down alone.
The termination procedure for each host is shown in the figure. The rule is that either
end can share a FIN when it has finished sending data.
When a TCP receives a FIN, it should notify the application that the other end has
terminated that data flow direction. The sending of a FIN is usually the result of the
application issuing a close.
What is subnetting? what are the default subnet mask?
Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller, more manageable
sub-networks or subnets. Its commonly use in IP networking to improve the efficiency of
address allocation and to enhance network security and performance. Subnetting allows
network administrators to create logical groupings of devices based on their IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for an IP address depends on the class of the IP address. IP
addresses are divided into three main classes: A, B, and C.
1. Class A:
- Default Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
- Example IP Range: 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254
- Class A addresses are typically used for large networks with a large number of hosts.
2. Class B:
- Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
- Example IP Range: 128.1.0.1 to 191.254.255.254
- Class B addresses are often used for medium sized networks.
3. Class C:
- Default Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
- Example IP Range: 192.0.1.1 to 223.255.254.254
- Class C addresses are suitable for small networks.
While these default subnet masks provide a starting point, subnetting allows for more
flexibility. It enables network administrators to create subnets with different sizes to
accommodate the specific requirements of their network.
For example, with subnetting, a Class C network (default subnet mask 255.255.255.0)
could be further divided into smaller subnets, each with its own unique subnet mask, to
efficiently allocate IP addresses and manage network traffic.
DNS
DNS, or Domain Name System, is a hierarchical and distributed naming system used to
translate user friendly domain names into IP addresses, which are numerical identifiers
associated with networked devices on the Internet. In essence, DNS acts as a distributed
database that allows users to access websites, send emails, and use various internet
services using human-readable domain names.
Here's how DNS works:
*Domain Name Structure:
Domain names are organized into a hierarchical structure, with the top-level domain
(TLD) at the top, followed by second-level domains, subdomains, and individual
hostnames.
For example, in the domain name :- "www.example.com": , ".com" is the top-level
domain. , "example" is the second-level domain. , "www" is a subdomain.
*Name Resolution Process:
When a user enters a domain name in a web browser or any application, the device
needs to resolve that domain name to an IP address for communication.
The device first checks its local cache to see if it already knows the corresponding
IP address.
*DNS Resolver:
DNS resolvers are servers that receive DNS queries from clients and work to resolve the
domain name.
The resolver can be provided by your Internet Service Provider (ISP), or you can use
public DNS resolvers like those operated by Google (8.8.8.8) or Cloudflare (1.1.1.1).
*Recursive Query:
If the DNS resolver doesn't have the requested IP address in its cache, it initiates a
recursive query to find the information.
Go Back N ARQ Protocol
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat request (ARQ) is specific type of Automatic Repeat request
protocol used for reliable data communication over a network, especially in situations
where data may be lost or corrupted during transmission.
Here's an overview of how the Go-Back-N ARQ protocol works:
*Sender Side:
The sender maintains a sliding window of sent frames. The window size is a configurable
parameter that determines how many frames can be outstanding (in-flight) at any given
time. The sender sends a sequence of frames to the receiver, and each frame is
numbered. After sending a frame, the sender starts a timer.
*Receiver Side:
The receiver acknowledges received frames by sending back an acknowledgment (ACK)
with the highest consecutively received frame number. If the receiver detects a gap in the
received frames it discards the out-of-sequence frames and sends a negative
acknowledgment (NAK) for the last correctly received frame.
The receiver also has a window size to control the flow of incoming frames.
*Sender Behavior on Timeout:
If the sender's timer expires before receiving an acknowledgment, it assumes that some
frames were lost or corrupted during transmission.
The sender retransmits all frames starting from the earliest unacknowledged frame
This "go-back" behavior means that the sender may retransmit frames that the receiver
has already successfully received.
*Flow Control:
The window size at both the sender and receiver helps control the flow of frames in the
network. The sender is allowed to have certain no of unacknowledged frames in transit.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is used to access data on the WWW(World SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, the procedure behind the email flow on
Wide web. It is a protocol which governs the communication between the client and the internet.
server *You send an email with your webmail or mail client from your address to a given
There are three important features of HTTP recipient In jargon, the webmail or client is called Message User Agent, Or MU’A.
*HTTP Connectionless *The message is sent normally via port 25 to an SMTP server which is given to your client
After a request is made, the client disconnects from the server and waits for a response. when you set it up and acts as a Message Transfer Agent or MTA. Client and server start a
The server must re-establish the connection after it processes the request. brief conversation where the latter checks all the data concerning the message's
*HTTP is Media Independent transmission Note that SMTP language defines only the message's transmission, and
Any type of data can be sent b HTTP long as both the client and server know how to doesn't deal with its body content
handle the data content *Then, if the domain where your recipient has his account is directly connected to
*HTTP is Stateless the server, the email is immediately delivered. fit's pot the case, the SMTP
This is a direct result of HTTP being connectionless. The server and client are aware of hands it to another incoming server loser to the recipient In our example, the Website
each other only during a request. Afterwards, each forgets the other. For this reason server connects with the Domain server, which receives the email and stores it
neither the client now the browser can retain information between different requests *What if the recipient's server is don or busy? The SMTP host simply drops the message
across the web pages. to a backup server: if none of them is available, the email is queued and the delivery is
*Working: retried periodically, After a determined period, however, the message is returned as
i. A browser contacts a server to establish a TCP connection with it undelivered.
ii. The HTTP software on the client sends a request to the server. The HTTP software on If there are no issues, however, the final segment is controlled by POP, another protocol
the server interprets this request and sends the response to the client that picks up the email from the receiving server and puts it into the recipient's inbox
iii. HTTP Commands
a. GET-Request by a client to obtain a web page from the server -Connection-oriented Service is necessary. -Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
b. PUT-Request by a client to store a web page on the server. -Connection-oriented Service is feasible. -Connection-less Service is not feasible.
c. POST-Request by a client to update contents of a web page on the server. -Congestion is not possible. -Congestion is possible.
d. DELETE-Request by a client to remove a web page from the server -gives the guarantee of reliability. -does not give a guarantee of reliability.
-Packets follow the same route. -Packets do not follow the same route.
-Transmission Control Protocol. -User Datagram Protocol. -require a bandwidth of a high range. -requires a bandwidth of low range.
-TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. -UDP is the Datagram-oriented protocol. -Connection-oriented requires -Connection-less Service does not require
-acknowledgment segment is present. -No acknowledgment segment. authentication. authentication.
-TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. -UDP is faster, simpler, and more efficient -preferred by long and steady -preferred by bursty communication.
than TCP. communication.
-TCP is heavy-weight. -UDP is lightweight. -Ex. TCP -Ex. UDP
-TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. -UDP supports Broadcasting.
-TCP connection is a byte stream. -UDP connection is a message stream.
-Low but higher than UDP. -Very low.
-The size of TCP is 20 bytes. -The size of TCP is 8 bytes.
-Transmission Control Protocol.
-TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
-acknowledgment segment is present.
-TCP is comparatively slower than UDP.
-TCP is heavy-weight.
-TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting.
-TCP connection is a byte stream.
-Low but higher than UDP.
-The size of TCP is 20 bytes.
-Connection-oriented Service is necessary.
-Connection-oriented Service is feasible.
-Congestion is not possible.
-gives the guarantee of reliability.
-Packets follow the same route.
-require a bandwidth of a high range.
-Connection-oriented requires
authentication.
-preferred by long and steady
communication.
-Ex. TCP
-User Datagram Protocol.
-UDP is the Datagram-oriented protocol.
-No acknowledgment segment.
-UDP is faster, simpler, and more efficient
than TCP.
-UDP is lightweight.
-UDP supports Broadcasting.
-UDP connection is a message stream.
-Very low.
-The size of TCP is 8 bytes.
-Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
-Connection-less Service is not feasible.
-Congestion is possible.
-does not give a guarantee of reliability.
-Packets do not follow the same route.
-requires a bandwidth of low range.
-Connection-less Service does not require
authentication.
-preferred by bursty communication.
-Ex. UDP