PHY 306 - Fluid Mechanics

Sébastien Michelin
sebastien.michelin@polytechnique.edu

Lecture #3

Forces in a viscous uid

(an introduction to viscous forces)

Recommended reading: Chapters 1 & 2 of Understanding fluid flow » by G. Worster — available on Moodle
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
Let’s start with some intuitive observations….

Drag

➡ The uid closest to the ball “sticks” to it and is entrained in its fall
➡ The uid resists motion and slows down the falling ball
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

1. No-slip condition & Drag

fl
fl
fi
 No-slip condition

A viscous uid “sticks” to a bounding solid surface Solid boundary

⌦
<latexit sha1_base64="oCcxSIFfvC/L547kNzj8zfaHTvw=">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</latexit>

➡ Fluid is entrained by the moving wall

➡ Velocity is continuous Fluid- uid interface
➡ Faster (outer) layers pull slower (inner) layers

No-slip condition
<latexit sha1_base64="en15PACoADn3FjMW/YuZ/XNT4UA=">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</latexit>

u=U (solid boundary)

u1 = u2 (fluid-fluid boundary)
fl
fl
 Viscous drag
D?
<latexit sha1_base64="onCOswzQIfzGG7Z9H4BExGVujis=">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</latexit>

4d

d Fg =
<latexit sha1_base64="WH3YsXyA/4gHzvZ3ZAiXqH/9IN0=">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</latexit>

⇢ Vg
<latexit sha1_base64="6Oo1/8f4Wwk6opXCsKAwQn3ZAwo=">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</latexit>

Steady fall D(U ) ⇠ Fg no acceleration

a1 ≈ 2a2
A viscous uid resists to motion (drag)
U1 ≈ 4U2

U ⇠ a2
<latexit sha1_base64="6P/XXr4rm/7Kf+61e4AR7Q0EucM=">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</latexit>

Observation
D ⇠ ⌘aU
<latexit sha1_base64="Vkhek0gxd+fuGv+eh8G8KiXMNTE=">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</latexit>

3
<latexit sha1_base64="ycoCYcXeUUPvGOpxZQU2SWS85Ms=">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</latexit>

Fg ⇠ a
Viscosity (units: Nm-2.s or Pa.s)

Origin: velocity gradients (layers of uid with different velocities “pull” on each other)
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

2. Viscous forces in a simple shear ow

fl
fl
fl
fi
 Viscous force in a shear flow
S
Moving plate
U
<latexit sha1_base64="9wZjGEPeS6aZQX88dib28yToNjg=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="RChL19d6APTq7eOdeh3yznH2+0U=">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</latexit>

u(y)
h

Fixed plate
Ffluid! plate
➡ Fluid is entrained by the moving (top) wall and sticks to the xed bottom wall
➡ Velocity is continuous but non-uniform
➡ A viscous force is applied on the bottom plate

Experimental observations
Viscosity
Ffluid!plate U
<latexit sha1_base64="7qtQ5wc9PIU3/F5mCGfN+hwqa1o=">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</latexit>

(This de nes the

Viscous stress ⌧s = =⌘ viscosity η)
S h
fi
fi
 Viscous force in a shear flow
S
Moving plate
U
<latexit sha1_base64="9wZjGEPeS6aZQX88dib28yToNjg=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="RChL19d6APTq7eOdeh3yznH2+0U=">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</latexit>

u(y)
h

Fixed plate
Ffluid!plate
<latexit sha1_base64="HWqX6RQj37+JpWmB5Gp6x3JrO2Y=">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</latexit>

⌧s =
S
Viscous forces are contact forces
No remote interaction ⟹ it should only depend on local quantities

Viscous forces arise from relative uid motion

No viscous force in a uid at rest / uniform ow ⟹ it should only depend on
velocity gradients
<latexit sha1_base64="hn7nwOt5y52We4r37OTVzH2HleM=">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</latexit>

U @u
<latexit sha1_base64="fYoTmqYTpXYAmgyoqRvr5k7uB+A=">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</latexit>

⌧s = ⌘ ⌧s = ⌘
h @y y=0
Non-local
fl
fl
fl
 Viscous stress in a shear flow
Stress = « Force per unit of contact area »
y
<latexit sha1_base64="9vvAfJeEgl3f/VL2TVqIUUWN8NU=">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</latexit>

⌧2!1 = ⌧s
<latexit sha1_base64="QiAcnE+fetm5ffoGbNpBgemAUsQ=">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</latexit>

Fluid 2
Y
⌧1!2 =
<latexit sha1_base64="wuTQfd50WqSkOhX/xrNZt3Onko8=">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</latexit>

⌧s
Fluid 1

∂u
τ2→1 = τs = η Viscous stress exerted by the upper uid (y>Y)
∂y onto the lower uid (y<Y).
y=Y

∂u
τ1→2 = − τs = − η Viscous stress exerted by the lower uid (y>Y)
∂y onto the upper uid (y<Y).
y=Y
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
II. Viscous forces in a uid - a rst insight

3. Viscosity & momentum diffusion

fl
fl
fi
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
Local effects Velocity gradients

Viscous force: Contact force between touching uid particles with different velocities
Resistance to relative motion ⟹ momentum homogenisation
Drag/dissipation Diffusion process

Simple gas model Fluid particle

1. A uid particle contains many molecules
v⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

(density n) with velocity uj

v⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="/xhCd5PPTaVcWQNgv/nTBwxJvBM=">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</latexit>

2. Each molecule keeps a constant velocity u(x, t)

⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

between t and t+t* (no molecular interactions). v

V
<latexit sha1_base64="LdDJl2KKoMuDLtA65Zg8udgtQ8U=">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</latexit>

3. Molecule agitation limited to the three main Individual

axes (oversimpli ed!) Fluid particle
molecule velocity (mean)
velocity
uj = u(x, t) ± v ⇤ ex,y,z
<latexit sha1_base64="HVGwWUHV3wToVwt7YwvHvPErtXo=">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</latexit>

4. At t+t*, their mean velocity is adjusted to that

of their neighbours (collisions)
Agitation velocity
⇤ ⇤ ⇤ (equiprobability along
l =v t
<latexit sha1_base64="yOzM+Mj5wYcMXUkWr16syqH9WaU=">AAAEG3icbVNNa9swGFbrfXTZV7sddzELgxGCsUPXZYdBYZcdO1jastgpsiynovowktw2CP2LXbs/s9vYdYf9ll0mO25xnLxgeN/nQ371gNKCEqXD8O/Wtnfv/oOHO496j588ffZ8d+/FsRKlRHiCBBXyNIUKU8LxRBNN8WkhMWQpxSfpxaeKP7nEUhHBv+pFgRMG55zkBEHtoG90Nvh4ORvo2eBstx8GYV3+ehM1TR80dXS2t/0vzgQqGeYaUajUNAoLnRgoNUEU215cKlxAdAHneOpaDhlWialXtv4bh2R+LqT7uPZrtO0wkCm1YOkwZU7MoD5XXboCN3HTUufjxBBelBpztPxXXlJfC7+KwM+IxEjThWsgksSt66NzKCHSLqhenOHchVlvZNhiLjHm1sh5ak04DN4NQ9uVpFJc3UmCg2EwGrrgojWdkJDP8Z3wQ31aEI6dkOMrJBiDPDNxAWVmp6PExLnbqZ41gdTvR7Y1jGzHpoVesVW5SGYyuzS2xjWrxM4ZJcbEy1WruXJ1ZCkt8YquBjYIb1Nra2+xjfImmVV9A24wZFn7Qh2yTBsyzU25dtMWKbvkdYu87pK8RXJr3XOJuo9jvTkeBdFBEH3Z7x+Om4ezA16B1+AtiMB7cAg+gyMwAQhw8B3cgB/ejffT++X9Xkq3txrPS7BS3p//LvloGw==</latexit>

5. Mean-free path between collisions 6 orthogonal directions)

fl
fi
fl
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
ey <latexit sha1_base64="wH+/JFr1bIezkT8GUtoJrxX9i/U=">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</latexit>

S
u(y + l⇤ )
<latexit sha1_base64="zUdMXlh3/bYkyOoA7ST4aRXEwT0=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="dA3ANkLIhHrPu8OuMJrUjWq9Luw=">AAAEJ3icdVNNb9MwGPYWPkb56oAbF4sKaUhVFFfQtQekSVw4Doluk5qosh2nixY7keOwFsv/hev4M9wQHPkdXHDSdErT8kqR3vf5SF4/ikmWxLnyvN97+86du/fuHzzoPHz0+MnT7uGzszwtJGUTmiapvCA4Z0ks2ETFKmEXmWSYk4Sdk6sPJX/+hck8TsVntcxYwPFcxFFMsbLQrPvCL8j74mj5xudYXZJIMzNbzLo9z/U8DyEEywYdDz3bjMejARpBVFK2eqCu09nh/l8/TGnBmVA0wXk+RV6mAo2limnCTMcvcpZheoXnbGpbgTnLA12tb+Bri4QwSqV9hIIV2nRozPN8yUmfcCsu98zbdAnu4qaFikaBjkVWKCbo6ltRkUCVwjIOGMaSUZUsbYOpjO26kF5iiamyoXX8kEU22GojzZdzyZgwWs6J0V7ffdf3TFtCZHp9K3GHfXfQtwmiLV0qsZizW+G4epvrjaxQsGuaco5FqP0My9BMB4H2I7tTNasYJ7CHTGMYmJZNpWrDVuYiuQ7NytgYt6ySWScKtPZXq5Zz6WrJSFKwDV0F7BCuU2tq19hOeZ3Mpr4GdxjCsHmgFlmQmrQ/drF10gYp2+SiQS7apGiQwhh7XdZ3Av6/ORu4aOiiT297J6P64hyAl+AVOAIIHIMT8BGcggmg4Cv4Bm7Ad+fG+eH8dH6tpPt7tec52Cjnzz8Qgm1s</latexit>

u = u(y)ex
⇤ Molecules crossing
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

v ⇤ v ey
<latexit sha1_base64="dA3ANkLIhHrPu8OuMJrUjWq9Luw=">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</latexit>

u = u(y)ex l ⇤ y=Y downward

⇤ between 2 collisions
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

v <latexit sha1_base64="i5bvfZfoxqLNZZwKVbe+s+13IXE=">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</latexit>

V+
v⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="mb+0Ueel3Ef7L5HTB8oCSFWfy/g=">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</latexit>

Molecules crossing
y=Y upward between
l⇤ +v ⇤ ey
ex 2 collisions
V
<latexit sha1_base64="t6Qbb1gI+e16LraXc12BBQTBknU=">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</latexit>

l⇤ )
<latexit sha1_base64="BzvgrsrXajQ3lI44h26NrLgXHCc=">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</latexit>

u(y
Between t and t + t* ⇤
nl S
<latexit sha1_base64="dlLI4EzX34fS5ae3/sfwrvCPdbQ=">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</latexit>

1. N- molecules cross y=Y upward with momentum m*u(y-l*) ±

N =
6
l ⇤ = v ⇤ t⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="osQfUbFGP8AvEhfXlYMQ5siCSVk=">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</latexit>

2. N+ molecules cross y=Y downward with momentum m*u(y+l*)

<latexit sha1_base64="brvmsKJtCD56sUNdwoYKGdApjSk=">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</latexit>

3. Change in x-momentum for lower layer ( V-) @u

<latexit sha1_base64="Vc7LgxlYOUrc7u936o8q6F1XJmU=">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</latexit>

@u ⌧s = ⌘
px = N m u(y + l ) + ⇤ ⇤
N m u(y ⇤ ⇤
l ) ⇡ 2 Nm l ⇤ ⇤ @y Y
@y Y
<latexit sha1_base64="bjp7Z2t8uI2hHDYIC7D5hP99rn0=">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</latexit>

1 ⇤ ⇤ ⇤ @u
1 ⇤ ⇤
px = nm
|{z} l v t⇤ S = ⌧s t⇤ S ⌘ = ⇢l v
3 @y Y 3
⇢
shear stress (force / surface)
𝛿
𝛿
𝛿
 Viscosity & momentum diffusion
Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity
1 ⇤ ⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="obq1FE1DzIpuY+tmHCFiHXJK0BE=">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</latexit>

⌘ 1 ⇤ ⇤
<latexit sha1_base64="LUgWftfIu2QEhiZVAPeE9syjph0=">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</latexit>

⌘ = ⇢l v ⌫= = l v
3 ⇢ 3
➡ Units: Pa.s ➡ Units: m2s−1(diffusivity)
➡ Measure of the viscous force ➡ Measure of momentum diffusion

Some remarks
✓ The approach can be generalised to account for more complex/realistic gas model
✓ For a gas, viscosity increases with molecular agitation (temperature).
✓ The approach is NOT valid for a liquid (stronger & attractive molecular interactions)

Orders of magnitude (to know!)

✓ Water ηw ∼ 10−3 Pa . s νw ∼ 10−6 m2 . s−1
✓ Air ηa ∼ 10−5 Pa . s νa ∼ 10−5 m2 . s−1

⌫a > ⌫w : Momentum di↵uses faster in the air

<latexit sha1_base64="ufSa7f7oNua7DMX62DejhCfiiME=">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</latexit>

⌘w > ⌘a : Water o↵ers more viscous resistance than air

 III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

Parallel ows
- the ow velocity direction is the same everywhere (e.g. horizontal)
- the ow magnitude only varies transversally (e.g. along the vertical)

u = u(y, t)ex

Examples: ow in pipes, above long at surfaces, etc…

fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

1. Momentum balance on a uid particle

fl
fl
fl
 Momentum balance on a fluid particle
( 2)
δy Newton’s law for the moving
p x, y +
u = u(y, t)ex
δV uid particle

( 2)
δy
∑
τs x, y + δma = δF
Du
( 2 )
δx
Inertia: δma = ρ δV
( 2 )
δx
p x − ,y ρg p x + ,y
Dt
Gravity: δFg = ρg δV
( 2)
δy
−τs x, y −
Pressure forces: δFp = − ∇p δV
δy
( 2)
δy
p x, y −

δx

[ ( 2) ( 2 )]
δy δy ∂τs
Viscous forces: δFv = τs x, y + − τs x, y − exδxδz ≈ δV ex
∂y

Du ∂
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η (τsex)
Dt ∂y
fl
 Momentum balance on a fluid particle
Du ∂
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η (τsex)
Dt ∂y

Here, for a simple parallel ow u = u(y)ex

∂u
τs = η
∂y

( ∂t ∂x )
Du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
= + (u ⋅ ∇)u = +u ex =
Dt ∂t ∂t
=0
(geometry)

Evolution equation for the ∂u ∂ 2u

ρ = ρg − ∇p + η 2
shear velocity distribution ∂t ∂y
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
III. Simple (parallel) shear ows

2. Boundary conditions

fl
fl
 Boundary conditions
No-slip condition
✓ This is a kinematic condition (= constraint on the velocity)
✓ There is no velocity discontinuity in a viscous uid

✓ At a rigid boundary,
u(x, t) = U(x, t) U: known surface velocity

✓ At the interface between two viscous uids

u1(x, t) = u2(x, t)
fl
fl
 Boundary conditions
Continuity of uid stress at a uid- uid interface
✓ This is a dynamic condition ( = force balance)
✓ Extra condition to determine the unknown uid- uid surface velocity
✓ The interface has no mass: there is no net uid force imposed on the interface

Fluid 2
p1 dS
Normal forces (pressure) p1 = p2
τ1→2 dS
∂u1 ∂u2
τ2→1 dS Tangential forces (viscous) η1 = η2
∂y ∂y
p2 dS
Fluid 1
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
IV. Examples - Steady ow
∂u ∂ 2u
ρ = ρg − ∇p + η 2
∂t ∂y

∂u ∂ 2u
=0 ⟹ η 2 = ∇p ( − ρg)
∂t ∂y
1. Couette ow 2. Poiseuille ow
ΔP = Pin − Pout ≠ 0
Utop ≠ 0 Ubottom = 0

u(y)? Pin Pout

Ubottom = 0 Ubottom = 0
fl
fl
fl
fl
 Forces in a viscous uid
IV. Examples - Steady ow
1. Couette ow 2. Poiseuille ow
ΔP = Pin − Pout
Utop = Uex Ubottom = 0

Pin Pout

Ubottom = 0 Ubottom = 0

( h2 )
y(h − y)
(h)
y Parabolic ow u(y) = 4Um
Linear ow u(y) = U
h 2ΔP
Um =
8ηL
ηU h 3ΔP
Uniform stress τs(y) = Total ow rate Q =
h 12ηL
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
Forces in a viscous uid
V. Examples - Unsteady ows

fl
fl
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
1. Setting a uid into motion

Very viscous uid Slightly viscous uid

fl
fl
fl
fl
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
2. Impulsively-started plate (1st Stokes problem)

u=0 for t ≤ 0 u(y, t)?

U ≠ 0 for t > 0
fl
 Impulsively started plate

u = u(y, t)ex

Invariant
Uex in x
∂u ∂2u ∂p ∂u ∂ 2u
Momentum balance (horizontal): ρ =η 2 − ⟶ =ν 2
∂t ∂y ∂x ∂t ∂y

No-slip condition (on moving plate): u(y = 0, t > 0) = U

Far- eld condition ( uid at rest): u(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0

Initial condition ( uid at rest): u(y > 0, t = 0) = 0

Observation #1: the problem is linear in U ⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t)

(with f independent of U)
fi
fl
fl
 Impulsively started plate
⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t) with f the unique solution of:
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1
2
∂f ∂f
u = u(y, t)ex =ν 2 f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∂t ∂y
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0
Uex
Observation #2: f is a mathematical function → It has dimensionless arguments
⟹ f = f(ỹ, t̃ ) with ỹ = y/L, t̃ = t/T and L, T a reference length and time
 Impulsively started plate
⟹ u(y, t) = Uf(y, t) with f the unique solution of:
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1
2
∂f ∂f
u = u(y, t)ex =ν 2 f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∂t ∂y
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0
Uex ⟹ f = f(y/L, t/T )

NO externally-imposed length (e.g. size of a container) or

What are L and T here?
time (e.g. duration of the acceleration phase) scales

Looking at the equations satis ed by f, we observe that f only depends on (t, y, ν).

The only possible dimensionless variable for f is therefore

y
ξ= ⟶ u(y, t) = Ug(ξ)
νt
This is called a self-similar process: the solution remains identical/scaled to itself at all times!
fi
 Impulsively started plate
∂f ∂ξ ξ
= g′(ξ) = − g′(ξ)
What is the problem satis ed by g(ξ) = f(y, t) ? ∂t ∂t 2t
y ∂f ∂ξ 1
g(ξ) = f(y, t), ξ= = g′(ξ) = g′(ξ)
νt ∂y ∂y νt
∂ 2f 1
= g′′(ξ)
∂y 2 νt
∂f ∂ 2f ξ ν
=ν 2 ⇒ − g′(ξ) = g′′(ξ)
∂t ∂y 2t νt
ξ
⟹ g′′ + ξg′ = 0
∫0
t2
−2
ξ2
⟹ g(ξ) = A e dt + B
−
⟹ g′(ξ) = Ae 2

∫∞
2
f(y > 0, t = 0) = 0 − t2
⟹ g(ξ → ∞) = 0 ⟹ g(ξ) = A e dt
f(y → ∞, t > 0) → 0
∞ − t2
∫ξ e 2 dt
( )
ξ
f(y = 0, t > 0) = 1 ⟹ g(0) = 1 ⟹ g(ξ) = ∞ t2 = erfc
−
∫0 e dt
2 2













fi
 V. Examples - Unsteady ows
2. Impulsively-started plate (1st Stokes problem)

( 2 νt )
y
u(y, t) = Uerfc
t↗
∞
2
π ∫x
2
erfc(x) = e−t dt

U≠0 for t > 0

As time progresses:
‣ The uid is progressively entrained horizontally
‣ The velocity pro le remains similar to itself
‣ Momentum diffuses laterally under the effect of viscous forces
fl
fi
fl
VI. Reynolds number
Viscous & inertial transport of momentum
Flux of momentum Scaling
@u
<latexit sha1_base64="ZlwyHPWOjyJkqxKECXAxGZTJaic=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="Uv+JnBOQ8UTJ28TCVleL4MJ940A=">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</latexit>

Viscous transport ⌧s = ⌘ ⌘U/L

@y

⇢U 2
<latexit sha1_base64="UER4FbBh7fFV7YzZhmmynP9pNkk=">AAAEGXicbVNNb9MwGPYaPkb52uDIJaJC4lBFSTRGuU3iwnFIdKvUhMlxnNaaPyLbYass/wmu489wQ1w58Vu44KTZlKZ9pUjv+3w4rx/JWUmJ0mH4d2/g3bv/4OH+o+HjJ0+fPT84fHGmRCURniJBhZxlUGFKOJ5qoimelRJDllF8nl1+rPnzb1gqIvgXvSpxyuCCk4IgqB00S+RS+NOv8cXBKAzCpvztJmqbEWjr9OJw8C/JBaoY5hpRqNQ8CkudGig1QRTbYVIpXEJ0CRd47loOGVapaRa2/huH5H4hpPu49hu06zCQKbVi2ThjTsygXqo+XYO7uHmli0lqCC8rjTla/6uoqK+FXwfg50RipOnKNRBJ4tb10RJKiLSLaZjkuHBRNhsZtlpIjLk1cpFZE46Dd+PQ9iWZFFd3kuB4HMRjF1y0pRMS8gW+E35oTgvCiRNyfIUEY5DnJimhzO08Tk1SuJ2aWRNI/VFkO0NsezYt9IatzkUyk9u1sTNuWSV2zig1JlmvWs+1qyfLaIU3dA2wQ3ibWld7i+2Ut8ls6ltwhyHPuxfqkVXWkllhqq2bdkjZJ6875HWf5B2SW+ueS9R/HNvNWRxEx0H8+Wh0Mmkfzj54BV6DtyAC78EJ+AROwRQgQMF3cAN+eDfeT++X93stHey1npdgo7w//wEBx2eH</latexit>

⇢u(u · n)
<latexit sha1_base64="KOTGAKFqVOeBhnw/yZG0ikRFDqM=">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</latexit>

Inertial transport

Inertial transport ⇢U L
<latexit sha1_base64="K1+1a4P3IpppGQqKRruJZ45Gc3g=">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</latexit>

Reynolds number ⇠ Re =
Viscous transport ⌘

Re ⌧ 1 Inertia is negligible
<latexit sha1_base64="pzC47CCjuttT6r5VDEt0LkwgpEs=">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</latexit>

Re 1 Viscosity is negligible
<latexit sha1_base64="2a/gOA0DUjv5bg/7FS9Uf2ZK9sg=">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</latexit>
Example: flows over a rigid cylinder
Re = 0.16 Re = 26
<latexit sha1_base64="UqRx2UuWFbs+BKvvlfTuBhkEyQ4=">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</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="KnHxTt4U5NgYfsuxAuC6kxMevl8=">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</latexit>

Re = 200 Re = 8 000
<latexit sha1_base64="ojvHjwiQ2yn5E+y6+EB2XYLgAWw=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="Va4FC6mfYint0ma7l3mD1UXCv/E=">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</latexit>
Example: flow over a square cylinder
Kinematic reversibility
 A few orders of magnitude…

12
Re ⇠ 109
<latexit sha1_base64="vaJR2vbclILc5G8Jb41Znx2ZxDU=">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</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="vpjAdqzu266J3HscqQ2FxzMslpI=">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</latexit>

Re ⇠ 10

5
<latexit sha1_base64="mBlqS8r90fmhx/mP6ObAwots5uE=">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</latexit>

Re ⇠ 1
<latexit sha1_base64="BB1PBwDJ6wNhplmYmSNFLdD/Ljo=">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</latexit>

10 Re ⇠ 10